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Raman Amplification For Fiber
Raman Amplification For Fiber
1, JANUARY 2004 79
Tutorial Paper
I. INTRODUCTION
Fig. 2. Capacity-distance products of postdeadline transmission experiments phonon that is created or annihilated. (The anti-Stokes process is
at the Optical Fiber Communications Conference since 1994. Experiments are not mentioned further here as it is typically orders of magnitude
categorized by the length of their fiber spans. Those using Raman amplification
are circled. weaker than the Stokes process in the context of optical com-
munications, making it irrelevant.) Raman scattering can occur
in all materials, but in silica glass the dominant Raman lines are
(ii) where is it used in systems? (iii) why does it improve system due to the bending motion of the Si-O-Si bond (see bond angle
performance? and (iv) which noise sources need to be consid- in Fig. 3).
ered? Raman scattering can also be stimulated by signal light at an
Section II introduces amplification by stimulated Raman scat- appropriate frequency shift from a pump, leading to stimulated
tering. Section III describes this process in optical fibers from Raman scattering (SRS). In this process, pump and signal light
a phenomenological perspective, focusing on properties that are are coherently coupled by the Raman process. In a quantum-
critical to amplifier design and performance. In Section IV, noise mechanical description, shown in the energy-level diagram in
from amplified spontaneous emission is reviewed and the en- Fig. 3, a pump photon is converted into a second signal photon
hanced performance that can be obtained with Raman amplifiers that is an exact replica of the first, and the remaining energy
is explained. Other sources of noise that are particularly rele- produces an optical phonon. The initial signal photon, therefore,
vant are introduced in Section V. Finally, novel Raman pumping has been amplified. This process is considered nonresonant be-
schemes that have recently been developed are highlighted in cause the upper state is a short-lived virtual state. For a more
Section VI. complete theoretical treatment, the reader is referred to the fol-
lowing: [15]–[18].
II. ORIGIN OF RAMAN SCATTERING
Spontaneous Raman scattering was first discovered by III. RAMAN AMPLIFICATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS
Raman [12], for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics A. Properties of Gain From Stimulated Raman Scattering
in 1930. When an optical field is incident on a molecule, the
bound electrons oscillate at the optical frequency. This induced The following fundamental properties of SRS are critical for
oscillating dipole moment produces optical radiation at the designing Raman fiber amplifiers:
same frequency, with a phase shift that leads to the medium’s 1) Raman gain has a spectral shape that depends primarily
refractive index. Simultaneously, the molecular structure itself on the frequency separation between a pump and signal,
is oscillating at the frequencies of various molecular vibrations. not their absolute frequencies. This follows from energy
Therefore, the induced oscillating dipole moment also contains conservation: their frequency separation must equal the
the sum and difference frequency terms between the optical frequency of the optical phonon that is created.
and vibrational frequencies. These terms give rise to Raman 2) Raman gain does not depend on the relative direction of
scattered light in the re-radiated field. propagation of a pump and signal. The optical branch
In a solid-state quantum mechanical description, optical pho- of the phonon diagram is quite flat [14], and so
tons are inelastically scattered by quantized molecular vibra- phonons of a given frequency exist with a broad range of
tions called optical1 phonons [14]. Photon energy is lost (the momenta or -vectors. Therefore, momentum conserva-
molecular lattice is heated) or gained (the lattice is cooled), tion is guaranteed irrespective of the relative directions of
shifting the frequency of the light. The components of scattered pump and signal photons.
light that are shifted to lower frequencies are called Stokes lines; 3) Raman scattering is a fast process (subpicosecond [18]).
those shifted to higher frequencies, anti-Stokes lines. The fre- Because SRS is nonresonant (i.e., the upper state is vir-
quency shift is equal to the oscillation frequency of the lattice tual), there are no long upper-state lifetimes to buffer
pump fluctuations as there are, for example, in EDFAs.
1Note this is distinct from inelastic scattering caused by acoustic phonons,
However, for reasons of efficiency, Raman amplifiers typ-
which is referred to as Brillouin scattering [13]. ically consist several kilometers of fiber. Then, a given
BROMAGE: RAMAN AMPLIFICATION FOR FIBER COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 81
depolarized, so that the gain is polarization independent. If a polarized pump and signal photons.
and signal copropagate with the same polarization state throughout the fiber 4Note that in the definition of optical gain, the output signal power does not
C is approximately a factor of two larger [19]. include spontaneous Raman scattering generated inside the amplifier.
82 JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
(5)
where is Planck’s constant, is Boltzmann’s constant, plified. This definition was adapted from the one first used to
is the temperature of the fiber in kelvins, and is the fre- characterize microwave amplifiers [44].5 It is defined as
quency separation between the pump and signal [14]. At 25 ,
at the Raman gain peak , and so it (8)
is a small correction factor. If precision is required, however, it
needs to be taken into account, particularly for broad-band am-
In the case of optical amplifiers it is assumed that the input
plifiers where can be small when short wavelength chan-
signal is as noise free as possible and, therefore, is only degraded
nels are close to long-wavelength pumps [39], [40]. Another
by shot noise resulting from the fundamental particle nature of
distinction between the mathematical description of ASE and
light. This assumption ensures that NF has the maximum sensi-
signals is the boundary conditions, which for ASE are typically
tivity to noise added by the amplifier. Furthermore, it is assumed
and . The general equations for ASE
that is measured using an ideal photodetector with a
generation with polychromatic pumping and WDM signals are
quantum efficiency of 100%.
given in the Appendix.
In the case where signal-spontaneous beat noise is the dom-
inant source of noise added by an optical amplifier, its NF can
B. Signal-Spontaneous Beat Noise be approximated in linear units as [43]
ASE generation is important because it leads to noise
[41]. The dominant type of noise occurs when signal light
interferes with copolarized ASE that is propagating in the same
direction, producing intensity fluctuations called “signal-spon- (9)
taneous beat noise.” When the signal power is detected by a
square-law detector as part of a direct-detection receiver, beat
The first term corresponds to noise from signal-spontaneous
noise frequencies within the detector’s electrical bandwidth
beating and the term accounts for shot noise. In gen-
cause current (or voltage) fluctuations. In a digital system,
eral, however, NF can also include contributions from other
these fluctuations may lead to errors because signal bits are
sources of noise such as spontaneous-spontaneous beating [41]
misinterpreted.
or multiple-path interference (see Section V). Therefore, when
Several quantities can be used to describe the noise proper-
designing amplifiers, one must typically consider tradeoffs be-
ties of Raman amplifiers. One is the optical signal-to-noise ratio
tween minimizing signal-spontaneous beating at the expense of
(OSNR). This is defined as the ratio of the optical signal power
increasing other sources of noise.
to the power of the ASE in a given reference bandwidth (often
If several amplifiers are cascaded together, the total noise
0.1 nm) around the signal wavelength. Usually, the ASE power
figure of the amplifier chain is given by [46]
in all polarizations is included, even though only ASE compo-
nents with the same polarization state as the signal produce beat
noise. Therefore, care needs to be taken when using such a def- (10)
inition if the ASE is partially polarized, as can occur if there
is polarization-dependent loss or gain [42]. The OSNR can be where and are the noise figure and net gain (in linear
measured using a number of techniques, such as ASE interpo- units) for the amplifier in the chain. This shows that the total
lation, polarization extinction, and time-domain extinction [43]. noise figure is dominated by the noise figure of the first am-
Each of these interpolates the amount of ASE actually causing plifier if its gain is sufficiently high. Hence, many
beat noise using ASE at different wavelengths or polarizations high performance optical (and electrical) amplifiers are multi-
from the signal, or using ASE produced at different times. stage amplifiers with a low-noise, high-gain first stage, called a
Another important quantity is the electrical signal-to-noise preamplifier stage.
ratio (SNR). This is the ratio of the signal electrical power to the
noise power, measured after photodetection. Because the elec- D. Noise Figure of Distributed Raman Amplifiers
trical signal power is proportional to the photocurrent squared, The concept of preamplification is crucial for understanding
the SNR is often defined as , where is the photocur- improvements in system performance gained from distributed
rent variance. In general, depends on the magnitude of the Raman amplification. As an example, consider a fiber span, 100
optical signal power; that is, on whether a 1 or 0 bit is being de- km in length, that produces 20 dB of signal loss. Without Raman
tected. Note that the SNR is sensitive not only to signal-sponta- pumping, a negligible amount of ASE is generated within the
neous beat noise, but to any noise mechanism that increases the fiber span, and so the OSNR is not degraded. Therefore, (9)
photocurrent variance. Some of these other noise mechanisms shows that the NF of the unpumped span equals the second
are discussed in Section V. Unlike the OSNR therefore, which term , which in dB equals the 20-dB span loss. If a
is only relevant for noise generated by ASE, the SNR encom- discrete amplifier follows the span, the total noise figure for the
passes all sources of intensity noise. span-plus-amplifier can be calculated using (10), where the first
‘amplifier’ in the chain is the passive span. Therefore, ,
C. Introduction to Noise Figure in linear units, is the span loss multiplied by the noise figure of
An optical amplifier’s noise figure (NF) quantifies how much 5There are many subtleties in defining a noise figure for optical amplifiers.
the amplifier degrades a signal’s SNR when the signal is am- See, for example, [45] and [46] for a more detailed discussion.
84 JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
Fig. 9. Actual and “effective” system for Raman counterpumping. Shows the
Fig. 7. Simulated signal power evolution for different values of on-off gain. fictitious preamplifier with gainG and noise figure NF that follows
the unpumped span with loss L.
(11)
where is the passive span loss and all quantities are in linear
Fig. 8. Simulated values for NF versus on-off Raman gain. The solid units. Therefore, in dB, the noise figure required by the effective
line shows the noise figure of a counterpumped fiber span plus discrete
amplifier with a 5-dB noise figure. Dashed lines shows the noise figure of amplifier is
the Raman-pumped fiber span alone. Dotted line indicates the loss of the
unpumped span. (12)
Fig. 11. MPI-OSNR versus on-off Raman gain for simple counterpumped
amplifier consisting of 100-km of NZDF. Measurements and simulations are Q
Fig. 12. Contour plot showing the measured -factors for 10-Gb/s NRZ data
shown for DRB only, or with a reflector added at the pump end of the span [63]. as a function of ASE and MPI OSNRs. Reference [65].
MPI light that is copolarized with the signal . For ex- ysis should include the spectral differences between MPI, which
ample, in the case of DRB-induced MPI, moderate birefrin- typically has the same spectrum as the signal, and ASE, which
gence of the fiber causes the DRB-light to be depolarized, and is typically much broader. As a consequence, the relative im-
so [62]. To account for this, is pact of beat noise from the signal beating with either ASE or
used here to describe the ratio of to . MPI light depends on the details of any optical and electrical fil-
Fig. 11 shows values for a simple distributed tering inside the receiver. If it is assumed that the signal spectra
Raman amplifier [63]. In this case, 100 km of NZDF and all filters are Gaussian, an analytic term can be added to
was counter pumped at 1450 nm, and (9) to include the contribution from DRB-induced MPI [68]. If
at 1550 nm was measured using a self-homodyne the bandwidth of the optical filter is much larger than either the
measurement technique [40], [43]. The markers show the signal bandwidth or electrical filter bandwidth , this
measurement results and the dashed lines show simulation term simplifies to give
predictions based on (13)–(15). With no Raman pumping, the
background level from DRB throughout the fiber span was 54
dB. As the gain was increased, additional DRB was generated (16)
and amplified in the high-gain section of the span. This de-
graded to approximately 36 dB for 25 dB of gain.
This result has been used to calculate the optimum amounts
Also shown in Fig. 11 is the deterioration that occurred when
of co- and counterpumping for distributed Raman amplifiers
an additional discrete reflector was placed at the pump input to
[52]. Here, as a lowest order approximation, signal distortions
the span. This sent a small fraction of the signal power (1.4%)
from Kerr nonlinearities were assumed equal given the same
back into the span, and so now only a single Rayleigh scattering
path-averaged signal power.9 These results show that the op-
event was required to produce additional MPI power. At on-off
timum amount of Raman gain is lower if DRB-induced MPI is
gains exceeding 15 dB, this reflector reduced by as
included. Furthermore, a larger fraction of the gain should come
much as 20 dB.
from copumping.
If MPI is too large, system performance is degraded, leading
The reason why copumping is beneficial can be understood
to an increase in bit-error ratio (BER) or, equivalently, a
by considering how the DRB light is generated. Moving gain to
decrease in -factor [64]. One way to quantify the impact of
the front of the span ensures that any DRB light that is amplified
MPI is to evaluate how much ASE-OSNR improvement is
by the full Raman gain at both ends must have also double-
needed to counteract a decrease in and maintain
passed the net loss of fiber in the center. Therefore, less DRB
the same -factor. Fig. 12 shows such measurements in the
light is produced for the same total amount of gain if copumping
form of contours of constant -factor for nonreturn-to-zero
is used [69].
(NRZ) data at 10 Gb/s [65]. The axes show the received
and , which could be varied indepen- B. Pump-Pump Four-Wave Mixing
dently. At (corresponding to a BER of ),
values larger than 30 dB had little impact. However, Another potential source of noise is four-wave mixing
if was reduced to 24.5 dB, an increase in (FWM) between the Raman pumps within an amplifier [70].
of 1 dB was required to maintain the same -factor. This value FWM is an interaction among four photons through the
of for such a 1-dB penalty is representative, but nonlinear response of bound electrons [13]. Photons at one or
the exact value depends on the modulation format [66] and the more frequencies are annihilated ( , ) and new photons at
source of MPI [67]. different frequencies are created ( , ). Energy conservation
Another way to characterize DRB-induced MPI in a Raman 9The validity of this approximation depends on the fiber dispersion and dis-
amplifier is in terms of the amplifier’s noise figure. Such anal- persion maps, and is affected by the type of nonlinearity limiting transmission.
BROMAGE: RAMAN AMPLIFICATION FOR FIBER COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 87
Fig. 13. Output spectrum from a distributed Raman amplifier for the C and
L bands, showing pump-pump FWM. (The signals are turned off.) The fiber’s
zero dispersion wavelength ( ) was located close to the 1495-nm pump. Fig. 14. Example of pump-signal FWM in two amplifiers made from different
NZDFs, each providing 3-dB of peak cogain. The output spectra are shown with
either the signal on (solid) or off (dotted). FWM is produced close to the signal
restricts the frequencies at which photons may be created such when lies midway between the signal and a copropagating multimode pump
that . Momentum conservation determines [76].
the efficiency of this creation process. This process is most
efficient, or “phase matched,” when the propagation constants ferent pump wavelength and a new FWM photon elsewhere in
of the four waves (including nonlinear phase terms) obey the signal band.
. Therefore, the efficiency of FWM depends An example is shown in Fig. 14. Two amplifiers, each made
on the dispersion properties of the fiber [71]. from an NZDF with different dispersion properties, were cop-
Broad-band Raman amplifiers are pumped using a range of umped by a multilongitudinal-mode laser with a center wave-
wavelengths (see Fig. 6). Problems arise when FWM between length at 1450 nm to produce 3-dB of on-off gain at 1550 nm.
these pumps creates light at new frequencies within the signal Output spectra are shown for each fiber, taken with the signal
band. This new light can interfere with the signal channels, pro- either on (solid line) or off (dotted).
ducing beat noise. An example of this is shown in Fig. 13. Here a In Fig. 14(a), the fiber’s was 1400 nm. Therefore, poor
distributed amplifier covering the C- and L-bands was counter- phase matching ensured that no FWM was produced when
pumped using four wavelengths to give 20-dB of on-off gain. the signal was turned on. In Fig. 14(b), however, the was
The figure shows an output spectrum when the signals were 1500 nm, midway between the pump and signal. Here, efficient
turned off. pump-signal FWM occurred with both the pump and signal
The peaks below 1500 nm are pump light that was Rayleigh present, producing additional light at wavelengths close to the
backscattered. The longest wavelength pump (1495 nm) was signal. This FWM light had a spectrum that closely resembles
close to the wavelength at which the fiber had zero dispersion the mode structure of the pump.
. This allowed efficient FWM to occur be- Increasing the pump increased the amount of FWM with a
tween two photons from the 1495-nm pump and one photon scaling equal to the pump power, , raised to the power of
from any of the other pumps, creating three FWM peaks in 4.3. This is a stronger pump dependence than the -scaling
the signal band. (As two photons from the same wave are an- that is predicted by a FWM analysis ignoring Raman gain. Such
nihilated , this is called degenerate FWM.) Even Raman-enhanced pump-signal FWM can severely degrade the
though this light was generated in the same direction as the OSNRs of WDM channels for certain fiber dispersion condi-
pump light ( direction), the process was efficient enough that tions if the copump and signal wavelengths are not carefully
the Rayleigh backscattered FWM light can be seen above the chosen [76].
Raman ASE noise floor. Therefore, the OSNR of any channels
in these three regions is significantly degraded. D. Polarization-Dependent Gain
To overcome this limitation, the fiber dispersion properties
must be taken into account when choosing the signal band and The Raman gain spectrum of silica depends on the relative
pump wavelengths. This process primarily occurs in broad-band orientation of the pump and signal polarization states. Fig. 15
amplifiers made from NZDF with a located between the shows two normalized Raman gain spectra for bulk silica, mea-
pump and signal bands [70], [72], [73]. sured when the pump and signal light were either copolarized
or orthogonally polarized. The peak gain when they are copo-
larized is approximately an order of magnitude larger than when
C. Pump-Signal FWM they are orthogonal. Note that this applies not only for linearly
Efficient FWM can also occur between pump and signal light polarized light, but also in general for elliptical states of polar-
if they copropagate in a fiber with a located between the ization.
pump and signal bands [74]–[76]. Therefore, such pump-signal Polarization-dependent gain (PDG) in fiber Raman amplifiers
FWM can be an issue when copumping is used. Here, a signal can lead to transmission impairments. For example, PDG pro-
and pump photon are annihilated, producing a photon at a dif- duces random amplitude fluctuations if the relative polarizations
88 JOURNAL OF LIGHTWAVE TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 22, NO. 1, JANUARY 2004
Fig. 15. Raman gain spectra for bulk silica, measured for cases where the Fig. 16. RIN transfer functions, calculated for 5-km DCF (solid) and 100-km
pump and signal was either copolarized or orthogonally polarized. Spectra are NZDF (dashed) amplifiers. Both co- and counterpumped architectures are
normalized to the peak of the copolarized spectrum [77]. shown, with 10-dB on-off gain in all cases. Curves were calculated using the
results presented in [84].
(18)
APPENDIX ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The following ordinary differential equations can be used The author would like to acknowledge his many friends and
to model broad-band Raman fiber amplifiers using the various colleagues at OFS, Lucent Technologies, and Furukawa Electric
quantities described earlier [8], [38]. They are appropriate for Co. for their collaborations in the design and characterization of
polychromatic pump spectra and WDM signals. The average optical fibers, amplifiers, and systems. Specifically, he would
optical power of a pump or signal component at wavelength , like to thank J.-C. Bouteiller, M. Du, R.-J. Essiambre, C.-H.
traveling in the positive (negative) -direction is , and Kim, L. E. Nelson, J. W. Nicholson, K. Rottwitt, A. J. Stentz,
obeys H. J. Thiele, and P. J. Winzer.
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in co-propagating Raman pump lasers,” in Proc. Optical Amplifiers and Jake Bromage (M’01) was born in London, U.K., in 1967. He received the
Their Applications, 2002. B.Sc. degree (1st class honors) in physics from the University of St. Andrews,
[87] W. Jiang and P. Ye, “Crosstalk in fiber Raman amplification for WDM Scotland, in 1991, and the Ph.D. degree in optics from the University of
systems,” IEEE J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 7, pp. 1407–1411, 1989. Rochester, NY, in 1999. His thesis “Creating Rydberg electron wavepackets
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talk in raman amplifiers,” in Proc. Optical Fiber Communications Conf., optics.
1994. After graduation he joined Bell Laboratories as a Member of Technical Staff.
[89] M. Du, T. N. Nielsen, K. Rottwitt, and A. J. Stentz, “WDM Optical Currently, he is with the System Testing Group, OFS Labs (formally OFS, Lu-
Communication System Using Co-Propagating Raman Amplification,”, cent Technologies), Holmdel, NJ. His work includes various aspects of Raman-
Tech. Rep. 6 417 958, 2002. amplified system design and characterization. He has authored and coauthored
[90] S. Kado, Y. Emori, S. Namiki, N. Tsukiji, J. Yoshida, and T. Kimura, more than 30 papers in this field, including a textbook chapter and two tutorials.
“Broadband flat-noise Raman amplifier using low-noise bi-direction- Currently, he is also a short–course instructor with the Optical Fiber Communi-
ally pumping sources,” in Proc. Europ. Conf. Optical Communications, cations Conference.
2001. Dr. Bromage is a Member of the Optical Society of America (OSA).