Stress caused by turbulence

Consider mass and momentum fluxes in the y direction across surface A. for simplicity, assume
constant density.
1. Continuity
Mass flux :  vA
_
Average mass flux : vA
The only change is that the instantaneous velocity is replaced by the mean velocity.
The mean velocity satisfy the same continuity equation as the instantaneous velocity.
2. Momentum
x - momentum flux : (  vA) =  (uv ) A

Average x - momentum flux : ( vA) =  ( u v + u ' v ' ) A

The average momentum flux has the same form as the instantaneous momentum flux except for
additional fluxes 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 due to the net effect of turbulent fluctuations. These additional terms
arise because of the averaging of a product of fluctuating quantities.
A net rate of transport of momentum 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 from lower to upper side of an interface ...
• is equivalent to a net rate of transport of momentum - 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 from upper to lower;
• has the same dynamic effect (i.e. same rate of transfer of momentum) as a stress (i.e. force
per unit area) of - 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′.

This apparent stress is called Reynolds stress. In a fully-turbulent flow it is usually much larger
than the viscous stress.
 Treatment of turbulence
• X-Momentum equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
= 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 2𝜇 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑉 + μ( + + μ( + (1ቇ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

By adding continuity equation after multiplying with u (x component of velocity) into the LHS of equation
we get
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤
𝜌 + 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 + [𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
= 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 2𝜇 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑉 + μ( + + μ( + (2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
 Combining the first and the fifth term, second with sixth and so on we get

𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤

+ + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
= 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 2𝜇 + 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑉 + μ( + + μ( + (3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
Now assuming the flow to be incompressible and hence and after simplifying we get

𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 (4)

+ + + = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 ቉
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Assuming the instantaneous motion is made up of time average and fluctuating part, we can write,

Substituting the instantaneous velocity in terms of time average and fluctuating components and taking time
average of the whole equation we get, assuming density pressure and temperature to not to change.

𝜕𝜌𝑢ത 𝜕𝜌𝑢ư 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑢ƴ ഥ 𝜕𝜌𝑢ത 𝑢ƴ ഥ 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑤ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤
ƴ
ቈ + + + +2 + + + + + + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤ƴ 𝜕𝑝ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢തƴ 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢തƴ 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢തƴ
+ ቉ = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − + 𝜇[ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ቉
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
Because the terms are time averaged, the first, second, fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth and thirteenth terms on the LHS
would be zero. Similarly on the RHS, 4th, 6th and 8th term are zero. This will result in following form of equation.

𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑢𝑤 𝜕𝑝ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑢ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑤ƴ

+ + = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − +𝜇 + + − − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Using the continuity equation for time averaged velocity components the LHS of the equation will change to,

𝜕𝑢ത 𝜕𝑢ത 𝜕𝑢ത 𝜕𝑝ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕 2 𝑢ത 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑢ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑢ƴ 𝑤ƴ

𝜌 𝑢ത + 𝑣ҧ +𝑤
ഥ = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − +𝜇 + + − − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The last three terms on the RHS are turbulent stresses caused by momentum exchange. Similar process
can be carried out for y and Z momentum equations, and the final equations can be written as,
 Y and Z component equations:

𝜕𝑣ҧ 𝜕𝑣ҧ 𝜕𝑣ҧ 𝜕𝑝ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑣ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑣ҧ 𝜕 2 𝑣ҧ 𝜕𝜌𝑣ƴ 𝑢ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑣ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑣𝑤

ƴ
𝜌 𝑢ത + 𝑣ҧ +𝑤
ഥ = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 − +𝜇 2
+ 2+ 2 − − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤
ഥ 𝜕𝑤
ഥ 𝜕𝑤
ഥ 𝜕 𝑝ҧ 𝜕2𝑤
ഥ 𝜕2𝑤
ഥ 𝜕2𝑤
ഥ 𝜕𝜌𝑤ƴ 𝑢ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑤ƴ 𝑣ƴ 𝜕𝜌𝑤ƴ 𝑤ƴ
𝜌 𝑢ҧ + 𝑣ҧ +𝑤
ഥ = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 − +𝜇 + + − − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Turbulent flow
After considerable algebraic manipulations the time averaged conservation equations may be
expressed as follows:-

Note that the conservation equations contain the mean velocities and properties and
also contain certain time averages of the fluctuating quantities. The latter are shown by
a ‘bar’ , denoting time average.
 Turbulent parallel flow

• These flows are seen in boundary layers, channels and pipes and important
information about design variables can be obtained from these equations.
 u v
+ =0
x y

u u 1 p  2u
u +v =− +( 2 )
x y  x y

Separating instantaneous velocity into mean and fluctuating we get

u v
+ =0
x y
𝜕𝑢lj 𝜕𝑢lj 1 𝜕𝑝lj 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑢lj
𝑢lj + 𝑣lj =− + ( (𝜇 − ρ𝑢ƴ 𝑣))
ƴ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢lj 𝜕𝑢lj 1 𝜕𝑝lj 1 𝜕

𝑢lj + 𝑣lj =− + ( (𝜏 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡))
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝑥𝑦

𝜕𝑢lj 𝜕 𝑢lj 1 𝜕𝑝lj 1 𝜕
𝑢lj + 𝑣lj =− + ( 𝜏 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
 𝜕𝑢lj
𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝜇 − 𝜌 𝑢′ 𝑣′
𝜕𝑦

𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)

We need to relate fluctuating components with mean flow.

Phenomenological theories:
𝜕𝑢lj
𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝐴𝜏
𝜕𝑦

𝐴𝜏
𝜀=
𝜌

𝜕𝑢lj 𝜕 𝑢lj 1 𝜕𝑝lj 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑢lj

𝑢lj + 𝑣lj =− + ( (𝜇 + 𝐴𝜏 ) )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 Prandtl mixing length hypothesis:
𝜕𝑢lj
𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)= −𝜌 𝑢′ 𝑣′ = 𝐴𝜏
𝜕𝑦
For cases where 𝑢ത = 𝑢ത (y), 𝑣ҧ =0, 𝑤
ഥ =0
𝜕𝑢lj
𝑢′lj = 𝑙
𝜕𝑦 For example a rectangular
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 channel

𝑣′lj = 𝑐 𝑢′lj
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜

ഥ = -constant 2 𝜕𝑢lj 2 2 𝜕𝑢lj 2

𝑢′ 𝑣′ = −𝑐𝑢′ 𝑣′ 𝑙 =− 𝑙 (including constant in mixing
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
length)
𝑎𝑠 2 𝜕𝑢lj 2
𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)= 𝜌𝑙 (𝜕𝑦)
𝑢′lj 𝑣′lj < 0,
2
𝜕𝑢lj
𝐴𝜏 = 𝜌𝑙
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝑢 lj
𝜀 = 𝑙2
𝜕𝑦
 Prandtl velocity distribution law: Prandtl assumption near the wall

𝑙 = 𝑘𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟) << 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡)

𝜕𝑢lj 2 Shear is constant

2
𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌𝑙 ( ) 𝜕𝑢lj
𝜕𝑦 𝑣𝑜∗ 2 = (𝑘𝑦)2 ( )2
𝜕𝑦

𝑣𝑜∗
𝑢lj = ln 𝑦 + 𝑐
𝑘

C cannot be evaluated from no slip condition. C can be evaluated from known

conditions for example for channel flow if u=umax at y=h

umax − u 1
h Universal velocity defect law
*
= ln
vo k y
Applying condition at the edge of boundary layer

𝑣𝑜∗ 𝑦
𝑢lj = ln
𝑘 𝑦𝑜
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝛽𝜈
𝑦0 =
𝑣0∗

𝑢lj 1 𝑦𝑣0∗
= ln − ln 𝛽
𝑣0∗ 𝑘 𝜈

𝜑 = 𝐴 ln 𝜂 + 𝐷
A and D are constants. This law is known as law of wall.

Although this has been derived for rectangular channel, it is still valid for
circular pipelines.
 Law away from wall (Von Karman velocity
distribution law
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦 Shear is varying linearly
𝑙=𝑘 2
𝑑 𝑢/𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑢 2
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝜏= 𝜏𝑜 = 𝜌 𝑘 𝑑2 𝑢
{ }
ℎ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦2

𝑢 max − 𝑢 1 𝑦
= − ln( 1 − 𝑦/ℎ) +
𝑣𝑜∗ 𝑘 ℎ

𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

In the viscous sublayer: 𝜑 = 𝛈

 Turbulent core

y/R
0.15

Wall layer

0.01

0.001

Velocity distribution over a solid body

 Roughness of wall surface

𝑦𝑣0∗
0< <5 Hydraulically smooth (friction factor function of Reynolds number)
𝜈

𝑦𝑣0∗
5< 𝜈 <70 Transition (friction factor function of Reynolds number and roughness height)

𝑦𝑣0∗
>70 Hydraulically rough (friction factor function of Roughness height)
𝜈
Turbulent pipe flow (Basic concepts)
How velocity profile changes?

How pressure distribution changes?

Definition for Multiphase flow.

Relationship between shear and pressure drop
𝑝1−𝑝2
𝑥𝑅
• 𝜏0 = 2 𝐿

• And
• 𝐿 = 𝑑 2 𝑢ത
𝑝1−𝑝2 𝑓ρ 2

• 𝑓= 0.3164
𝑅𝑒
.
0 25 For smooth pipe valid up to Re=105
Velocity profile in turbulent flow through pipes
Smooth pipe

𝑢lj
• 𝜑 = 𝐴 ln 𝜂 + 𝐷 A=2.5, D=5.5 𝜑 =
𝑣0∗
• 𝜑 = 5.75 log 𝜂 + 5.5
𝑦𝑣0∗
𝛈 = 𝜈
Viscous sublayer

• 𝜑=𝛈

𝑦𝑣0∗
<5 Purely laminar friction , corresponds to limit of laminar sublayer
𝜈
thickness

𝑦𝑣0∗
5< 𝜈 <70 Laminar turbulent friction

𝑦𝑣0∗
>70 Turbulent friction
 Velocity distribution in rough pipes
umax − u 1
h
*
= ln Distance from wall
vo k y

• 𝑢lj
=
lj
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅
− 2.5 ln( )
• ሜ
𝑢𝑡
𝑣0∗
=
lj
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣0∗
𝑅
− 2.5 ln( )
𝐶𝜀
𝑣0∗ 𝑣0∗ 𝑦

• 𝑢lj
=
ሜ
𝑢𝑡
− 2.5 ln(𝐶)) + 2.5 ln( )
𝑦
• 𝑢lj
𝑣0∗
=
ሜ
𝑢𝑡
𝑣0∗
𝑅 𝑅
+ 2.5 ln( ) + 2.5 ln( )
𝐶𝜀 𝑦
𝑣0∗ 𝑣0∗ 𝜀

• 𝑣𝑢0∗lj = 8.5 + 5.75 log(𝑦𝜀)

• 𝑢lj
𝑣0∗
=𝐵+
𝑦
2.5 ln( )
𝜀
 In terms of average velocity
𝑅𝑣0∗
• 𝑉ሜ
𝑣0∗
= 5.75 log
+
𝜈
1.75 … 𝑆𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ

• 𝑉
𝑣0∗
= 4.75 + 5.75 log
𝑅
𝜀
… 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ
 Laws of resistance
0.3164
For smooth pipe: 𝑓 = . valid up to Re=105
𝑅𝑒 0 25

Universal equation for smooth pipe:

𝑉ሜ 𝑅𝑣0∗
= 5.75 log + 1.75
𝑣0∗ 𝜈

Since 𝑣0∗ = 𝑉ሜ 𝑓/8

1ሜ
= 2.03 log𝑅𝑒 𝑓 − 0.91 valid up to Re= 3.4x106
𝑓
 Laws of resistance
For rough pipe
𝑉 𝑅
= 4.75 + 5.75 log
𝑣0∗ 𝜀

Since 𝑣0∗ = 𝑉ሜ 𝑓/8

1ሜ 𝑅
= 2.00 log ( ) + 1.74 valid up to Re= 3.4x106
𝑓 𝜀
Roughness of a new pipe
•Types of Fluid Flow Problems
•Simple Analysis :Determining the pressure drop (or head loss)
when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified flow rate
(or velocity)
•L D V to pressure drop The three types of problems
•Complex Analysis: Determining the flow rate when the pipe length encountered in pipe flow.
and diameter are given for a specified pressure drop (or head loss)
•L D pressured drop to flow rate /velocity
•Design problem :Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe
length and flow rate are given for a specified pressure drop (or head
loss)
•Length, pressure drop and velocity to diameter of the pipe

27