NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ROURKELA

Department of Metallurgical and Materials engineering

National Institute of Technology Rourkela

“Superalloys”

Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Seminar Technical Writing-II
MM494
By

Niharika Dalbehera

116MM0521

Contact number - 7978804379

Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, 4th Year B.Tech

Under the supervision of
Dr B.C. Ray

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 Contents

 Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3
 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4-5
 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………………………..5-6
 Classification of superalloys……………………………………………………………………………6-8
 Heat treatment……………………………………………………………………………………………...8-9
 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………9-10
 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………10
 References………………………………………………………………………………………………………10-11

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Abstract

The demand for superalloys is increasing at a very fast pace and its technology has enabled
mankind to take a leap of faith in transportation as well as power systems. Superalloys have a
significant role in the high-temperature applications as it possesses excellent mechanical
properties as well as corrosion/oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures. The following
report discusses on superalloys and their classification based on the significant alloying
additions. After the introduction of the characteristic features of each superalloy, i.e. Iron-
base superalloy, Cobalt-base superalloy, Nickel-base superalloy as well as Nickel and Nickel-
Iron base superalloy, a detailed explanation on the strengthening mechanisms involved are
also done. Physical metallurgy aspect of the superalloys is also done elaborately. Moreover,
heat treatment techniques to enhance the product quality as well as the various applications of
superalloys are discussed in details. The effect of some minor alloying additions on the
behaviour of these superalloys is also highlighted. However, the major drawback of the
superalloys is its high cost and thus, researches are being done to decrease the cost of
superalloy production. Researches are also quite active in improving the oxidation and
corrosion resistance whilst maintaining the strength of the superalloys.

Keywords: Superalloys, heat treatment, corrosion/oxidation resistance

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1. Introduction:
Superalloys also known as high-performance alloys represent the class of alloys based on
Group VIII-A elements (ex: Fe, Co and Ni) that are mainly developed for high temperature
(>550°C) applications as the material experiences great mechanical stress and necessitates
surface stability. In other words, it is a metallic alloy that can be utilized at high temperatures,
often at around 0.7 Tm (where Tm is the melting point of the metal). The term “Superalloy”
was first used just after World War II to describe a group of alloys which are used for the
development of turbosuperchargers and turbine engines of aircraft which requires high
performance (mechanical strength and creep resistance) at elevated temperatures. Concisely,
they (superalloys) exhibit high resistance to oxidation, erosion and corrosion as well as
resistance to microstructural degradation. They also possess good mechanical strength and
creep resistance at high temperatures. Thus, superalloys have helped mankind in conquering
the space, plunge into deep oceans and deal with a multitude of challenges in modern era [1-
4].

Fig.1. Ni-base superalloys are used for the fabrication of turbine blades in jet engines

Solid solution strengthening can be achieved by adding Cr, Mo, W and Ta in lower amounts.
Whilst, the addition of Ti, Nb and Al (which as γ’ and/or γ’’ formers) leads to precipitation
strengthening. Elements like C, Zr and B addition in small quantities promotes grain
boundary strengthening for attaining better properties at elevated temperatures. Hf is added
to improve castability characteristics [1, 5-6]. The stress-strain curve of Inconel 718
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superalloy at 900°C in Fig.2. illustrates that the material/alloy does not undergo fracture even
at elevated temperature and high mechanical stress [7].

Fig.2. True stress-strain curve of Inconel 718 superalloy at 900°C. Tang, B., Xiang, L.,
Cheng, L., Liu, D., Kou, H. and Li, J., 2018. The formation and evolution of shear bands in
plane strain compressed nickel-base superalloy. Metals, 8(2), p.141.

2. Literature review
The deep roots of the superalloys go back as early as 1907, yet the term “superalloy” was first
used in the mid-1940s to denote the cobalt-base alloys. The four technologies, alloy
composition, vacuum melting, forging and gas turbines for power as well as the aerospace
industry has driven the development of superalloys. Mainly, the gas turbines used in aircraft
have led to the metallurgical development of superalloys [1].

During the past 50 years, a lot of development has occurred in this field based on hot working
and various heat treatment and processes. Currently, Rolls-Royce Materials UTC has been
carrying out extensive research on the properties of Ni-base superalloys to achieve the best
performance [8-10]. Moreover, works have been done on the hydrogen permeation as well as
diffusion in three kinds on Fe-base superalloys with different heat treatments over a
temperature range of 210-430°C. The results showed that the hydrogen permeation, as well as
diffusion over a temperature range, obeyed Arrhenius relationship whilst heat treatment did
not affect it [11]. Researches have also been done on the usage of Co-based superalloys for
the manufacturing of combustion chambers in gas turbines [9].

The futuristic approach of producing superalloys include the usage of radiation to breakdown
the molecular structure of substances and to form nanoparticles out of it. This approach is

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much more versatile and flexible for the manufacturing of large quantities of superalloy
nanoparticles [12].

3. Classification of Superalloys

The characteristics of these superalloys mainly depend on the service conditions, the
combination of alloying, manufacturing process and type of heat treatment given to meet the
design requirement. So, superalloys are broadly divided into four classes, namely:

 Iron-base superalloys
 Cobalt base superalloys
 Nickel base superalloys
 Nickel-Iron base superalloys [1].

Iron-base superalloys

The Iron base superalloys have a low high-temperature strength at temperatures above 650°C.
In the early stages, these superalloys were strengthened by solid solution strengthening
mechanism but in the later stages, Ni, Cr, and small amounts of Al, as well as Ti (1-3%), are
added to attain increased high-temperature strength as Ni 3(Al, Ti) phases precipitate. When
the alloy is exposed to high temperature, the second phase particles (γ’) coalesce to form
large particles, thus becoming less widely distributed causing a resultant loss in strength.
Hence, this class of alloys were replaced by other advanced class superalloys such as Ni-base
superalloys [1].

Cobalt-base superalloys

These superalloys achieve their strength through two constituents – first, the solution
strengtheners and secondly, the precipitation of carbide phases. The alloying additions are
namely, Ni, W, Cr; which are added in significant amounts while Mo, Fe, Ni, Ti, Ta and La
are added in small amounts occasionally. Usually, it contains 0.4-0.85% C, to produce
carbide phases which will get precipitated. So, they contain a higher content of carbon as
compared to Ni-base and Ni-Fe-base superalloys. NASA has reported the presence of high W
content in Co-base alloys, which lead to the formation of Co3W as hardening phase.

Cast (X-40) and wrought (Haynes-25) structures are the basic distinction of such kind of
superalloys. Furthermore, Co-base solid solution alloys can be classified as:

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  Alloys that can be used at a temperature range of 650-1150°C. Ex- Haynes-25,
Haynes-188, UMCo-50, S-816
 Fastener alloys that can be used up to a temperature range of 650°C. Ex – MP-35N,
MP-159.
 Wear-resistant alloys. Ex- Stellite B.

All these alloys (mentioned above), in the softened and heat-treated condition, possess FCC
crystal structure except MP-35N, MP-159, which has HCP crystal structure during their
thermomechanical processing. These superalloys are not complete solid-solution alloy as
they consist of intermetallic compounds and secondary carbide phases. Moreover, ageing
leads to secondary phase precipitation, thus, resulting in the loss (some) of ductility at room
temperature. They are not truly stable at heat-treated condition [1].

Nickel base superalloys

Nickel-base superalloys are the most complex alloys which necessitate sophisticated
manufacturing facility. They are highly efficient for high-temperature applications and
currently, this alloy constitutes over half of the weight of the advanced aerospace engines. To
achieve strength, these superalloys possess γ’ formers, solid solution strengtheners and grain
boundary strengtheners in the polycrystalline alloy system.

Cr (up to 30%), Mo, Ti, Al and Nb are the main alloying elements which impart solid
solution strength to the alloys. Cr has dual advantages, it increases the corrosion resistance as
well as helps in the formation of chromium carbides. The annealing treatment is also done,
depending upon the application and design requirement. To achieve high tensile and fatigue
strength, low annealing temperature (i.e. 870-980°C) is feasible. Whilst, high annealing
temperature (i.e. 1120-1200°C) is required to achieve optimum fatigue resistance and creep
properties at temperatures above 600°C.

Precipitation strengthening can be achieved principally by intermetallic compounds such as

γ’ (Ni3 (Ti, Al)) and γ’’ (Ni3Nb). The crystal structure of the latter is BCT while for the
former it is FCC. Alloying additions like Al, Nb, Ti in different combinations and
compositions, results in the precipitation of the second phases (γ’ and/or γ’’). When these
phases are allowed to precipitate uniformly by solution and precipitation heat treatment, it
significantly enhances the mechanical properties of the alloy over a range of temperatures.

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Also, carbides and borides render little strengthening at low temperatures as they are present
in very low volume fraction [1, 13].

Nickel and Nickel-Iron base superalloys

These superalloys are mostly strengthened by solution strengthening mechanism. Instances

are Nimonic 75 and AE 435. Thus, these alloys have to undergo various heat treatment steps
to attain the best combination of solid solution strengthening with precipitation strengthening
and desired morphology of the carbides. The important steps of heat treatment are given in
the following section [1].

4. Heat treatment:

The heat treatment controls the elevated temperature strength, size, shape and distribution of
microstructural phases of the superalloys. A heat treatment cycle employs more than one
strengthening mechanism.

 Solid solution strengthening mechanism – the alloying elements dissolve in the

metal matrix in its solid-state and renders a stiffening effect. It is quite common for
all the classes of superalloys.
 Precipitation strengthening mechanism – the coherent and stable intermetallic
compounds such as γ’ (Ni3 (Al, Ti)) and γ’’ (Ni3 (Cb, Al, Ti)) precipitate out, thus
providing the strength to the superalloy. It is quite common in Ni-base and Fe-base
superalloys in addition to solid solution strengthening. The precipitation of cubic,
non-coherent carbides leads to the strengthening of the Co-base superalloys with
solid solution strengthening.

The steps of heat treatment are:

 Stress relieving and annealing – Such kind of process is generally utilized for
wrought solid solution strengthened type alloy as their castings rarely get annealed.
Moreover, wrought Ni alloys which are precipitation strengthened are sensitive to
crack, hence, it requires annealing while its fabrication to get it relieved from forming
and welding stresses. Usually, the annealing is held for 1-2 hours at a temperature
range of 955-1080°C; but it can vary from sample to sample depending upon the alloy
composition.

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  Solution heat treatment – The main objective of this heat treatment technique is to
dissolve the γ’ and γ’’ precipitates as well as carbides so that they can be precipitated
again in the desired size, shape and distribution. To obtain optimum creep properties,
high-temperature solution treatment (up to 1175°C) is advisable while to achieve
good tensile properties as high temperature for short time, low-temperature solution
treatment (below 1080°C) is better. The former case may lead to some deleterious
effects such as grain growth and excess presence of carbides in wrought alloys.
Typical temperature range for solution heat treatment varies from 1040-1230°C.
 Ageing – a series of ageing treatment is done for the precipitation hardening of γ’ and
γ’’ phases. This results in the desired distribution of precipitates or the carbide phases.
For Ni-base alloys, the aging temperature is usually high, i.e., 760-925°C and ageing
is usually done for 8-24 hours duration. This is in contrast to the Ni-Fe alloys which
are usually aged between a temperature ranges of 650-775°C.
 Step age – Step age includes a controlled cooling cycle between two isothermal holds
to produce an optimum γ’’ phase size with the desired distribution. It also produces
desirable grain boundary carbides to inhibit grain boundary sliding and to prevent the
formation of embrittled carbide films [1].
5. Applications:

The superalloys are broadly used in extreme conditions where high corrosion and heat
resistance is of paramount importance. Thus, aerospace, chemical and petrochemical
processing plants, oil and gas industry, as well as power industries, has mainly driven the
development of superalloys [1].

 Aerospace industry – Superalloys are used in the fabrication of turbine blade and jet
or rocket engines. Solid solution Ni alloys like Nimonic 75 and Inco 601,617 & 625 is
used for manufacturing turbine shroud rings, combustion can liners, fuel and
hydraulic lines, diffuser assemblies, aircraft ducting systems, thrust reversers, heat
shields, and exhaust systems.
 Marine industry – used in the manufacturing of submarines.
 Chemical processing industry and Petrochemical equipment
 Heat exchanger tubing [1].
 Industrial and vehicular gas turbines – Ni-base alloys are generally used for advanced
gas turbine applications [1, 8]. Inconel 718 which is a precipitation-hardened Ni-base

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 superalloy is used to manufacture land-based gas turbines as it possesses excellent
high-temperature mechanical properties and good corrosion/oxidation resistance [7].
Co-base superalloys are also used in the manufacturing of combustion chambers in
gas turbines [9].
 Nuclear reactors
 Steam power plants [1].

Fig.3. Application of superalloys in turbines

6. Conclusion
The account of superalloys, their development, their types, strengthening mechanisms
involved, heat treatment techniques and applications has been concisely encompassed in this
technical report. The technology of superalloys has enabled mankind to take a leap of faith on
transportation and power systems, thus, enabling to improve the quality of lifestyle. It is a
catalyst that has transformed the world and has opened a vast possibility for futuristic
research. The innovation created the industry of superalloys and only this innovation will
keep it vital as well relevant in the present and future.

References
[1] Kracke, A. and Allvac, A., 2010, October. Superalloys, the most successful alloy system
of modern times-past, present and future. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium
on Superalloy (Vol. 718).

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[2] Donachie, M.J. and Donachie, S.J., 2002. Superalloys: a technical guide. ASM
international.

[3] Gessinger, G.H. and Bomford, M.J., 1974. Powder metallurgy of

superalloys. International Metallurgical Reviews, 19(1), pp.51-76.

[4] Sims, C.T., 1984. A history of superalloy metallurgy for superalloy

metallurgists. Superalloys, 1984, pp.399-419.

[5] Ishikawa, T., 2012. Understanding and controlling microstructural evolution in metal
forming: an overview. In Microstructure Evolution in Metal Forming Processes (pp. 3-16).
Woodhead Publishing.

[6] Mitchell, T.E., 2001. Yielding in Crystals Containing Atomic-size Obstacles.

[7] Tang, B., Xiang, L., Cheng, L., Liu, D., Kou, H. and Li, J., 2018. The formation and
evolution of shear bands in plane strain compressed nickel-base superalloy. Metals, 8(2),
p.141.

[8] Pollock, T.M. and Tin, S., 2006. Nickel-based superalloys for advanced turbine engines:
chemistry, microstructure and properties. Journal of propulsion and power, 22(2), pp.361-
374.

[9] Coutsouradis, D., Davin, A. and Lamberigts, M., 1987. Cobalt-based superalloys for
applications in gas turbines. Materials Science and Engineering, 88, pp.11-19.

[10] cam.ac.uk/research/news/super-superalloys-hotter-stronger-for-even-longer

[11] Xu, J., Sun, X.K., Chen, W.X. and Li, Y.Y., 1993. Hydrogen permeation and diffusion
in iron-base superalloys. Acta metallurgica et materialia, 41(5), pp.1455-1459.

[12] phys.org/news/2007-06-nanoparticles-future-superalloy-metals.html

[13] Choudhury, I.A. and El-Baradie, M.A., 1998. Machinability of nickel-base super alloys:
a general review. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 77(1-3), pp.278-284.

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