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ELK455E Chap.4W4 Data Link
ELK455E Chap.4W4 Data Link
E
One computer starts the D
poll:
A
•sends message (if any) token C
then
B
•passes the token on to the
next computer
Server A
Clients can also be
prioritized so that they are Involves waiting: Poll and wait
for a response
polled more frequently:
Needs a timer to prevent lock-up
A, B, A, C, A, D, A, E, A, B,
(by client not answering)
..
Cross-over
Network more
point: About
efficiently used
Work better for 20
smaller networks computers
with low usage
Human errors:
e.g., mistake in typing a number
Cross-talk Multiplexer guard bands are too Increase the guard bands, or
small or wires too close together move or shield the wires
Echo Poor connections (causing signal to Fix the connections, or
be reflected back to the source) tune equipment
Attenuation Gradual decrease in signal over Use repeaters or
distance (weakening of a signal) amplifiers
mostly on analog
Sender calculates an
Receiver recalculates
Error Detection Value
EDV and checks it
(EDV) and transmits
against the received EDV
it along with data
Mathematical Mathematical
calculations calculations
?
=
Data to be EDV
transmitted
– If the same No
errors in transmission
Larger the size, better
error detection (but – If different Error(s)
lower efficiency) in transmission
1’s even
EVEN parity sender receiver
01101010
number of all
transmitted 1’s
remains EVEN parity
1’s odd
ODD parity sender receiver
01101011
number of all transmitted
1’s remains ODD parity
Example: Send the message “DATA” using ODD parity and LRC
28
Longitudinal Redundancy Checking (LRC)
11100111
11011101
00111001
10101001
10101010
32
Error Detection – Polynomial Checking
33
Error Correction via Retransmission
Sender Receiver
Sends the packet,
then waits to hear
from receiver. Sends ACK
Sends the
next packet
Sends NAK
Resends the
packet again
Sends ACK
35
Error Correction via Retransmission-
Continuous ARQ
With continuous ARQ, the sender continues sending packets
without waiting for the receiver to acknowledge. The receiver
continues receiving messages without acknowledging them right
away. Although the messages are being transmitted, the sender
examines the stream of returning acknowledgments. If it receives an
NAK, the sender retransmits the needed messages.
The packets that are retransmitted may be only those containing
an error (called Link Access Protocol for Modems [LAP-M]) or
may be the first packet with an error and all those that followed it
(called Go-Back-N ARQ). LAP-M is better because it is more
efficient.
Notice that
acknowledgments now
identify the packet
being acknowledged.
37
Error Correction via Retransmission
Parallel communications
ITU, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 41
Serial Transmission Mode: sends bit by bit over a single
line. Serial mode is slower than parallel, but can be
used over longer distances because the bits stay in the
order they were sent, while bits sent in parallel mode
tend to spread out over long distances.
Serial Communications
ITU, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 42
Data Link Protocols
43
Serial Transmission Timing
Asynchronous Communications
Digital transmission formats must have the following
elements:
Standard voltage ranges
Standard clock speeds
Transmitter and receiver clocks must be
synchronized
Framing is necessary to determine the first bit of a
character.
Asynchronous systems use free-running clocks on the
transmitting and receiving sides
A start bit is transmitted at the beginning of each
character and at least one stop bit at the end of the
character.
49
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol
developed by IBM in 1972 that is still in use today. It uses a
controlled-access media access protocol.
Beginning Ending
(01111110) (01111110)
data CRC-32
50
Data Link Protocol Summary
Protocol Size Error Detection Retransmission Media Access
Asynchronous Xmission 1 Parity Continuous ARQ Full Duplex
Synchronous Protocols
52
Transmission Efficiency
Transmission Efficiency =
Total number of info bits to be transmitted
Total number of bits transmitted
Async Transmission:
7-bit ASCII (info bits), 1 parity bit, 1 stop bit, 1 start bit
Transmission Efficiency = 7 / 10 70%
e.g., V.92 modem with 56 Kbps 39.2 Kbps effective rate
SDLC Transmission
Assume 100 info characters (800 bits), 2 flags (16 bits)
Address (8 bits), Control (8 bits), CRC (32 bits)
Transmission Efficiency = 800 / 64 92.6%
e.g., V.92 modem with 56 Kbps 51.9 Kbps effective rate
CRC
32-bits
53
Transmission Efficiency
54
Transmission Efficiency
The general rule is that the larger the message field, the more
efficient the protocol. So why not have 10,000-byte or even
100,000-byte packets to really increase efficiency? The answer
is that anytime a frame is received containing an error, the
entire frame must be retransmitted.
Thus, if an entire file is sent as one large packet and 1 bit is
received in error, all 100,000 bytes must be sent again. Clearly,
this is a waste of capacity. Furthermore, the probability that a
frame contains an error increases with the size of the frame.
Thus, in designing a protocol, there is a trade-off between large
and small frames. Small frames are less efficient but are less
likely to contain errors and cost less (in terms of circuit
capacity) to retransmit if there is an error.
55
Transmission Efficiency
56
Transmission Efficiency
Acceptable range
57
Transmission Efficiency
58
Transmission Efficiency
TRIB = Number of info bits accepted / total time required to get the bits
4 - 60
Transmission Efficiency
61
SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
63
SUMMARY
All error-detection schemes attach additional error-detection
data, based on a mathematical calculation, to the user's message.
The receiver performs the same calculation on incoming
messages, and if the results of this calculation do not match the
error-detection data on the incoming message, an error has
occurred.
Parity, checksum, and CRC are the most common error-
detection schemes.
The most common error-correction technique is simply to ask
the sender to retransmit the message until it is received without
error.
A different approach, forward error correction, includes
sufficient information to allow the receiver to correct the error in
most cases without asking for a retransmission.
64
SUMMARY
Message delineation means to indicate the start and end of a
message. Asynchronous transmission uses start and stop bits on
each letter to mark where they begin and end. Synchronous
techniques (e.g., SDLC, HDLC, Ethernet, PPP) group blocks
of data together into frames that use special characters or bit
patterns to mark the start and end of entire messages.
65
SUMMARY
Transmission Efficiency and Throughput: Every protocol adds
additional bits to the user's message before sending it (e.g., for
error detection). These bits are called overhead bits because they
add no value to the user; they simply ensure correct data transfer.
The efficiency of a transmission protocol is the number of
information bits sent by the user divided by the total number of
bits transferred (information bits plus overhead bits). Synchronous
transmission provides greater efficiency than does asynchronous
transmission.
In general, protocols with larger frame sizes provide greater
efficiency than do those with small frame sizes. The drawback to
large frame sizes is that they are more likely to be affected by
errors and thus require more retransmission. Small frame sizes are
therefore better suited to error-prone circuits, and large frames, to
error-free circuits.
66
REFERENCES
[1] Business Data Communications and Networking by
Fitzgerald and Dennis, 7th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
20012
[2] Basic Data Communications by W J Beyda, Prentic Hall,
1989.