Chapter 2 Limits and Continuity

1070 2/27/2021
Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity
2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves

A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS: TANGENT LINES
The slope of a straight line is the change in y divided by the change in x.

The line through two points on a curve is called a secant line .
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A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS: TANGENT LINES

Slope at a Point
So, what do we mean by the slope of a curve at a point?
The answer can be visualized by graphically zooming in on the specified point.
The Limit: Informal Idea

In this section, we develop the notion of limit using some common
language and illustrate the idea with some simple examples.
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2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

The Limit: Informal Idea
Suppose a function f is defined for all x in an open interval containing a,
except possibly at x = a.
If we can make f (x) arbitrarily close to some number L (i.e., as close as we’d
like to make it) by making x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a), then
we say that L is the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, written
For instance, we have since as x gets closer and closer to 2,

2
f (x) = x gets closer and closer to 4.
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THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT
Example:
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Since the two one-sided limits of f (x) are the same, we
summarize our results by saying that
Evaluating a Limit
We can also determine the limit algebraically.

A Limit that Does Not Exist
Example:
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A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one-sided limits exist and are equal. That is,
In other words, we say that if we can make f (x) as close as we

might like to L, by making x sufficiently close to a (on either side of a), but not
equal to a.
Example: Use the graph to determine

Example: A Limit Where Two Factors Cancel
From the left: From the right:
Conjecture:
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Algebraic cancellation:
Likewise:
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Example: A Limit That Does Not Exist
From the right: From the left:
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Computer or calculator computation of limits is unreliable.
We use graphs and tables of values only as (strong) evidence pointing to what a
plausible answer might be.
To be certain, we need to obtain careful verification of our conjectures.
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COMPUTATION OF LIMITS
For any constant c and any real number a,
For any real number a,
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Example:
Example: Find the limits

𝑥4 + 𝑥2 − 1
𝑎) lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥2 + 3
𝑏) lim 4𝑥 2 − 3
𝑥→𝑐
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Example: Evaluating the Limit of an nth Root of a Polynomial
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Finding a Limit by Factoring
Example:
Notice right away that since the limit in the

denominator is zero.
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Example: Finding a Limit by Rationalizing
Notice that both the numerator and the denominator approach 0 as x approaches 0.
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𝑥 2 + 100 − 10
Example: Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2
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Recall that we have -1≤a≤1, but the

end points were excluded to guarantee
the limits (right limit of 1 and left
limit of -1 are no exist)
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Note: For any function 𝑓, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, implies lim 𝑓(𝑥)=0.

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
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(Squeeze Theorem)
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Example:
Example: Using the Squeeze Theorem to Verify the Value of a Limit
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- 𝜃 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 for all 𝜃.
0 ≤ 1 − cos 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 for all 𝜃.
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𝑥2 𝑥2
1− ≤ 𝑢 𝑥 ≤ 1+
2 2
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2.4 One-Sided Limits

A Limit for a Piecewise-Defined Function
Example:
(Consider one-sided limits.)
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𝑥 Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 4 − 𝑥 2
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = [−2,2]
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =0
𝑥→−2+
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→0+
𝑥→2−
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 Does not have a left limit at x=-2
𝑥→0−
or a right limit at x=2.
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lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→2
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑑. 𝑛. 𝑒
𝑥→0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→1+
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑑. 𝑛. 𝑒.
𝑥→4 +
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) =1 𝑥→1−
𝑥→4
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0+
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑑. 𝑛. 𝑒
𝑥→0−
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sin 𝑥
Limits involving
𝑥
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Example: Find the following limits
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ − 1
𝑎) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 2𝑥
b) lim
𝑥→0 5𝑥
tan 𝑎𝑥
c) lim
𝑥→0 𝑏𝑥
tan 𝑥.sec 2𝑥
d) lim
𝑥→0 5𝑥
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2.5 Continuity
Continuity: Informal Idea
We say that a function is continuous on an interval if its graph on that interval
can be drawn without interruption, that is, without lifting the pencil from the
paper.
Definition:
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CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Remark
For f to be continuous at x = a, the definition says that
(i) f (a) must be defined,
(ii) the limit must exist
and
(iii) the limit and the value of f at the point must be the same.
Further, this says that a function is continuous at a point exactly when you can compute its
limit at that point by simply substituting in.
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Examples of Points of Discontinuity
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𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑈(𝑥) is a right continuous function

at x=0, but neither left- continuous 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
nor continuous at x=0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛
𝑥→𝑛+
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑥→0−
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Finding Where a Rational Function Is Continuous
Example:
(continuous at each point different from 1)
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Simply put, Theorem says that a sum, difference or product of continuous

functions is continuous, while the quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous at any point at which the denominator is nonzero.
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Theorem: All polynomials are continuous everywhere.
Additionally, sin x and cos x are continuous everywhere.
is continuous for all x, when n is odd and for x > 0, when n is even.
Example: The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is continuous.

When 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥, when 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 are polynomials.
Also, lim 𝑥 = 0 = 0
𝑥→0
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Example:
Composition of two continuous functions is continuous.
More examples,,,,
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Definition: If f is continuous at every point on an open interval
(a, b), we say that f is continuous on (a, b).
Following the figure, we say that f is continuous on the closed interval
[a, b], if f is continuous on the open interval (a, b) and
Remark
Finally, if f is continuous on all of (−∞,∞), we simply say that f is continuous.
(That is, when we don’t specify an interval, we mean continuous
everywhere.)
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Continuity on a Closed Interval
Example:
Observe that f is defined only for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Note that f is the composition of two continuous functions
and hence, is continuous for all x for which
4 − x2 > 0.
Since 4 − x2 > 0 for −2 < x < 2, we have that f is continuous
for all x in the interval (−2, 2).
Finally, we test the endpoints to see that and

so that f is continuous on the closed interval [−2, 2].
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Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem)
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and W is any number
between f (a) and f (b).
Then, there is a number c ∈ [a, b] for which f (c) = W.
Theorem says that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f must take on every value between
f (a) and f (b) at least once.
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That is, a continuous function cannot skip over any
numbers between its values at the two endpoints. To
do so, the graph would need to leap across the
horizontal line y = W, something that continuous
functions cannot do.
Corollary: Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b]

and f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs
[i.e., f (a) · f (b) < 0].
Then, there is at least one number c ∈ (a, b) for which f (c) = 0.
(Recall that c is then a zero of f .)
Notice that Corollary is simply the special case of the
Intermediate Value Theorem where W = 0. Slide 46
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Continuity of f on an interval is essential.
If f is discontinuous at even one point of the

interval, the theorem’s conclusion may fail.
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Example: Use intermediate value theorem to prove 2𝑥 + 5 = 4 − 𝑥 2
Write the equation as 2𝑥 + 5 + 𝑥 2 = 4.

Set 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5 + 𝑥 2 .
Now, g x = 2𝑥 + 5 is continuous on
5
− 2 , ∞ , since it is a composition of 𝑥 with
2𝑥 + 5.
So, 𝑓 𝑥 is the sum of 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑥 2 is
5
continuous on − 2 , ∞ .
By trial an error, find values 𝑓 0 = 5 ≈ 2.24
and 𝑓 2 = 7.
5
𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on [0,2] ⊂ − 2 , ∞ and
𝑦0 = 4 is between 2.24 and 7.
By intermediate value theorem, there exists
𝑐 ∈ 0,2 such that 𝑓 𝑐 =4.
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Extra Examples:
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Finding Zeros by the Method of Bisections
Example:
(Since f is a polynomial of degree 5, we don’t have any formulas for finding its
zeros. The only alternative then, is to approximate the zeros.)
Corollary suggests a simple yet effective method, called

the method of bisections.
Taking the midpoint of the interval [0, 1], since

f (0.5) ≈ −0.469 < 0 and f (0) = 3 > 0, there must be a zero
between 0 and 0.5.
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Next, the midpoint of [0, 0.5] is 0.25 and f (0.25) ≈ 1.001 > 0, so that the zero
is in the interval (0.25, 0.5).
We continue in this way to narrow down the interval in which there’s a zero
Continuing this process through 20 more steps leads to the approximate zero x = 0.40892288,
which is accurate to at least eight decimal places.
The other zeros can be found in a similar fashion. Slide 51
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Removing a Hole in the Graph
Example: Extend the function from previous example to make it continuous everywhere
by redefining it at a single point.
Let
for some real number a. If we let a = 4,

Then
and g(x) is continuous at x = 1.
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Removable Discontinuities
When we can remove a discontinuity by redefining the function at that
point, we call the discontinuity removable. Not all discontinuities are
removable, however.
Removable
Not removable
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Functions That Cannot Be Extended Continuously
Example: Show that (a) and (b) cannot be extended to a
function that is continuous everywhere.
Hence, no matter how we might define f (0), f will

not be continuous at x = 0.
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Functions That Cannot Be Extended Continuously
Due to the endless oscillation, the limit does

not exist, and there is no way to redefine the
function at x = 0 to make it continuous there.
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2.6 Limits Involving Infinity; Asymptotes of Graphs

We are also interested in examining the limiting behavior of functions as x increases without
bound (written x → ∞) or as x decreases without bound (written x → −∞).
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LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY; ASYMPTOTES

Limits at Infinity
Returning to , we can see that as
In view of this, we write
Similarly,
The graph appears to approach the horizontal line y = 0, as x → ∞ and

as x → −∞. We call y = 0 a horizontal asymptote.
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Example:
As
So,
The line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.
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Example:
Example:
Observe that you can make similar statements regarding the value of , but be
careful: the answer will change depending on whether n is even or odd. (We leave this as an
exercise.)
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A Limit of a Quotient That Is Not the Quotient of the Limits
Example:
You might be tempted to write
Slide 61
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When a limit has the form ∞/∞, the actual value of the limit can be anything at
all.
For this reason, we call ∞/∞ an indeterminate form, meaning that the value of
the limit cannot be determined solely by noticing that both numerator and
denominator tend to ∞.
Rule of Thumb: When faced with the indeterminate form ∞/∞ in calculating
the limit of a rational function, divide numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x appearing in the denominator.
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Slide 63
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Examples: Prove the following limits
5𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 5
𝑎) lim = .
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 + 2 3
11𝑥−3
b) lim = 1/3.
𝑥→∞ 33𝑥+2
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Examples: Find the horizontal asymptotes
𝑥3 − 2
𝑎) 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 .
𝑥 +1
𝑥 3 −2 𝑥 3 −2
For 𝑥 ≥ 0; lim = lim =1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +1
𝑥 3 −2 𝑥 3 −2
For 𝑥 < 0; lim = lim = −1
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 3 +1 𝑥→−∞ (−𝑥)3 +1
So, y=1 and y=-1 are horizontal asymptotes.
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Finding Slant Asymptotes
Example:
Using our rule of thumb, we have
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Finding Slant Asymptotes
Performing long division:
The third term tends to 0 as x → ∞, so the function values approach those of

the linear function
For this reason,

we say that the graph has a slant (or oblique) asymptote.
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A Simple Limit Revisited
Example:
We write
It is important to note that while the limits do not

exist, we say that they “equal” ∞ and −∞,
respectively, only to be specific as to why they do
not exist.
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A Simple Limit Revisited
The graph approaches the vertical line x = 0 as x → 0.
We say that the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
Finally, since the one-sided limits do not agree, we say
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1
lim+ =∞
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
1
lim− = −∞
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1
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A Function Whose One-Sided Limits Are Both Infinite
Example:
Since both one-sided limits agree (i.e., both

tend to ∞), we say that
This one concise statement says that the

limit does not exist, but also that there is a
vertical asymptote at x = 0, where f(x)→∞
as x → 0 from either side.
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Note 1: It may at first seem contradictory to say that does not exist and
then to write However, since ∞ is not a real number, there is no
contradiction here. We say that to indicate that as x → 0+, the
function values are increasing without bound.
Note 2: Mathematicians try to convey as much information as possible with

as few symbols as possible. For instance,
we prefer to say rather than does not exist, since the first
statement not only says that the limit does not exist, but also says that
increases without bound as x approaches 0, with x > 0 or x < 0.
Slide 73
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Another Case Where Infinite One-Sided Limits Disagree
Example:
There appears to be a vertical asymptote at

x = −2. Further, the function appears to
tend to ∞ as x →−2+, and to −∞ as x →−2−.
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Another Case Where Infinite One-Sided Limits Disagree
Verify the signs of the one-sided limits:
There is indeed a vertical asymptote at x = −2 and
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𝜋
Both have vertical asymptotes at odd integers multiple of 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 cos 𝑥 = 0.
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Two Limits of an Exponential Function
Example:
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More and more examples,,,,
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1070 2/27/2021

Chapter 2: Limits and Continuity

2.1 Rates of Change and Tangents to Curves

The slope of a straight line is the change in y divided by the change in x.

A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS: TANGENT LINES

The Limit: Informal Idea

2.2 Limit of a Function and Limit Laws

For instance, we have since as x gets closer and closer to 2,

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

In other words, we say that if we can make f (x) as close as we

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

From the left: From the right:

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

From the right: From the left:

THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT

To be certain, we need to obtain careful verification of our conjectures.

Example: Find the limits

Notice right away that since the limit in the

Recall that we have -1≤a≤1, but the

Note: For any function 𝑓, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, implies lim 𝑓(𝑥)=0.

Example: Using the Squeeze Theorem to Verify the Value of a Limit

- 𝜃 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 for all 𝜃.

0 ≤ 1 − cos 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃 for all 𝜃.

2.4 One-Sided Limits

(Consider one-sided limits.)

Example: Find the following limits

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

For f to be continuous at x = a, the definition says that

(i) f (a) must be defined,

(ii) the limit must exist

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑈(𝑥) is a right continuous function

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Finding Where a Rational Function Is Continuous

(continuous at each point different from 1)

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Simply put, Theorem says that a sum, difference or product of continuous

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Additionally, sin x and cos x are continuous everywhere.

Example: The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is continuous.

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Finally, we test the endpoints to see that and

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Corollary: Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b]

Continuity of f on an interval is essential.

If f is discontinuous at even one point of the

Example: Use intermediate value theorem to prove 2𝑥 + 5 = 4 − 𝑥 2

Write the equation as 2𝑥 + 5 + 𝑥 2 = 4.

CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Corollary suggests a simple yet effective method, called

Taking the midpoint of the interval [0, 1], since