Ministry of Higher Education and

Scientific Research
Karbala University
College of Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department

Supervised By :
Dr. Tahseen Al-Taie
lecturer's name : Hawraa ad

Written By :
sajjad kareem hashim & karar shaker youssef
Objectives
to determine the interfacial tension between two liquids

Introduction
A method of profile optimization for determining the surface and
interfacial tension (IFT) of liquid–fluid systems from the profile of
a pendant drop is described. A new, versatile routine for estimating
the drop shape parameter is introduced. The factors that affect the
available accuracy of the method have been analyzed using
theoretical simulations. It was found that the tilt of the drop profiles
may lead to large errors in the resultant IFT values if the tilt was
not corrected before or during the optimization procedure. This
effect could be reduced drastically if a profile were averaged
between its two sides and the mean profile were used for
optimization. The aspect ratio of a drop image (or profile) can be
determined reliably by considering it one of the parameters to be
optimized. The dependence of the error in the resultant IFT value
on the error in the aspect ratio was found to be highly sensitive to
drop shape. The available accuracy of IFT determination using this
method depends strongly on the precision of the determination of
the drop profiles. After error analysis using theoretical simulations
a 95% confidence interval of ca. 0.05 and 0.12% was estimated for
this method for the profiles determined with maximum statistical
error of 3.5 and 7.0 μm, respectively.
Theory:
The reliability of the method described in the preceding paper (B.
Song and J. Springer, J. Colloid Interface Sci.183,in press, 1996)
for the determination of surface and interfacial tension (IFT) of
liquid–fluid systems from the profile of a pendant drop has been
studied experimentally. Influences on the resultant IFT values from
factors such as the location of the drop profile and illumination
conditions are considered. The reproducibility and accuracy of the
measurement method were examined by measuring the time
dependence of polyethylene glycol (PEG600)/air and water/air
systems and by determining the temperature dependence of the
polyethylene glycol (PEG6000)/N2and LD (low-density)
polyethylene/N2systems. The effect of drop vibrations on the
accuracy of the method is discussed. A drop is generated from the
end of a capillary needle in a bulk fluid at reservoir conditions
(Pressure and Temperature). With a calibrated and accurate video
lens system, the complete shape of the drop is analyses with an
advanced Drop Shape Analysis software. Then, the Laplace
equation (nonlinear system of differential equation) is solved
numerically over the complete shape (accuracy better than the
usual method of the two diameter De, Ds with drop shape factor
from tables) to get the IFT.
Tools :
1-experimental chamber
2-lenses
3suringe
4-llluminating system
5-camera
6-computer
7-vipration-proof table

pendant drop apparatus

 Procedure and experimental setup :
The research project will be divided into four major categories.

1- The first category will be image acquisition. This was accomplished by

taking a CCD camera mounted on a rigid steel frame kept a fixed distance
from a container holding the pendant drop. The camera will be focused at
the tip of the syringe where the pendant drop will be formed for best drop
profile capture. In addition to a fixed position imaging system, to keep
consistency between data acquisition steps, there will be a light diffuser
stationed behind the drop to diffuse the light from the light source
illuminating the drop from behind. Furthermore, a fluid pump will be used
to pump the inner fluid of the pendant drop system at a constant flow rate in
order to provide the ability to study the interfacial tension of a pendant drop
system as a function of time. The experimental set up described is shown in
Figure 2

Figure 2.\ Experimental Setup Diagram

2- The second part of the experiment is the image processing step in which
the data acquired through image capture described above is manipulated to
provide a value for interfacial tension of a particular pendant drop system.
The program running the image processing should ideally provide a
theoretical value of interfacial tension for a particular system alongside the
calculated value using the image processing techniques.
 3-The third phase of the experiment will be to compare several
images and the resulting interfacial tension values with known
literature values of IFT to test the accuracy and precision of the
program. This validity check will hopefully point out any errors or
will highlight fundamental limitations of the program in its ability to
calculate IFT values.

4-The fourth and final phase of this project will involve compiling all
data obtained and measured into a simple user-friendly graphical user
interface (GUI). Preferably, the MATLAB GUI tool will be used in
order to export the project as an executable windows file for use on
multiple computer systems. The materials used will be a CCD camera
and its computer software, a light source, a light diffuser, a fluid
pump, fluid tubing, syringe with 0.7mm diameter tip, a 4020
aluminum frame to hold each component of the setup, and inner/outer
fluids, as outlined in Figure 2. The inner and outer fluids that will
primarily be used are air, water, ethanol, PDMS silicon oil of various
cPs ranging from 10 cPs to 1000 cPs, and finally, carbopol.
Calculations and results :
Equation :

Tabile 1.\ Values of 1\H versus S for pendant drop method.

  Discussion
‫مناقشة الطالب سجاد كريم هاشم‬

The Pendant Drop Interfacial Tension system measures interfacial tension

at reservoir pressure and temperature to 10,000 psi and 350 °F. The cell
has interchangeable needle tips to achieve a wide measurement range. The
lower limit is 10-3 dynes/cm. The Temco system can be provided with a
vibration free table, heating system, metering pumps, camera, and image
and analysis software. Investigations of surface and interfacial tension
require a viewable environmental chamber, temperature and pressure
control, a metering pump for drop formation, and observation equipment.
During the last several years, Temco has developed a system to meet the
special requirements for high pressure and temperature testing of
interfacial tension. The pendant drop visual cell is a through windowed
cell. The cell has an external band heater for rapid heating. The cell is also
insulation wrapped to maintain a constant, uniform temperature throughout
the test period. A needle is installed into the cell for the injection of the
liquid phase into the cell. A pendant drop or clinging bubble will form on
the tip of the needle. The cell is designed so that the injected phase can
enter from the bottom or the top of the visual cell. To observe and record
the pendant drop dimensions, a camera system is used with an external
light source. The image of the drop is captured within the computer and
software for data analysis and collection. The software is discussed later in
this literature. The formation of the pendant drop is controlled with a
precision-metering pump. For high pressure applications, either hand
pumps or computer controlled pumps can be provided. The entire system is
provided with transfer vessels for the storage of test fluids, a back pressure
system for the maintenance of the pressure, and a vibration free table to
maintain the stability of the pendant drop.
 ‫مناقشة الطالب كرار شاكر يوسف‬

After running several different fluid-fluid systems in the experimental

setup, several hundred images had been captured and several images had
been chosen to process using the Interfacial Tension Calculator. In almost
every case, the calculator ran without error and the result that was
computed for the interfacial tension using the experimental method which I
developed was within 3-5% of the actual literature value of that particular
fluid-fluid system. In some cases, the experimental method used in the
interfacial tension calculator program was even closer to the literature
values than the DS/DE aspect ratio calculation. For images that did not fit
the standard drop shape given by the beta parameter curves, the program
would crash or would give an unprecedented value of interfacial tension.
At times, the value of the interfacial tension would be higher or much
lower than the expected values and this was primarily due to the fact that
there are various curve fitting algorithms in the code that could have
potentially altered values elsewhere which lead to the high or low IFT
values. While occasional, there were times that the code would give much
higher and lower values due to the images themselves either being of low
quality (resolution and magnification) or if the materials that were
photographed had high viscosity or were difficult to handle because they
would wet the surface of the needle tip and cause an uneven drop picture.
Overall, the Interfacial Tension Calculator runs as intended and is good for
a first delve into finding the interfacial tension of a fluid-fluid system. In
the future, this system could be developed further, leading to more
accurate and precise measurements.
References:
1. Dingle, N. M., Tjiptowidjojo, K. K., Basaran, O. A., & Harris, M. T.
(2005). A finite element based algorithm for determining interfacial
tension (γ) from pendant drop profiles. Journal Of Colloid And
Interface Science, 286(2), 647-660.
2. Del Río, O. I., & Neumann, A. W. (1997). Axisymmetric drop shape
analysis: Computational methods for the measurement of interfacial
properties from the shape and dimensions of pendant and sessile drops.
Journal Of Colloid And Interface Science, 196(2), 136-147.
3. Alvarez, N., Walker, L., & Anna, S. (2009). A non-gradient based
algorithm for the determination of surface tension from a pendant drop:
Application to low Bond number drop shapes. Journal Of Colloid And
Interface Science, 333(2), 557-562.
4. Saad, S. I., Policova, Z. Z., & Neumann, A. W. (2011). Design and
accuracy of pendant drop methods for surface tension measurement.
Colloids And Surfaces A: Physicochemical And Engineering Aspects,
384(1-3), 442-452.
5. Peters, F. F., & Arabali, D. D. (2013). Interfacial tension between oil
and water measured with a modified contour method. Colloids And
Surfaces A: Physicochemical And Engineering Aspects, 4261-5.
6. F. K. Hansen., & G. Rodsrud. (1991). Journal of Colloid Interface Sci.