Become a Network Admin

MTA Exam 98-366

Networking Foundations: Networking Basics

I. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Logical vs. Physical Topologies
Logical: how data moves through network; pattern flow
Physical: physical layout of wires in a network

Networks can have different physical and logical topologies; physical wires can follow one
pattern while logical moves data through network in different pattern

Mesh, Bus, and Ring Topologies

Mesh two types
Full Mesh: all devices directly connected to all other devices;
- provides full redundancy
- most expensive -> requires multiple NICs and cables for each node
- most used in WAN environment

Partial Mesh: all devices directly connected to at least two other devices
- provides strong redundancy, but not full
- not as expensive as full mesh
- multiple NICs and cable runs on each machine
- most likely found in WAN. Internet is a partial mesh.
Not all cities are connected to each other, result is do not have to have a full mesh where every
city is connected, reducing cost.

Bus topology: one of the oldest networking topologies; all nodes connect directly to the
main cable, called the bus; simple to put together,only one backbone cable; disadvantage only
one node can send a signal at a time.
To determine which node can send the signal, contention is used. Each computer on the bus
network competes to send the signal first.
Downside, if two devices listen and don’t hear a signal and send at the same time, a collision
occurs. The more active nodes, the more collisions on network.When collisions happen, signals
cancel each other out. Too many collisions can bring down the network.(network storm) This is
the idea behind the DoS attacks in network security. Recommended for networks with less than
30 nodes. Single bad node or cable can bring down the whole network. Not part of current
TIA/EIA 568-C standard for LAN networks.

Advantage, least expensive.

Must make sure there is a terminator (terminator resistor) on both ends of the main bus cable.

Ring topology: older network; similar to bus (one backbone cable) but connected in a
circle. packets move around network in a ring; each node is given an opportunity to send a
signal, causing no contention between nodes. Heavy traffic can slow down network, but not
bring it down. Like bus, single damaged node or cable can bring down network. Also not part of
the TIA/EIA 568-C standard.
Star and Hybrid Star Topologies
Hierarchical Star Topology: most commonly used in LANs; more expensive than bus
because of the need for more cables. One damaged node or cable will not bring down the
network. All nodes connect to a central hub or switch, making it easy to troubleshoot a
hierarchical star configuration.
Disadvantage is it’s susceptible to a single point of failure. If whole network goes down, central
device is a problem, so you know it’s the central device that everything is connected to.
If only a single node is down, the node is the problem.
Biggest advantage, only topology recognized in TIA/EIA 568-C for LAN networks.

Central device (switch), each computer connect to

Hybrid Star Topology: combine normal star with another topology;

physical hybrid star topology
physical-logical hybrid star topologies

-Physical Hybrid Star Topology: network containing two or more physical topologies within
the network itself; part of network may be physical ring while another part of the network may be
a physical star
Most commonly, multiple switches within a network and each one of those switches are linked
together as a bus, from each switch there will be a physical star going out from the switch.
Result > physical bus connection our switches and logical stars contained on each switch.
-Physical-Logical Hybrid Star Topology: network physical looks one way but functions
differently
A common physical logical topology is a network that functions like a ring, but looks like a star.
Most IBM token ring networks follow this pattern; a central device that all the nodes are
connected to, but inside central device it behaves in a ring pattern.

Another physical-logical hybrid topology is a star network that uses a hub. Various nodes
connected to the hub in a physical star pattern, but inside the hub data is moved about in the
shape of a bus.

Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint Topologies

Point-to-Point Topology:connects two nodes directly to each other with no intervening device
-used to connect two ends of WAN connection
-used to connect computer directly to switch
-used to connect switches or routers to each other

Point-to Multipoint Topologies: crossover cable connecting two different computers together
enabling the two computers to talk to each other directly without having to use a hub or switch.
-is often part of a hybrid system where point-to-point connections will often form the bus
connecting multiple connecting devices together
-point to multipoint is same, except one device connects directly to more than one other
device
Illustration shows each of the nodes are computer, but can also be switches, routers, or other
devices.

Client Server and Peer-to-Peer Network Management Models

Peer-to-Peer Network: computer responsible for own security and management
- each computer is managed as a seperate device
- usually only used for very small network
- microsoft limits to only 10 systems per network
- homegroup and workstation are peer to peer (are designed to make it easier)
-when used for small businesses, generally don’t want more than two or three
computers in the business (e.g. a home office may be a good situation for this model)
-most home networks are peer-to-peer model networks (most home networks don’t
have a server that they set up in their home and connect everything to that); instead each
computer in the house is set up with its own security, username, and login and able to access
the Internet by logging on.
- home networks are the most common place to see peer-to-peer network management
model

The little symbol inside each computer is a policy and security configuration. Each computer is
responsible for its own management and for management of the resources it may be connected
to.
Client Server Network Model: all devices access resources through central server
- devices needing access to network are called clients
- device/devices controlling access are called servers
- network management overseen by server
- security build around access to server
- server allows or restricts access to network resources
- server controls who is allowed to log on to network
- disadvantage, if the server goes down, no one is able to access network resulting in no
resources being accessed via network until it is back up

Six computers in network, but each computer does not have a security policy inside. Each
computer does not control security for the network, even for itself. Instead, it is controlled by the
domain controller. This is shown by the symbol for security policy located on domain controller.
In order for a desktop to get access to the network, it has to go to the domain controller and get
permission of what it can and can’t do.
Once authenticated, it can gain access to any resources on the network that the domain
controller allows.

CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA

Contention-Based Network Access: computers competing for network access; two types of
contention based access used in modern networks
Carrier Sensing Media Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD): method most
commonly used by wired Ethernet
- node listens for traffic
- if no traffic heard, node releases packet onto network
- if two nodes release packets at the same time, the packet hit each other and a
collision occurs
- collision causes a power spike heard by all nodes
- collision destroys the data contained in the two packets
If computer 1 and 5 listen and send at the same time, causing collision, therefore data lost and
collision was heard by all computers on the network
- if no collision, then transmission was successful
Computer 1 needs to send to 3, if it doesn’t hear traffic, it will release its packet onto the network
and the pack will travel down the network to 3. Once the packet makes it to 3, the others will
have heard it go by and know that it is now free for them to send their own packets. Starting
contention all over again.
- if collision occurs, all nodes start internal clock set to a random number of
milliseconds
- when time runs down, each node can attempt to send a packet again

A collision took place and a timer on each computer on the network randomly generated a
number of milliseconds and set the clock to that number of milliseconds. Each node has a
different number of milliseconds on their clock. As each node clock runs down they attempt to
send their packet and this way is hope that they will avoid additional collisions.
Carrier Sensing Media Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): most common in
WiFi networks.
- works similar to CSMA/CD; difference is that it releases warning packet before
releasing data packet
- if other nodes hear warning packet, they won’t transmit
- once data packet heard, other nodes are able to transmit
 - two warning packets transmitted at same time, this will cause a collision; collision
is handled the exact way as the CSMA/CD method.
*side note: WiFi doesn’t stand for anything in particular; inventor thought it sounded cool

Computer 1 wants to send packet to 3. Sends a warning on the network. All computers on
network hear warning, and refrain from trying to send their own warning. Once warning has
gone by and others heard it, 1 will release its data packet onto the network.

Internet vs. Intranets and Extranets

Internet: worldwide publicly accessible infrastructure of cables, routers, switches, and servers.
- used to carry a wide variety of services (e.g. worldwide web, email, file transfer protocol,
VoIP, streaming video, online gaming, etc.)

Internet is NOT the Worldwide Web, though many use it interchangeably. The Worldwide web is
just a service that runs on top of the Internet.

Intranet: privately accessible infrastructure of cables, routers, switches, and servers

- generally limited to a single company, organization, or group of companies
- used to carry a wide variety of services like the Internet
- any service ran on the Internet can be ran on the Intranet

Extranet: privately held WAN infrastructure

- generally owned by one company or organization
- may allow others access for a fee for specific purposes
- can be an intranet with selective business-related access
- used to carry a wide variety of services like Internet
- Microsoft Azure and Amazon Web Services

II NETWORK IMPLEMENTATIONS
WANs and MANs
WANs
- one large network that covers a large geographic area
- Internet - best-known WAN
 - can be many smaller networks linked into one large
- called an enterprise network when owned by one organization
- use routers and switches to connect up network

MANs
- uses same technology as WANs
- covers an area of only 50 kilometers or so across
- term falling out of use; WAN used to apply to both WANs and MANs

LANs, WLANs, and PANs

LANs
- limited in size
- can be as small as a single room or big as a building
- can also span several buildings close together
- TIA/EIA 568-C standard defines characteristics of LANs
- normally uses twisted pair cabling to connect devices
- should use CAT 6 or 6A in current LAN builds; have been optimized to accommodate future
technologies that aren’t even out; future proofing the land so cabling infrastructure can support
newer/advanced technologies
- hierarchical star only topology recognized by 568-C
- LAN nodes tied together with switches or hubs
- can use fiber optic cables to connect switches; computer is linked to the switch using twisted
pair, but if there are multiple switches in network or LAN those switches may be connected with
fiber optic cabling

WLANs
- is a standard LAN that uses wireless technologies
- wireless technologies commonly referred to as Wi-Fi
- Wi-Fi technologies defined by IEEE 802.11 standard
- IEEE 802.11ac- most current Wi-Fi standard
- more advanced IEEE 802.11ax standard being developed

PANs (personal area networks)

- defined by IEEE 802.15 standard group
- primarily uses bluetooth technologies for connecting
- limited ranges of less than 30 feet (but does have advantage, doesn’t take as much power to
generate a signal)
- devices like keyboards and mice to connect to a computer or a phone, phone to earbuds,
phone to watches, etc.
- Infrared (IrDA) can be used

SCADA/ICS and Medianets

SCADA/ICS (supervisory control and data acquisition/ industrial control system
 - both refer to networks and tech used to control industrial application
- SCADA is a subset of ICS:
SCADA describes systems that span large geographic areas
e.g. pipelines, power distribution, water, sewer management, and street lights
- ICS is more generic in use
Normally smaller scale systems
e.g. industrial automation, control system for power plant or factory

Medianets: networks optimized for distributing large video apps and similar technologies
- Hulu, Netflix, WebEx, GoToMeeting
- uses smart bandwidth detection systems
- allows medinets to adjust to higher or lower bandwidth devices
- provides smooth video transition on any platform

OSI MODEL
Intro to OSI Model (open systems interconnection reference model)
- created as reference model and teaching aid
- not intended to reflect network architecture
- model for organizations creating new protocols

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Two Parts of the OSI Model

- abstract model (actual model displaying 7 layers)
- set of specifically created protocols (protocols not actually used in any network system)

Published by Two Organizations in 1984

- International Standards Organization (ISO)
- published as ISO 7498 standard
- Telecommunications Standardization Sector or the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU-T)
- published under ITU-T X.200

Layer 1: Physical Layer

- bottom layer
- concerned with physical transmission of raw data
- transmits data in the form of 1s and 0s
- defines how bits are placed on media
- defines how to know when bits start and stop
- defines specifications for media usage
- defines kinds of media permitted
- defines how physical connections are made
- defines pin usage in physical connections
- specifies standards that apply to specific types of media

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

- provides error-free transmission from one node to the next over physical media
- establishes and terminates links between nodes
- responsible for traffic control
- transmits and receives frames sequentially
- responsible for frame acknowledgement
- provides and expects frame acknowledgement
- detects and recovers from errors on physical layer
- retransmits unacknowledged frames
- handles duplicate frame receipt
- responsible for frame delimiting
- creates and recognizes frame boundaries
- responsible for error checking
- checks received frames for data integrity
- provides media access management
- determines when node is allowed to use physical media

Layer 3: Network Layer

- controls the operations of the subnetwork it is on
- determines bes physical path for data
- uses network conditions to choose best path (can see congestion, a down node, heavy
traffic, etc.)
- uses priority of service to determine best path
- uses other factors to determine best path (number of hops or steps between source and
destination)

Network layer provides several functions:

- routing: routes frames among connected networks
- subnet traffic control: allows routers to send instructions to sending nodes to “throttle back”
frame transmissions when buffers are filled
- frame fragmentation: determines frame size of routers located downstream
frame size called maximum transmission unit size
allows router to fragment frame into smaller sizes if needed
reassembles the full frame at destination
- logical physical address mapping: translates logical addresses into physical addresses
- subnet usage accounting: has function that allows device to keep track of frames forward
be subnet intermediate systems; uses this to produce billing information

Network Layer Communications Subnet:

- build headers used by network layer on other devices to route packets to destination
- relieve higher layers of the need-to-know data transmission and switching technologies
- use protocols on lower layers to send data to destinations separated by intermediate nodes
- send information between adjacent nodes

Layer 4: Transport Layer

- ensures messages are delivered error free
- ensures messages delivered in sequence
- ensures messages delivered with no loss or duplication
- relieves higher protocols of concern for transfer of data
- size and complexity of transport protocols dependent on service provided by network layer

Message Segmentation Function:

- accepts messages from session layer
- splits message into smaller units
- imposes message size limits on network layer protocols
- prepares header for each smaller unit created
- passes smaller units to network layer
- reassembles message at destination
- header for smaller units contain certain elements
- header contains start and end flags
- header contains sequence information

Other Transport Layer Functions:

- message acknowledgement: provides reliable end-to-delivery of messages; end-to-end
accompanied by acknowledgements
- message traffic control: controls rate of traffic sent when no buffers available
- session multiplexing: breaks all the data coming in on one link into separate data streams;
those data streams are called sessions; tracks which message belongs to which session

End-to-End Layers:
- transport layer and above layers not responsible for transmission between nodes
- transport and above layers responsible for source to destination transmission
 - source-to-destination transmission also called end-to-end transmissions
- upper layers not concerned with underlying communications facility

Layer 5: Session Layer

- responsible for establishing sessions between process running on different computers
- provides several functions to accomplish this
- session establishment, maintenance, and termination
- session support

Establishment Maintenance Termination:

- allows application processes on different machines to do several things between the
machines
- allows processes to establish a connection
- allows processes to use a connection
- allows processes to terminate a connection
- each connection is called a session

Session Support:
- performs the function of allowing processes to communicate over a network
- performs security
- performs name recognition
- performs logging on
- performs other functions that are less common

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

- formats data to be presented to the application layer
- translator for the network
- at sending station translates data from application layer format to common format
- at receiving station translates data from common format to format used by application layer

Presentation Layer Functions

- character code translation: ASCII (basic, takes plain text and encodes so it can be sent
across the network) or EBCDIC (used in emails for graphics, pictures, etc.)
- data conversation:
bit order
CR-CR/LF
integer-floating point
- data compression: reduces number of bits needed to transmit data
- data encryption: encryption of data for security purposes; encryption of passwords

Layer 7: Application Layer

- serves as window for uses and applications to access network services
- provides a variety of commonly used functions
 Application Layer Common Functions:
- resource sharing
- device redirection
- remote file access
- remote printer access
- network management
- directory services
- email
- IM

Encapsulation and De-encapsulation

- each layer of OSI model adds a header to the data
- layers also create a unit used to send or receive data
- encapsulation: the process of moving data down the OSI model
- de-encapsulation: process of moving data up the OS model

Each Layer has an Encapsulation Unit

- information on application layer through session layer is called data
- transport layer converts data to segments
- network layer converts segments to packets
- data link layer converts packets to frames
- physical layer converts frames to bits

How the Layers Work Together

Each layer of OSI adds its own unique header, giving information to the computer on the other
end about the data being transmitted.

Application header tells computer on the other end what applications or services running on the
OS are being used for this data.
Presentation header contains info about encryption, compression, translation or anything else
the computer on the other ends needs to know in order to identify and use the data that’s being
transmitted.
Session layer presents info needed by the session layer on the receiving end to setup the
session between the two processes that the data applies to
Transport layer has info about specific protocol or process needed by the session layer to set up
the session with.Network header provides info about the overall final destination of the data
that’s being transmitted.
Data link layer provides the address of the next node that the data needs to pass on to in order
to reach its final destination. Also includes a trailer that contains some error collection info.
All information is converted into 0s and 1s or encoded into 1s and 0s and put on the media
being used to transmit the data. As data moves through the OSI model, it becomes larger and
larger. (overhead)
When data is received, it removes a header through each layer. Telling receiving computer what
to do next with data it has received.

TCP/IP Suite
- group of protocols designed to work together to send data across a network
- named after the two major protocols in suite
- TCP: transport control protocol
- IP: internet protocol
- contains a large number of protocols that are able to carry many different network functions.
- open protocol suite, free for all to use
- new protocols can be freely developed as needed
- only protocol used by the Internet
- all existing networks use TCP/IP as main transmission protocol

TCP/IP
- created by DoD in 1970s
- reduced version of OSI model
- based on and around TCP/IP protocol suite (will match up with the different layers of TCP/IP)
- 4 layers
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Network access/network interface/link layer
- all TCP/IP protocols are located on the top 3 layers
- protocols located on bottom layer are not part of TCP/IP suite
 - each layer corresponds to one or more OSI model layers

TCP/IP Application Layer

- defines protocols, services, and process that allow programs and users to interface with the
network
- defines how programs interface with transport layer services to use the network

Common App Layer Protocols

- HTTP
- Telnet (remote access protocol using command line, drawback not encrypted, clear text)
- FTP (move large files across network, error checking and acknowledgements built in)
- TFTP (trivial file transfer protocol)
- SNMP (simple network management protocol; allows network admins to remotely manage
computers on network)
- DNS (domain name services; used to take URLs to convert to IP v6
- SMTP (simple mail transport protocol; moves messages between servers)
- X windows ( used by Unix and Linux OS to generate graphical UIs that are common on those
OSs)
TCP/IP Transport Layer
- provides communications session management between host computers
- defines level of service and status of connections used when transporting data

Common Transport Layer Protocols

- TCP (transmission control)
- UDP (user datagram; does not have acknowledgements and error correction like TCP)
- RTP (real time; used by voIP, allow real time communications between users)

TCP/IP Internet Layer

- packages data IP datagrams called packets
- header of packet contains source and destination information
- uses information to move packet across network
- performs routing of IP packets
TCP/IP Internet Layer Protocols
- IP (purpose is to find and move packets along best route)
- ICMP (internet control message protocol; used to send out control messages across internet
the IP uses to find routes; used by ping and traceroute tool)
- ARP (address resolution; takes logical (IP address is) and finds MAC/physical address
- RARP (reverse address resolution; used with IP has physical address but not the IP address)

TCP/IP Network Interface Layer

- aka network access layer/link layer
- specifies how data is physically sent through network
- specifies how bits are electrically signaled by hardware
- defines how hardware devices interface with network medium
- coaxial, optical, and twisted pair cable

Standards Defined by This Layer

- Ethernet
- Token ring (fallen out of use)
- FDDI (fiber optic used mostly for WAN)
- X.25 (one of the first standards used for WAN)
- Frame Relay (sometimes used in WAN)
- RS-232 (defines serial interfaces and com ports used on regular computer)
- V.35 (standard used in dial up networking)

TCP/IP Model vs. OSI Model

 - in graph TCP/IP model matches function covered compared to OSI model
- Application layer on TCP/IP also does the same as the Application, Presentation, and
significant portion of Session layer on OSI.

COMMONLY USED NETWORK DEVICES

NICs: network interactive card/controller
- allows a computer or other device to access the network
- can come in form of expansion card
- can be built into motherboard
- works on layers 1 and 2 of OSI model

NIC Must Match Technology Being Used

- needs to match media technology
- using 802.11n Wifi, use 802.11n NIC
- using UTP cabling, use UTP NIC
- needs to match speed being used
- Gigabit Ethernet speed network use Gigabit Ethernet NIC
- needs to match network architecture
- token ring network, use token ring NIC
- Ethernet network, Ethernet NIC

Hubs
- older technology, falling out of use in favor of switches
- work on layer 1 of OSI
- logically function as bus topology
- too many hosts can result in constant collisions, can bring down entire network

Three Main Types of Hubs

- passive hubs: work like cable splitters, when signal came in and was split out; the more
devices, the weaker the signal to each device; had to divide the power by the amount of devices
to receive signals
- active hubs: need a power source; power added to the signal when passed through port;
prevents weakening of signal by multiple devices being attached; repeats signal to all hosts
connected to hub; used to connect multiple hubs; must follow 5-4-3 rule when connecting hubs;
no more than 5 segments can be linked together; up to 4 linking devices can be used to form
segments; only 3 segments can be populated by computers

- intelligent hubs: really active hubs with additional features; some have network diagnostics
abilities; some have management abilities; other availabilities are available;

Understanding Bridges
Bridges
- device used to breakup a network into smaller segments
- is an older technology
- works on layer 2 of OSI
- can read frames to determine if they are allowed to pass

Exploring Switches
Switches
- device used to connect multiple computers
- primarily work on layer 2 of OSI
- some can work on layer 2 as well as higher layers
- when a switch can work on more than one layer, called multilayer switch

Basic Switch
- most common type
- essentially a multiport bridge
- used to separate larger networks into smaller segments
- segments called collision domains
- uses ports to set up point-to-point connections between devices connected to affected ports
- results in no collisions on network
- allows different ports to communicate at full speed
- makes it harder to listen in to traffic on the network
- commonly used to convert media from one type to another
- some switches have fiber coming into them
- but sends signals out over copper twisted pair wires

Managed and Unmanaged Switches

- managed switches: are programmable; used to control how data behaves on network; most
often found in corporate environment
- unmanaged switches: generally come with default configuration; most can be changed with
predefined limits; some cannot be changed at all; most home or SOHO switched are
unmanaged

Understanding Routers
Routers
- move data around large networks like WANs
- work usually on layer 3 and 4 of OSI
- are intelligent
- make independent decisions about sending data

Criteria Used to Determine Route

- hops: number of nodes packet has to pass through to get to destination
- network traffic: looks at how much traffic on network and choose path with less traffic
- network throughput: how fast data can move through particular connection
- network reliability: keeps track with a log of the reliability of the network paths
- create tables based off this information
- update tables to always know best route

Routers are Programmable

- have to have their interfaces configured
- have to be told which networks they are connected to
- have to define criteria for what is not allowed through routers
- can be programmed for multiple protocols

Introducing Wired and Wireless Access Points

Access Points
- devices that allow computers to gain access to larger networks
- commonly used to connect home computers to Internet
- can be wired or wireless
- home and SOHO access points are commonly wireless
- WAPs wireless access points

Wireless Access Points Very Common

- wireless public access points are found in many areas
- used in libraries, restaurants, hotels, etc.

WAPs Also Type of Connectivity Device

- used to offer wireless access to network
- can offer several features like authentication and encryption
- combine role of switches and routers
- can be programmed to a limited extent

Exam 98-366 Networking Fundamentals

Networking Foundations: IP Addressing

Preparing for the Networking Fundamentals, MTA Exam 98-366
BASICS OF NUMBERING SYSTEMS USED IN NETWORKING
Virtual Box and VMO workstation virtualization
Working with Binary Numbering System
Base 10 Numbering System
- the numbering system people use is the base 10 numbering system, also called decimal
system
- use 10 symbols to represent values from 0 to 9
- each value in the position to the left is multiplied by 10 times the value located in the position
to the right
- have 1000s, 100s, 10s, 1s, etc.
- 4783 = 4 x 1000 + 7 x 100 + 8 x 10 + 3 x 1
Base 2 Numbering System
- only use 2 symbols: 0 and 1
- each symbol to the left is multiplied by 2 times the value of the symbol to the right
- as a result, we have 16s, 8s, 4s, 2s, and 1s
- 10111 = 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 1 x 4 +1 x 2 + 1 x 1
- the decimal equivalent is 23
- all numbers in binary are represented by 1s and 0s
- electronics, 1 is represented by power being on or at a higher voltage
- 0 is represented by power being off or at a lower voltage
- in networking, we usually only need to convert numbers with 8 bits or less
Converting Binary to Decimal
Converting Decimal to Binary
Hexadecimal Numbering System
-is a base 16 numbering system
-working with hexadecimal easier than binary (MAC addresses IPv6)
-no need to convert to decimal or vice versa
-only convert between binary and hexadecimal
-used to shorten binary numbers
-easier to read
-easier to differentiate between hexadecimal values than binary values
-every 4 binary bits results in 1 hexadecimal value
-symbols used to represent hexadecimal values are 0-9 and A-F

First step is to learn or create above table.

Example: 11010010100100100111101011100001
1101 0010 1001 0010 0111 1010 1110 0001
D 2 9 2 7 A E 1

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

-do the reverse
-replace hexadecimal value with binary equivalent

Octal Numbering System

-base 8 numbering system
-was developed for similar reasons to hexadecimal
-uses only 3 binary places instead of 4
-can use first column of above table but take off 0 to the left*
-uses 0-7 for the octal symbols for binary equivalents
-has fallen out of use over hexadecimal

Numbering Notations
-notation system to avoid confusing numbering systems
-1101 can be a decimal, hexadecimal, or binary
-following applies when viewing numbers on a computer
- 1101 by itself usually indicates a decimal value
- 0x1101 indicates hexadecimal value
- 0b1101 indicates binary value

Physical Addressing
-refers to actual physical address assigned to a device
-is set at the factory; can’t do after the fact
-often referred to as MAC address
-term MAC address is relevant to Ethernet

Basic MAC Addressing

-expressed in hexadecimal format and 48-bits long
-addresses have two parts
- Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)
- first part of MAC address
- 24-bits long
-specifies manufacturer of the device
-needs to be registered by manufacturers
- Host Portion of MAC Address
- second part of MAC address
-also 24-bits long
-changes for each MAC address made
-allows for over 16 million unique MAC addresses (before they have to reuse host portion)

Variations of Basic MAC Address

-60 bit extended unique identifier (EUI-60)
-MAC address is 60 bits long instead of 48
-organizationally unique identifier is still 24
-host portion of MAC address is 36 bits long
 -works the same as a conventional MAC address
-64 bit eui
-MAC address is 64 bits
-organizationally unique identifier is 24 bits long
-host portion of MAC is 40 bits long
-it is able to work with IPv6 to create unique IPv6 addresses (useful if you don’t have
DHCP server)

No address on it in above example

Now has unique address for every device. Routers (round) computers have MAC addresses,
but switches (boxes) do not due to port and switch takes on whatever it’s connected to.
Routers have multiple interfaces and have multiple MAC addresses; cannot use same MAC
address twice on same network. Physical address assigned to every interface on network.
Segments are formed when 1 or more switches connect computers to a router's interface or
when two routers are connected to each other. Or just switches with no router. However without
router, cannot connect to outside network.

In above diagram, each switch along with computer and router interface become a segment.
Interface that connect router directly together become a segment. 10 different segments in
above diagram.

Logical Addressing
-all devices on network need unique logical address
-logical address is determined by network layer protocol being used
-almost all modern networks use TCP/IP

IP Addressing
-entered manually or automatically when config interface
-manual IUP addresses also called static ip addresses
-there are 2 main methods to dynamically assign IP addresses:
-dynamic host control protocol (DHCP)
-automatic private internet protocol addressing (APIPA)

DHCP: requires server set up on network and connected to segment you want to assign IP
addresses to
APIPA: only usable by Microsoft operating systems
- all addresses will fall in the range of 169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.255
-most Microsoft operating systems failover to APIPA if no other addressing is available
-many routers and switches intended for home users use APIPA as default
0 at end of IP means network address
When network address to network becomes network or subnetwork
One network is assigned to subnetwork, unique host IP addresses can be assigned to each
interface within that segment. Once you have a subnet address, can use that for unique host
addresses. Router has physical address A, but logical address of 192.120.201.1. Computer C is
physical address, but