232 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TERAHERTZ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 1, NO.
1, SEPTEMBER 2011
Terahertz Spectroscopy for Astronomy:
From Comets to Cosmology
Craig Kulesa, Member, IEEE
(Invited Paper)
Abstract—The terahertz portion of the electromagnetic spec-
trum is perhaps the last largely-unexplored wavelength frontier
for astronomical observations. It is also one of the most diagnostic,
harboring spectral signatures of ions, atoms, and molecules that
are central to our understanding of the composition and origin
of the Solar System, the evolution of matter in our Galaxy, and
the star formation history of galaxies over cosmic timescales. In
this brief overview, specific astronomical applications of terahertz
spectroscopy will be highlighted with examples of current hetero-
dyne capabilities, and projection of future astronomical demands
upon terahertz instrumentation.
Index Terms—Extragalactic astronomy, galactic astronomy, gas
spectroscopy, heterodyne instruments.
I. INTRODUCTION
T ERAHERTz (THz) radiation, which we will loosely
consider 0.5–5 THz (600–60 micrometers wavelength),
is one of the last regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which
remains largely unexplored. This is partly due to the opacity of
the Earth’s atmosphere at these frequencies and partly due to the
difficulty constructing terahertz detectors, spectrometers, and
telescopes. Nestled between traditional radio astronomy at cm-
and mm-waves using heterodyne receivers, and the bolometer
and photoconductor detectors of infrared astronomy, the tera-
hertz regime is a technological hybrid; a confluence that often
necessarily inherits the most difficult aspects of both worlds.
Thus, terahertz telescopes are often built in the style of radio
telescopes but with optical figure requirements akin to infrared
telescopes. The sensitivity of terahertz telescopes hinges deli-
cately on the water vapor content of the atmosphere above the
telescope, as it does for the infrared. Heterodyne receivers are
used for high resolution spectroscopy as at radio wavelengths,
but the special challenges of fabricating submillimeter-scale
quasioptical and waveguide structures, in addition to THz
local oscillator sources, are both extreme and unique.Even the
units in which terahertz astronomers speak reflect this unusual
conglomeration of overlapping instrumentation—while hetero-
dyne spectroscopists speak in units of frequency (GHz or THz),
Manuscript received April 01, 2011; revised June 01, 2011; accepted June 01,
2011. Date of current version August 31, 2011.
The author is with the Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson,
AZ 85721 USA (e-mail: ckulesa@email.arizona.edu).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TTHZ.2011.2159648
2156-342X/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
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bolometer imaging cameras typically adopt wavelength units
(micrometers), and the devotees of Fourier Transform Spec-
trometers and laboratory astrochemistry inevitably speak in
wavenumbers cm . New researchers in terahertz astronomy,
particularly from radio or optical regimes, often find the lingual
partitioning of the field practically schizophrenic.
Fortunately, the ions, atoms and molecules that permeate the
Universe do not harbor preferences for dimensional units. How-
ever, it is clear many of the most diagnostic and luminous spec-
tral signatures of these elemental species lie at terahertz frequen-
cies. These spectral lines are signposts of star and planet forma-
tion, the evolution of matter in galaxies, the rich astrochemistry
of interstellar clouds, even the prebiotic building blocks of life.
Furthermore, the reprocessing of visible and ultraviolet light by
dust grains in interstellar clouds makes the continuum emission
of star forming regions, circumstellar (pre-planetary) disks,and
entire galaxies peak at terahertz frequencies. This continuum
emission is often comparable to, if not significantly larger than,
starlight directly generated at visible wavelengths. The spectro-
scopic signatures of pivotal atoms and molecules, coupled with
bright continuum emission, leads to a rich spectrum of emission
and absorption lines which is uniquely diagnostic of a wide va-
riety of astrophysical phenomena (Fig. 1).
Table I reflects a sample of important atomic and molecular
species at terahertz frequencies, along with their observability
from the ground, airborne, and space platforms. They encom-
pass the fine structure transitions of elemental ions and atoms,
particularly those of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen; the ground
state transitions of pivotal light diatomic molecules, particularly
hydrides; and the low-frequency vibrational modes of heavy
molecules.
While the breadth of terahertz spectroscopy encompasses
both high resolution heterodyne measurements using coherent
detectors and gratings, Fabry-Perot and Fourier Transform
spectrometers using incoherent detectors, this review will
tend to focus on heterodyne examples where they are most
applicable.
II. SOLAR SYSTEM
A. Planetary Atmospheres
The remote sensing of planetary atmospheres such as Venus,
Mars, and the Jovian planets probes and illuminates the per-
tinent physical and chemical processes, just as passive THz
soundings on Earth are diagnostic of the telluric environment.
Terahertz observations play an especially important role in
KULESA: TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY FOR ASTRONOMY: FROM COMETS TO COSMOLOGY
Fig. 1. Schematic of the spectral characteristics observed toward an interstellar
cloud, featuring a 30 K continuum, an assortment of selected atomic and
molecular spectral lines, underlined by exceptional atmospheric transmission
observed from the ground (75 micrometers of precipitable water vapor at Dome
A, Antarctica) [1] and airborne platforms such as SOFIA (8 micrometers of pre-
cipitable water vapor).
this realm, however because many of the species of particular
interest are also present in the Earth’s atmosphere. Observa-
tions must therefore typically be performed from space-based
platforms [4].
Certain species provide an indirect measure of surface pro-
cesses that might otherwise be difficult to detect [5]. For ex-
ample, hydrogen chloride (HCl) plays such a role on the terres-
tial planets; it is a significant reservoir of gas phase chlorine and
is a measure of present volcanic activity on Mars [3], [6]. Other
species such as hydrogen peroxide H O may be produced
in electrostatic discharge reactions during Martian dust storms
or during normal saltation [7]. Pivotal species such as carbon
monoxide (CO) trace the formation and destruction pathways
of the dominant carbon dioxide CO molecule in the Martian
atmosphere, for example.
However, water H O and its deuterated forms (HDO, D O)
often rank among the species of greatest interest. Water is ubiq-
uitous in the Solar System—it is found in all planetary and
cometary atmospheres in gaseous form [8]; it is found in solid
form on the (sub)surface of Mars, comets, and most outer satel-
lites. In addition to Earth, liquid water was likely key to the
evolution of the Martian atmosphere, and could exist under the
ices of Europa [9], Enceladus, and other satellites. Even now,
the chemistry of the Martian atmosphere is dominated by the
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233
TABLE I
SAMPLE OF IMPORTANT THz LINES
Observability from ground based sites and airborne conditions. Current
ground-based facility conditions such as APEX are assumed to host a
median value of 500 microns of precipitable water vapor (PWV); future
ground-based sites assume best quartile winter conditions of 75 micrometers
precipitable water vapor (PWV) on the high Antarctic plateau (equivalently
110 micrometers on exceptional days at the Chajnantor/Sairecabur summit).
The airborne facility (SOFIA) assumes 8 micrometers at an elevation of 13
kilometers. A zenith angle of 30 degrees is assumed throughout. A “Y” label
implies 25% transmission or greater, “M” implies marginal transmission
of 5–25%, whereas “N” implies typical transmission of less than 5%.
Atmospheric transmission computed from the am model [2].
photochemistry of CO and water. Water also likely played a
central role in the formation of the Solar System; with a high
abundance in the Solar nebula, it would have been one of the
dominant coolants in the inner disk. Since water is the first hy-
drogen-bearing molecule to condense as the solar nebula cools,
it determines the location of the so-called “snow line” which
separates the terrestrial planets from the outer, Jovian planets
[10].
The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) in the Solar System
is a measurement of considerable diagnostic power and impor-
tance. The normal Galactic abundance of deuterium in the Solar
neighborhood is relative to hydrogen [11], but can be
enriched in ices and in the gas phase at low temperatures [12],
[13], and preserved in meteorites and comets. Thus, the D/H
ratio in the Solar System provides a “memory” of the physical
and chemical conditions in which water was formed there [14].
For example, the D/H ratio in Oort cloud comets appears to be
twice the value observed in Earth ocean water (Fig. 2); cometary
bombardment did therefore not solely provide Earth with its
complement of liquid water. The D/H ratio in Jovian planet
atmospheres varies significantly; Jupiter and Saturn approxi-
mately reflect the interstellar medium value, while Uranus and
Neptune are enriched in deuterium due to convective mixing
dredging of deuterium-rich grains deep in their cores [15]. This
explanation assumes that Uranus and Neptune are highly con-
vective and that their cores originated by the accululation of
cold, icy planetesimals with high D/H ratio [16]. Connecting
234 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TERAHERTZ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 1, NO. 1, SEPTEMBER 2011
Fig. 2. D/H ratios for objects in the Solar System. Enriched deuterium abundances are the result progressive isotopic exchange between deuterium rich interstellar
species and protosolar H . Figure from [3].
formation mechanisms for the outer planets with the chemical
history of comets and chondrules remains a challenging goal.
B. Cometary Atmospheres
Comets spend the bulk of their existence in the cold outer
reaches of the Solar System, and therefore have not undergone
considerable thermal processing. As such, they represent our
best clue to the physical conditions and chemistry of the early
Solar System. Upon entering the inner Solar System, they re-
lease volatile species that yield direct measurements of their
composition. In the absence of direct analysis of cometary mate-
rial, spectral line emission is the most useful technique to study
the physical and chemical conditions of cometary atmospheres,
and their relation to other bodies in the Solar System. The rela-
tive strengths of different lines from a given species can be used
to derive the gas temperature, whereas the shape of the spectral
lines indicates the outgassing pattern, the line width indicates
the outgassing velocity. Knowledge of the molecular excitation
and radiative transfer yields an estimate of the total column den-
sity of the species, and hence an absolute outgassing rate.
About two dozen species have been detected in cometary at-
mospheres, ranging from simple diatomics like CO, CS, C , hy-
drocarbons like CH , C H and C H , whose spectra lie in the
infrared, and complex species such as formic acid, formamide,
methyl formate and ethylene glycol [17], [18] and many other
spectral lines that are as yet unidentified.
Among the most important and abundant of these species is
the water molecule H O . Water molecules in cometary atmo-
spheres are excited via collisions with other molecules and ra-
diative pumping of the fundamental vibrational levels by the
solar infrared flux. However, because low-excitation water lines
are absorbed by water molecules in the Earth’s atmosphere,
water vapor production is often indirectly estimated through
ground-based observations of its photodissociation product, the
OH radical [19], and water high vibrational bands [20].
Direct measurement of the water production rate is there-
fore advantageous. The ortho-water transition at
557 GHz and the para-water transition at 1113 GHz
are among the strongest lines in cometary comae, but generally
must be observed from space. The 557 GHz transition has
been observed directly using heterodyne techniques by the
Submillimeter Wave Astronomical Satellite (SWAS) [21], [22],
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later with the Odin satellite [23]–[25]and both ortho- and para-
forms are now observed using the HIFI instrument on the
Herschel Space Observatory [3], [26].
The spatial distribution of cometary gas production, particu-
larly water, is difficult to study from the ground, as cometary nu-
clei are intrinsically small and generally unresolved. Terahertz
instruments are therefore deployed on spacecraft designed to ex-
plore comets during close flybys or extended orbital periods.
One example is the Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta Or-
biter (MIRO) on board ESA’s Rosetta spacecraft, destined to in-
tercept and orbit Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014.
With a microwave and terahertz spectrometer, it will diagnose
water production sites and evolution with kilometer-scale reso-
lution [27].
III. GALACTIC ECOLOGY
A. The Life Cycle of Interstellar Matter
The evolution of galaxies is determined to a large extent by
the life cycles of interstellar clouds, as shown in Fig. 3. The
interstellar medium in the Galaxy is a patchy, clumpy medium
that encompasses extremes of temperature and a wide range of
densities [28].
Interstellar clouds play a central role in cosmic evolution;
they are simultaneously the sites of formation of all stars and
planets, and the reservoirs of material that has been processed
through previous generations of stars. Interstellar clouds can
be classified as either diffuse or dense. Diffuse clouds feature
gas densities in the range of 10–1000 particles/cm and tem-
peratures of 50–100 K. The gas is mainly comprised of atomic
hydrogen, which is detectable via the 21 cm spin-flip transi-
tion and provides the observational basis for current models of
a multiphase Galactic interstellar medium (ISM). However, its
emission is insensitive to gas density and does not always dis-
criminate between atomic clouds and the warm, tenuous (
K, cm ) neutral and ionized medium that is
thought to pervade the Galaxy [29].
Although molecular interstellar clouds are among the coldest,
least energetic objects in astronomy, they depend upon interac-
tions with high energy photons and cosmic rays for much of
their internal heating and chemical activity. They are largely
comprised of molecular hydrogen and atomic helium, neither
KULESA: TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY FOR ASTRONOMY: FROM COMETS TO COSMOLOGY
Fig. 3. Sketch of the various stages in the life cycle of interstellar clouds.
Fig. 4. Schematic of the density of the dominant forms of hydrogen and carbon
as a logarithmic function of depth into a dark interstellar cloud, expressed in
magnitudes of visual extinction, where 1 magnitude corresponds to a hydro-
genic column of cm . The cloud has a uniform density of
cm and is illuminated by the ambient interstellar radiation field [30],
[31].
of which have accessible emission line spectra in the prevailing
physical conditions in cold interstellar clouds. Thus, it is neces-
sary to probe the nature of the cold interstellar gas via rarer trace
elements. Carbon, for example, is found in ionized form C
in neutral clouds, eventually becoming atomic (C), then molec-
ular as carbon monoxide (CO) in dark molecular clouds (Fig. 4).
Just as there is a “carbon cycle” on the Earth, there is an equiv-
alent life cycle of matter in the Galaxy that is traced well via
carbon species. Critically, these three forms of elemental carbon
are readily observable at terahertz frequencies (Table I).
Although we are now beginning to understand star formation,
the formation, evolution and destruction of molecular clouds re-
mains shrouded in uncertainty. For example, the formation of
interstellar clouds is a prerequisite for star formation, yet the
process has not yet been identified observationally! Theories
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235
Fig. 5. Color image of HI 21 cm emission from Deul & van der Hulst (1987)
with catalog sources overlaid. All molecular clouds lie in regions of H I over-
density. The area of the molecular cloud has been scaled to represent the relative
masses of the clouds. The coincidence of molecular clouds with HI overdensity
is evidence that clouds form out of the atomic gas. Caption and figure from [35].
Fig. 6. Spectra of C obtained with Herschel/HIFI for the GOT C program
at and , along with the CO data from the Mopra telescope
and HI surveys. Many different types of interstellar clouds can be seen in this
line of sight. The Gaussian decomposition for C is also shown in the upper
panel. Caption and figure from [39].
of cloud formation and destruction are guided and constrained
by observations of the atomic and molecular gas components.
Based primarily on HI and CO observations, several mecha-
nisms have been proposed to consolidate gas into GMC com-
plexes (Fig. 5), ranging from the conglomeration of material
within high pressure environments such as wind-blown “shells”
from massive stars, to compression of gas in converging parts
of a turbulent medium [32], [33]. These processes can be dis-
tinguished by 1) accounting for the entire H mass (including
H clouds with little CO) when computing global measures of
the interstellar medium, and 2) constructing spatial and kine-
matic comparisons of sufficient resolution, spatial coverage and
dynamic range to probe a wide range of interstellar phases and
environments. These comparisons are necessarily comprised of
observations spanning C , C and CO, over the full range of en-
vironments in which molecular clouds are constructed and de-
stroyed.
After a handful of heterodyne measurements from the Kuiper
Airborne Observatory [36]–[38], the first landmark steps toward
the dissection of Galactic interstellar material via the heterodyne
measurement of the 1.9 THz line of C are being taken by the
Herschel open time key program “GOT C+” (Fig. 6). Analysis
236 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TERAHERTZ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 1, NO. 1, SEPTEMBER 2011
Fig. 7. Spectrum of the Orion KL hot core from the Herschel HEXOS key program. The strongest lines are labeled. Figure from [45].
of diffuse clouds in a sample characterized by C and HI emis-
sion but without CO demonstrates the presence of a dignificant
diffuse warm, dark H component [39]–[41] that had been sug-
gested by previous work [42], [43]. The diversity of clouds that
may be disentangled along even a single line of sight is nothing
short of spectacular. While “GOT C+” now demonstrates what
can be accomplished by combining C emission with CO and
HI maps, it is limited to 900 individual lines of sight through the
Galaxy, summing to less than 0.1 square degree of sky. Fully
sampled two-dimensional maps in C and C must await dedi-
cated survey facilities at THz frequencies. Two such telescopes
to begin operations in the next year from Antarctica are the 80
centimeter aperture Stratospheric Terahertz Observatory (STO)
[44] and the 60 centimeter aperture High Elevation Antarctic
Terahertz (HEAT) telescope. These surveys will connect the
molecular cloud component with the atomic diffuse interstellar
medium, illuminating the origin of molecular clouds and the
origin of turbulence in the cold ISM.
B. Astrochemistry of Star Forming Regions
Astrochemistry is the interdisciplinary application of atomic
and molecular physics to the quantitiative study of astronomical
objects. It is fundamentally driven by a synergistic interplay be-
tween modeling, observation, and laboratory work. While the
origins of astrochemistry took root in the detections of the first
molecules in diffuse interstellar clouds, much of the recent im-
petus has been on dark clouds, star forming regions, and circum-
stellar disks. In dark clouds alone, over 140 distinct interstellar
molecules have been discovered to date ranging from simple di-
atomic molecules such as H , CO and OH, to complex carbon
chain molecules like HC N. The richest spectra are usually
observed towards warm dense clouds where intricate species
such as acetone CH CO , ethylene glycol CH OH ,
and ethyl formate C H OCHO have been observed. To illus-
trate, a small portion of the terahertz spectrum (1.6–1.9 THz)
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toward the Orion KL hot core as observed by the HEXOS key
program is shown in Fig. 7.
1) Light Hydrides: The simplest components of interstellar
chemistry, diatomic hydrides and their ions ( H and H with
C, N, O) have received remarkably little observational
study, since their rotational ground state lines generally lie at
THz frequencies and frequently outside the atmospheric win-
dows observable from the ground. Nevertheless, their impor-
tance to chemistry is profound, and major puzzles remain for
even simple chemical pathways. For example, the molecular
ion CH is only formed by the highly endothermic reaction
C H K CH H. At the cold temperatures of
interstellar clouds, one would expect very little CH to form,
but it remains one of the more abundant ions. The superthermal
distribution of energy required for achieve the observed abun-
dance can perhaps be explained by invoking the dissipation of
turbulent energy in molecular clouds [46]. Nevertheless the high
abundance of CH is unsettling; is the puzzle related to un-
known chemistry, or undiscovered physics of the structure of
interstellar clouds, perhaps between the macroscopic and mi-
croscopic scales?
Similarly, the OH molecule is extremely pervasive; it is a
chemical tracer of disturbed molecular gas, and the terahertz
portion of the spectrum in which its ground state may be probed
demonstrates a rich mixture of absorption and emission spectra.
Other molecules such as CH and reactive molecular ions such as
CH and CO have been detected in photon-dominated regions
(PDRs) and may provide important insight into the interactions
of UV radiation with gas, dust and large molecules like poly-
cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
A new renaissance in the study of light hydrides is being pro-
vided by the Herschel Space Observatory, whose heterodyne
spectrometer (HIFI) provides complete coverage of the tera-
hertz bands from 0.5 THz to 2 THz. An example of the study of
numerous hydrides and their ions is depicted toward the massive
star forming region AFGL 2591, in which CH, CH , NH, OH ,
KULESA: TERAHERTZ SPECTROSCOPY FOR ASTRONOMY: FROM COMETS TO COSMOLOGY
Fig. 8. Schematic summary of the major gas phase probes of starless cores as
function of depth and density into a cloud. Adapted from [53].
H O are seen in emission and absorption [47]. The recent de-
tection of HF toward diffuse molecular clouds should represent
a unique and reliable tracer of H gas toward translucent lines
of sight, owing to the direct chemical path which connects the
two molecules [48].
2) Deuterium Chemistry in Dark Clouds: The spectro-
scopic measurement of molecules in the dense cores of dark
clouds, where high column densities N cm and
high volume densities cm are prevalent, are
frustrated by the freeze-out of gas phase volatiles onto dust
grains. In particular, CO, the common tracer for molecular hy-
drogen, is observed to form ices under such circumstances [49].
Thus, infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) and actively collapsing
protostellar cores are difficult to measure in the gas phase,
since gaseous abundances are often reduced by gas-grain
interactions. A positive effect of this freeze-out, however,
is the sharp rise in deuterium fractionation. In cold clouds,
the deuterium chemistry is set by the following reaction:
H HD H D H K [12], [13]. At cold temper-
atures, the forward exothermic reaction is favored, enriching
H D [50] and the subsequent chain of ion-molecule reactions
that give rise to deuterated species such as DCO , DCN,
HDCO, and others. Since CO is destructive to both H and
H D , its freeze-out allows multiply-deuterated species to be
observed such as D H at 0.69 THz [51] and triply-deuterated
ammonia, ND [52] at 0.31 THz which otherwise would not be
predicted to have a measureable abundance. The primordial hy-
drogenic ions are especially important as they do not aggregate
onto dust grains and therefore remain in the gas phase. Thus,
they constitute important spectroscopic probes of the velocity
field in dark, starless, and collapsing cloud cores [53] (Fig. 8).
The principal deuterated molecule, HD, serves as an excellent
tracer of molecular hydrogen H in warm clouds K [58] and ground-based grating spectrometers coupled to large
with modest-to-high column densities of at least cm ).
IV. STAR FORMATION THROUGH COSMIC TIME
A. Nearby Galaxies
Nearly every global aspect of star formation in the Milky Way
finds expression in the study of nearby galaxies: from studies of
the structure of star forming giant molecular clouds, the inven-
tory of star-forming gas, the heating and cooling of the inter-
stellar medium, to the determination of star-forming rates and
efficiencies. The initial terahertz spectroscopic measurements of
external galaxies was pioneered by the Kuiper Airborne Obser-
vatory [54], [55], followed by the ISO satellite using the LWS
instrument [56], [57]. These studies discovered that while the
C line dominated the total line cooling, the ratio of C inten-
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237
sity to far-infrared luminosity decreased by an order of mag-
nitude as luminosity and/or dust temperature is increased. The
4.7 THz oxygen line takes over as the primary coolant for the
warmest, highest luminosity sources. These results suggest two
components to the cold ISM in such galaxies; a diffuse com-
ponent dominated by C cooling and small-grain photoelectric
heating, and a more “active” dense component with O domi-
nating the cooling and shocks from star formation contributing
to the heating. The combination of the Herschel Space Observa-
tory with instruments SPIRE-FTS [58] and PACS [59], spectro-
scopic studies of external galaxies at terahertz frequencies now
have the spatial resolution to match both models and shorter
wavelength spectroscopic studies made with the Spitzer tele-
scope. In particular, the KINGFISH key project on Herschel is
a direct extension of the SINGS legacy survey from Spitzer.
It will represent terahertz photometry and spectroscopy over a
subset of 61 SINGS galaxies in the five most diagnostic spec-
tral lines using PACS: 4.74 THz O , 3.39 THz O , 2.42 THz
N 1.90 THz C , and 1.46 THz N . These lines will be used to
assess the cooling of the interstellar medium (O and C ), act
as independent indicators of the star formation rate C N ,
measure electron densities N and can be used to set a metal
abundance scale O .
B. Submillimeter Galaxies
The first large-format (sub)millimeter bolometer arrays
(most notably SCUBA, MAMBO, BOLOCAM and SHARC)
revealed a population of very luminous L high-redshift
galaxies, which collectively released a significant fraction of
the energy generated by all galaxies over the history of the
Universe [60]. This immediately led to the questions: what are
the submillimeter galaxies, and how to they compare to optical
and infrared galaxies? Since that time, rapid developments
in bolometer array technology coupled with new facilities
such as the South Pole Telescope (SPT) [61], the Balloon
Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (BLAST)[62], and
now Herschel, thousands of such galaxies are now known.
However, spectroscopy of most of these galaxies remains
elusive. Current studies, therefore, tend to focus on statistical
measurements such as number densities, and spatial correlation
functions (i.e. clustering) as a function of photometric redshift
[62], [63]. Wide-bandwidth spectrometers such as SPIRE-FTS
format bolometer arrays such as Z-Spec [64] and ZEUS [65]
are particularly optimized for the detection of CO, N and
C lines at modest to high redshift. For example, four sub-
millimeter galaxies discovered by the Herschel ATLAS key
program were measured by Z-Spec at the CSO to lie at redshifts
between 0.9 and 3.0 [66]. ZEUS observed the C line in 12
galaxies at redshifts between 1 and 2 [67], finding the origin to
be photon-dominated regions (PDRs) for all galaxies but one,
which may find its origin in x-ray dominated regions (XDRs).
C and CO emission was detected from a hyper-luminous
galaxy at a redshift of 6.42 [68]–[70], the first detection of C
at truly cosmological distances and in a galaxy with an infrared
luminosity M . Further detections and imaging of
CO and C in high redshift objects will be a key focus of the
Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA).
238 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TERAHERTZ SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 1, NO. 1, SEPTEMBER 2011
V. CONCLUSION: ASTRONOMICAL DRIVERS FOR
TERAHERTZ INSTRUMENTS
The capabilities of ground-based, airborne and space instru-
mentation are leading to a renaissance in terahertz astronomy. In
particular, the SPIRE-FTS, PACS and HIFI instruments aboard
Herschel have expanded the reach of terahertz spectroscopy by
orders of magnitude. However, the lifetime of Herschel is rel-
atively short; breaking new scientific ground will require re-
newed effort in terahertz spectroscopic instrumentation. In par-
ticular, expected scientific demands will require development in
several key areas.
1) Efforts to study the ecology of the Galaxy will need to map
on the order of 100 square degrees, necessitating the de-
velopment of heterodyne arrays at terahertz frequencies.
Array development simultaneously pushes boundaries of
LO power, low-power cryogenic amplifier integration, IF
processor and spectrometer bandwidth, and data manage-
ment.
2) Line surveys additionally push new developments in
detector sensitivity limits and increases in instantaneous
bandwidth. These requirements are especially acute at
frequencies above 1.2 THz, where SIS junction mixers
are currently less effective and Hot Electron Bolometer
mixers dominate.
3) Wide band spectroscopy of distant galaxies is ideally
matched to large format bolometer arrays, whose devel-
opment is proceeding rapidly. However, the evolution of
sufficiently compact, integrated spectrometers that can
scale economically with detector size is still young and
requires more development.
4) The number of terahertz observatories where new con-
cepts in instrumentation can be tested and deployed for
science is small and needs to be developed further in the
post-Herschel era. Ground based sites such as the summit
of the Antarctic plateau (Ridge A and Dome A) and high
sites in the Chilean Atacama desert (Sairecabur and Cha-
jnantor) offer great promise in the terahertz atmospheric
windows. These windows open significantly further for the
airborne Stratospheric Observatory for Far Infrared As-
tronomy (SOFIA), for which terahertz spectroscopy will
play a leading role. Similarly, long duration balloon obser-
vatories such as BLAST and STO allow dedicated month-
long observations in a near-space environment.
5) Terahertz line surveys of interstellar clouds place in-
creasing demands on laboratory spectroscopy; transition
moments and collisional cross sections, as well as tra-
ditional spectroscopic data. These studies are needed
to make conclusive line identifications and to properly
interpret spectroscopic measurements in the context of
physical conditions and abundances.
As preceded by the development of charge-coupled devices
(CCDs) for visible light in the 1980’s and large format photo-
diode arrays in the infrared during the 1990’s, terahertz instru-
mentation and science is poised to make significant advances in
capability in the coming decade. While it is likely that the un-
expected discoveries will leave the greatest legacy, the impact
of anticipated discoveries is no less exciting and encompasses
Authorized licensed use limited to: Shanghai Jiaotong University. Downloaded on February 27,2022 at 11:14:04 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
FUTURE the broad range of astrophysical studies, from Solar System as-
tronomy to the formation of stars and galaxies at high redshift.
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Craig Kulesa received the Ph.D. degree in astronomy from the University of
Arizona, Tucson, in 2002 and currently serves there as an Assistant Astronomer.