Nakshatra

1. In Vedic astrology, meaning "five attributes" of the day.
They are:
o Tithi - Ending Moment (EM) of elongation of the Moon, the lunar day, the
angular relationship between Sun and Moon ( Apparent Moon minus Apparent Sun). One
Tithi equals 12 degree difference between Moon and Sun.
o Nakshatram - EM of astarism of the day, that is, the stellar mansion in which
Moon is located for an observer at the center of the Earth. One Nakshatra equals 13
degrees:20 minutes. There are 27 Nakshatra in 360 degrees.
o Yoga - EM of the angular relationship between Sun and Moon( Apparent Moon
plus Apparent Sun). One Yoga equals 13 degrees:20 minutes. There are 27 Yogas in
360 degrees.
o Karana - EM of half of a Tithi. One Karaṇa equals 6 degree difference between
Moon and Sun.
o Var weekday the seven weekdays.
Monier-Williams gives "solar day" instead of Rāśi as the fifth limb. Some people
enumerate Vār (days of the week) instead. Vār or solar days do not involve
intricate computations, unlike EM of Rāśi; however, in the Hindu system the five
elements only constitute the five limbs of the Panchāngam.
There are two kinds of lunar months followed in India - the new moon ending called
the Amanta or Sukladi system and the full moon ending (covering one full moon to
the next) called the Purnimanta system. But it is the lunar months full moon
reckoned), which are reckoned in predictive astrology, and each represents the name
of the star on full moon day of the solar months. The twelve lunar months starting
from Chaitra along with the names of the solar months are given below.
#NamePada 1Pada 2Pada 3Pada 4Vimsottari LordRuling Deity1Aśvini (अश्विनी)चु Chu चे Che चो
Cho ला LaKetuAswini Kumara2Bharaṇī (भरणी)ली Li लू Lu ले Le लो LoVenusYama3Kṛttikā (कृ त्तिका)अ A ई
I उ U ए ESunAgni4Rohiṇī (रोहिणी)ओ O वा Va/Ba वी Vi/Bi वु Vu/BuMoonBrahma5Mṛgaśīrṣā (मृगशीर्षा)वे
Ve/Be वो Vo/Bo का Ka की KeMarsMoon6Ārdrā (आर्द्रा)कु Ku घ Gha ङ Ng/Na छ ChhaRahuShiva7Punarvasu
(पुनर्वसु)के Ke को Ko हा Ha ही HiJupiterAditi8Puṣya (पुष्य)हु Hu हे He हो Ho ड
DaSaturnBrihaspati9Āśleṣā (आश्लेषा)डी Di डू Du डे De डो DoMercuryRahu10Maghā (मघा)मा Ma मी Mi मू
Mu मे MeKetuPitr11Pūrva or Pūrva Phālgunī (पूर्व फाल्गुनी)नो Mo टा Ta टी Ti टू TuVenusBhaga12Uttara
or Uttara Phālgunī (उत्तर फाल्गुनी)टे Te टो To पा Pa पी PiSunSun13Hasta (हस्त)पू Pu ष Sha ण Na ठ
ThaMoonSavitr14Chitrā (चित्रा)पे Pe पो Po रा Ra री RiMarsVishwakarma15Svāti (स्वाति)रू Ru रे Re रो
Ro ता TaRahuVaayu16Vishākhā (विशाखा)ती Ti तू Tu ते Te तो ToJupiterIndra Agni17Anurādhā
(अनुराधा)ना Na नी Ni नू Nu ने NeSaturnMitra18Jyeṣṭhā (ज्येष्ठा)नो No या Ya यी Yi यू YuMercuryIndra19Mūla
(मूल)ये Ye यो Yo भा Bha भी BhiKetuVaruna, Nirriti20Pūrva Aṣāḍhā (पूर्वाषाढ़ा)भू Bhu धा Dha फा
Bha/Pha ढा DhaVenusApah21Uttara Aṣāḍhā (उत्तराषाढ़ा)भे Bhe भो Bho जा Ja जी JiSunBrahma22Śrāvaṇa
(श्रवण)खी Ju/Khi खू Je/Khu खे Jo/Khe खो Gha/KhoMoonVishnu23Śrāviṣṭhā (श्रविष्ठा) or Dhaniṣṭhā
(धनिष्ठा)गा Ga गी Gi गु Gu गे GeMarsVasu24Śatabhiṣā (शतभिषा)गो Go सा Sa सी Si सू SuRahuVaruna25Pūrva
Bhādrapadā (पूर्वभाद्रपदा)से Se सो So दा Da दी DiJupiterAja Ek Pada26Uttara Bhādrapadā (उत्तरभाद्रपदा)दू
Du थ Tha झ Jha ञ Da/TraSaturnAhirbudhnya27Revati (रेवती)दे De दो Do च Cha ची
ChiMercuryPooshan
No Natchathara Name Natchathara Temple Name

1 Ashwini
Tiruthuraipoondi Piravi Maundeeswarar temple
2 Bharani
Nalladai Agneeswarar temple
3 Karthigai
Kanjanagaram Kathra Sundareswarar temple
4 Rohini
Kancheepuram Sri Pandava Dhoodha Perumal temple
5 Mirugasesam
Enkan Aadhinarayanaperumal temple
6 Thiruvathirai
Athirampattinam Sri Abhaya Varadeeswarar Temple
7 Bunarpoosam
Vaniambadi Athitheeswarar temple
8 Poosam
Vilankulam Akshayapureeswarar temple
9 Ayilyam
Tirundhuthevankudi Karkadeswarar temple
10 Maham
Medai Mahalingeswarar temple
11 Pooram
Tiruvarankulam Hari Theertheswarar temple
12 Uthiram
Idayattru Mangalam Mangalyeswarar temple
13 Astham
komal Kirubakubareshwarar temple
14 Chithirai
Kuruvithurai Chitraradha Vallaba Perumal temple
15 Swathi
Chithukadu Thatheeswarar temple
16 Visakam
Panmozhi Muthukumaraswami temple
17 Anusam
Tirunindriyur Mahalakshmiswarar temple
18 Ketai
Pasupathikovil Varadarajaperumal temple
19 Moolam
Mappedu Singeeswarar temple,
20 Pooradam
Kaduveli Akashapureeswarar temple
21 Uthiradam
Keezha Poongudi Brahmmapureeswarar temple
22 Thiruvonam
Tiruparkadal Prasanna Venkateswara Perumal temple
23 Avitam
Keezha Korukkai Brahammagnana Pureeswarar temple
24 Sathayam
Tirupugalur Agnipureeswarar temple
25 Pooradathi
Ranganathapuram Tiruvaneshwar temple
26 Uthiradathi
Theeyatur Sahasra Lakshmeeswarar temple
27 Revathi
Karukudi Kailasanathar temple
No.NameAssociated starsDescriptionImage1Aśvini
β and γ Arietis
• Astrological Mate: Ketu (South lunar node)
• Symbol: Horse's head
• Rigvedic name: Ashvins, the horse-headed twins who are physicians to the gods
• Indian zodiac: 0° – 13°20′ Mesha
• Western zodiac: 26° Aries – 9°20′ Taurus
2Bharani
"the bearer"35, 39, and 41 Arietis
• Astrological Mate: Shukra (Venus)
• Symbol: Yoni, the female organ of reproduction
• Rigvedic name: Yama, god of death or Dharma
• Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26°40′ Mesha
• Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22° 40′ Taurus
3Kṛttikā
an old name of the Pleiades; personified as the nurses of Kārttikeya, a son of
Shiva.Pleiades
• Astrological Mate: Surya (Sun)
• Symbol: Knife or spear
• Rigvedic name: Agni, god of fire
• Indian zodiac: 26°40′ Mesha – 10° Vrishabha
• Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Taurus – 6° Gemini
4Rohiṇi
"the red one", a name of Aldebaran. Also known as brāhmīAldebaran
• Astrological Mate: Chandra (Moon)
• Symbol: Cart or chariot, temple, banyan tree
• Rigvedic name: Prajapati, the Creator
• Indian zodiac: 10° – 23°20′ Vrishabha
• Western zodiac: 6° – 19°20′ Gemini
5Mṛgaśīrā
"the deer's head". Also known as āgrahāyaṇīλ, φ Orionis
• Astrological Mate: Mangala (Mars)
• Symbol: Deer's head
• Rigvedic name: Soma, Chandra, the Moon god
• Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Vrishabha – 6° 40′ Mithuna
• Western zodiac: 19° 20′ Gemini – 2° 40′ Cancer
6Ārdrā
"the moist one"Betelgeuse
• Astrological Mate: Rahu (North lunar node)
• Symbol: Teardrop, diamond, a human head
• Rigvedic name: Rudra, the storm god
• Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Mithuna
• Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Cancer
7Punarvasu (dual)
"the two restorers of goods", also known as yamakau "the two chariots"Castor and
Pollux
• Astrological Mate: Guru (Jupiter)
• Symbol : Bow and quiver
• Rigvedic name: Aditi, mother of the gods
• Indian zodiac: 20° Mithuna – 3°20′ Karka
• Western zodiac: 16° – 29°20′ Cancer
8Puṣya/Tishya
"the nourisher", also known as sidhya or tiṣyaγ, δ and θ Cancri
• Astrological Mate: Shani (Saturn)
• Symbol: Cow's udder, lotus, arrow and circle
• Rigvedic name: Bṛhaspati, priest of the gods
• Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Karka
• Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Cancer – 12° 40′ Leo
9Āśleṣā
"the embrace"δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydrae
• Astrological Mate: Budha (Mercury)
• Symbol: Serpent
• Rigvedic name: Sarpas or Nagas, deified snakes
• Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Karka
• Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Leo
10Maghā
"the bountiful"Regulus
• Symbol: Royal Throne
• Rigvedic name: Pitrs, 'The Fathers', family ancestors
• Indian zodiac: 0° – 13° 20′ Simha
• Western zodiac: 26° Leo – 9° 20′ Virgo
11Pūrva Phalgunī
"first reddish one"δ and θ Leonis
• Symbol: Front legs of bed, hammock, fig tree
• Rigvedic name: Aryaman, god of marital bliss and prosperity
• Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26°40′ Simha
• Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22°40′ Virgo
12Uttara Phalgunī
"second reddish one"Denebola
• Symbol: Four legs of bed, hammock
• Rigvedic name: Bhaga, god of patronage and favours
• Indian zodiac: 26° 40′ Simha- 10° Kanya
• Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Virgo – 6° Libra
13Hasta
"the hand"α, β, γ, δ and ε Corvi
• Symbol: Hand or fist
• Rigvedic name: Savitr, the Sun god
• Indian zodiac: 10° – 23° 20′ Kanya
• Western zodiac: 6° – 19° 20′ Libra
14Chitrā
"the bright one", a name of SpicaSpica
• Symbol: Bright jewel or pearl
• Rigvedic name: Tvastar, Vishwakarma
• Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Kanya – 6° 40′ Tula
• Western zodiac: 19° 20′ Libra – 2° 40′ Scorpio
15Svātī
"Su-Ati (Sanskrit) Very good" name of ArcturusArcturus
• Symbol: Shoot of plant, coral
• Rigvedic name: Vayu, the Wind god
• Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Tula
• Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Scorpio
16Viśākhā
"forked, having branches"; also known as rādhā "the gift"α, β, γ and ι Librae
• Symbol: Triumphal arch, potter's wheel
• Rigvedic name: Indra, chief of the gods; Agni, god of Fire
• Indian zodiac: 20° Tula – 3° 20′ Vrishchika
• Western zodiac: 16° – 29° 20′ Scorpio
17Anurādhā
"following rādhā"β, δ and π Scorpionis
• Symbol: Triumphal archway, lotus, bamboo
• Rigvedic name: Mitra, one of Adityas of friendship and partnership
• Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Vrishchika
• Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Scorpio – 12° 40′ Sagittarius
18Jyeṣṭha
"the eldest, most excellent"α, σ, and τ Scorpionis
• Symbol: circular amulet, umbrella, earring
• Rigvedic name: Indra, chief of the gods
• Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Vrishchika
• Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Sagittarius
19Mūlā
"the root"ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ and ν Scorpionis
• Symbol: Bunch of roots tied together, elephant goad
• Rigvedic name: Nirrti, peak of material achievement and the beginning of the
spiritual impulse
• Indian zodiac: 0° – 13° 20′ Dhanus
• Western zodiac: 26° Sagittarius – 9° 20′ Capricorn
20Pūrva Āṣāḍhā
"first of the aṣāḍhā", aṣāḍhā "the invincible one" being the name of a
constellationδ and ε Sagittarii
• Symbol: Elephant tusk, fan, winnowing basket
• Rigvedic name: Apah, god of Water
• Indian zodiac: 13° 20′ – 26° 40′ Dhanus
• Western zodiac: 9° 20′ – 22° 40′ Capricorn
21Uttara Āṣāḍhā
"Later invincible"ζ and σ Sagittarii
• Symbol: Elephant tusk, small bed
• Rigvedic name: Visvedevas, universal gods
• Indian zodiac: 26° 40′ Dhanus – 10° Makara
• Western zodiac: 22° 40′ Capricorn – 6° Aquarius
22Abhijit
ζ and σ Lyrae
• Astrological Mate: Brahma
• Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ Makara – 10° 53′ Makara
23Śravaṇa
α, β and γ Aquilae
• Symbol: Ear or Three Footprints
• Rigvedic name: Vishnu, preserver of universe
• Indian zodiac: 10° – 23° 20′ Makara
• Western zodiac: 6° – 19° 20′ Aquarius
24Dhaniṣṭhā
"most famous", also Shravishthā "swiftest"α, β, γ and δ Delphini
• Symbol: Drum or flute
• Rigvedic name: Eight vasus, deities of earthly abundance
• Indian zodiac: 23° 20′ Makara – 6° 40′ Kumbha
• Western zodiac 19° 20′ Aquarius – 2° 40′ Pisces
25Śatabhiṣa
"Comprising a hundred physicians"Sadachbia
• Symbol: Empty circle, 1,000 flowers or stars
• Rigvedic name: Varuna, god of celestial waters
• Indian zodiac: 6° 40′ – 20° Kumbha
• Western zodiac: 2° 40′ – 16° Pisces
26Pūrva Bhādrapada
"the first of the blessed feet"α and β Pegasi
• Symbol: Swords or two front legs of funeral cot, man with two faces
• Rigvedic name: Ajaikapada, an ancient fire dragon
• Indian zodiac: 20° Kumbha – 3° 20′ Meena
• Western zodiac: 16° – 29° 20′ Pisces
27Uttara Bhādrapada
"the second of the blessed feet"γ Pegasi and α Andromedae
• Symbol: Twins, back legs of funeral cot, snake in the water
• Rigvedic name: Ahirbudhnya, serpent or dragon of the deep
• Indian zodiac: 3° 20′ – 16° 40′ Meena
• Western zodiac: 29° 20′ Pisces – 12° 40′ Aries
28Revatī
"prosperous"ζ Piscium
• Symbol: Fish or a pair of fish, drum
• Rigvedic name: Pushan, nourisher, the protective deity
• Indian zodiac: 16° 40′ – 30° Meena
• Western zodiac: 12° 40′ – 26° Aries
Nakshatras and Upanakshatras

June 13, 2012 by admin 0
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Summary – Nakshatras and Upanakshatras by David Frawley
The Vedas show a division of the zodiac into 27 Nakshatras or lunar mansions. That
they might have more subtle divisions of the zodiac than 27 should not surprise us.
A twentysevenfold division would demand finer divisions for accurate calculations.
In this regard Satapatha Brahmana describes Upanakshatras or secondary Nakshatras
with each Nakshatra divided into 27 parts equalling a total of approximately 720.
It is generally thought in the West that the zodiac of 360 degrees and 12 signs is
an invention of Babylonian thought and was brought to India by the Greeks after the
time of Alexander (after 300 BCE). However the Vedas, all the way back to the
oldest Rg Veda, contain references to a sun wheel or wheel of heaven divided into
360, 720 and 12, as well as other numbers. Vedic literature describes these
divisions as located in “heaven” or the sky. Satapatha Brahmana clearly notes them
as “rays” and “directions,” giving them a spatial orientation and equates them with
the Upanakshatras furthering making them into divisions of a zodiac.
In other words, Satapatha Brahmana presents a zodiac of 720 Upanakshatras equated
with the 720 rays and directions that surround the sun. This shows a zodiac divided
into 720 parts or 360 X 2. Such a zodiac existed in India at the time of Satapatha
Brahmana. While modern scholarship has generally dated this text around 800 BCE,
recent new discoveries in India, like that of the Sarasvati river,**1 may push this
time back much further. The same text speaks of the vernal equinox in the Krttikas
or Pleiades (which occurred around 2000 BCE). Hence it can be suggested that a
zodiac of 360 or 720 portions was known in India by this period.
1. Background
In order to establish the background for the concept of Upanakshatras, let us first
examine the complexity of Vedic thought in regard to science, astronomy and
calendars. The Vedic zodiac is part of a larger system of mathematical thought, and
not merely an interpolation, borrowing or an extraneous factor. It is integral to
this entire system, particularly for constructing fire altars, which was probably
the most important and complex aspect of Vedic thought. Vedic knowledge of the
zodiac must be viewed in the context of other carful observations made in that
area.
Large Numbers
The Rg Veda (IV.58.3) speaks of the cosmic bull with “four horns, three feet, two
heads and seven hands.” This has been identified by some as the kalpa number
4,320,000,000, the great age in Vedic astronomy. The Atharva Veda (VIII.2.21) also
mentions yugas of 10,000 years in length, “ten thousand, two yugas, three yugas,
four yugas,” or a total period of 100,000 years. Meanwhile the Yajur Veda (Sukla
Yajur Veda XVII.2) relates the universe to the number 1,000,000,000,000, giving
names for numbers from one to ten all the way up to this number which is ten to the
twelfth power.
According to Satapatha Brahmana X.4.2.25 all the three Vedas amount to “ten
thousand eight hundred eighties (of syllables)” or 864,000, the number of muhurtas
(48 minute periods or 1/30 of a day) in eighty years. Such numbers show a use of
mathematics on a grand scale to understand the universe in which we live, not only
in terms of time but in terms of space. This concern for large numbers is well
known in later Indian mathematics and astronomy of the classical period.
Small Numbers
Satapatha Brahmana XII.3.2.5 shows a knowledge of very subtle time divisions as
well:
“And there are ten thousand and eight hundred ‘muhurta’ in the year; and fifteen
times as many ‘kshipras’ as there are ‘muhurta'; and fifteen times as many ‘etarhi’
as there are ‘kshipra'; and fifteen times as many ‘idani’ as there are ‘etarhi';
and fifteen times as many breathings as there are ‘idani'; and as many spirations
as there are breathings as there are ‘idani'; and as many spirations as there are
breathings; and as many twinklings of the eye as there are spirations, and as many
hair-pits as there are twinklings of the eye, and as many sweat-pores as there are
hair-pits; and as many sweat-pores as there are so many drops it rains.”
Similar data occurs in Taittiriya Brahmana as well and is also characteristic of
later yogic thought.
Vedic View of Time
Taittiriya Brahmana (III.10.1) gives separate names for the days and nights of the
bright half of the moon and their muhurtas, the days and nights of the dark half of
the moon and their muhurtas, the twelve bright and twelve dark halves of the month
in the year, the thirteen months of the year (including the intercalary month), and
a fifteen fold division of muhurtas (muhurtas of muhurtas). These are all connected
with various Vedic rituals and with the construction of the Vedic fire altar. This
suggests a very strong awareness of time and its calculation.
Vedic time and the Vedic ritual were equated. The rituals were various ways of
following the cosmos and its rhythms through time and space. Such a culture needed
to have the basis for determining stellar positions.
Nakshatras
The Nakshatras are a twenty-seven or twenty-eight division of the zodiac based upon
the Moon, which takes 27-28 days to go around the zodiac (to be more accurate 27.3
days). The Nakshatras are listed in their entirety in late Vedic texts like the
Atharva Veda (XIX.7) and Yajur Veda (Taittiriya Samhita IV.4.10). They are
presented in great detail in the Taittiriya Brahmana (III.1), which gives special
verses to the deities governing each Nakshatra. They are also a topic of Satapatha
Brahmana (II.1.2) and the Atharva Veda Parisisthani. They are an integral part of
all Vedic symbolism and the basis for the timing of all Vedic rituals down to the
present day.
Nakashtras and the Rg Vedic Code
Knowledge of the Nakshatra system through symbolism of the number 27 is built into
the very structure of the Rg Veda, which is extensively examined in the recent work
of Subhash Kak.**2 The Rg Veda consists of ten books (mandalas). These contain
different numbers of hymns (suktas), which if added together in various ways yields
much interesting astronomical information.
1—-191 2—-43 3—62 4—-58 5—-87
6—–75 7—104 8—92 9—-114 10—191
For example, if we add the hymn counts of books four to seven, the central four of
the ten books of the text we arrive at 324, the Nakshatra year of 12 X 27 days. The
book counts are Book 4-58 hymns, Book 5-87 hymns, Book 6-75 hymns, book 7-104
hymns. This means that the total of books 4 and 7 equals 162 as does that of books
5 and 6, which together equal 324. In addition the total number of hymns in the
first four books (191+43+62+58) equals 354 or the total number of days in a year of
twelve lunar months (12 X 29.5 days), thus further affirming the astronomical
nature of the code.
Moreover the total number of hymns in the Rg Veda is 1017, which is 324 times Pi.
324 is also 108 X 3. 108 is the number of quarters in each Nakshatra (27 X 3). 1017
is also 339 X 3. 339 is the total number of bricks in the upper two layers of the
Vedic fire altar (78 + 261 (Satapatha Brahmana).
2. Upanakshatras and the Vedic Zodiac
Upanakshatras
The Vedic fire altar is an image of time, the year, the human being (purusa) and
the universe. Perhaps the most extensive examination of the fire altar occurs in
Satapatha Brahmana, particularly chapter X, which deals with the secret meaning of
the altar. In X.5.4 the altar is equated with 1. the earth, 2. the atmosphere, 3.
heaven, 4., the sun, 5. the Nakshatras, 7. the meters, 10. the year, 12. the body
or self (Atman), and 14. with the entire universe (all beings, all gods). The fire
altar is not only an image of time but of space and of consciousness. In equating
the fire-altar with the Nakshatra, the idea of the Upanakshatras arises.
But, indeed,- that Fire-altar also is the Nakshatras; for there are twenty-seven of
these Nakshatras, and twenty seven secondary stars accompany each Nakshatra,-this
makes seven hundred and twenty, and thirty-six in addition thereto. Now what seven
hundred and twenty bricks there are of these, they are the three hundred and sixty
enclosing-stones and three hundred and sixty Yajushmati bricks’ and what thirty-six
there are in addition, they are the thirteenth (intercalary) month.”
Satapatha Brahmana X.5.4.5
A question of calculation arises. 27 X 27 equals 729, not merely 720, is this not
merely poor mathematics, an incapacity even to accomplish simple multiplication?
This is a misunderstanding. The Vedas are seeking to establish equivalence between
various types phenomena. For this purpose they use various approximations. The
equation with 720 is such an approximation to correlate the Nakshatras with the
days and nights of the year. In fact 720 itself is not the number of the days and
nights of the year, which the Vedic people also knew, but used because of its
mathematical value for dividing up the sky.
There are many instances of approximations used in Vedic literature. Such
approximations occur with sound in the same Brahmana. For example (S.B.X.6.8-9),
uktha, is repeatedly equated with ut-stha.
“Agni is uk, his offerings are tham. By the offerings Agni rises up (uttistati).
Aditya (the Sun) is uk. His moon is tham. By the moon the sun rises up
(uttistati).”
Clearly the Vedic priests knew that “uk” and “ut” were different sounds. Their
equation was an approximation. Similarly with these numbers, a correlation was
established of a general nature, which is not to deny that the Vedic people had
more specific knowledge. The purpose of these Vedic equations was not to promote
mathematical accuracy but to link the universe into a common understanding.
Yet the question does arise were these Upanakshatras actually 729 and merely
equated with 720? Or were they 720 , which would require some Nakshatras sharing an
Upanakshatra? For this three Nakshatras would have to share one Upanakshatra. It is
probably the latter because the division of the zodiac into 720 parts is easier to
calculate mathematically than 729 and is more important because of its correlation
with the days and nights and the sun. The existence of the Upanakshatras clearly
indicates a concern for smaller divisions of the zodiac, down to at least 720, half
a degree.
The Sun and the Zodiac of 360 degrees
There are references as early as Rg Veda, the oldest Vedic text to a wheel of
heaven of 360 spokes divided into 12:
With twelve fellies, the wheel is one, with three axles, who can comprehend it? On
it are three hundred and sixty spokes that moving are not disturbed.
dvadasa pradayascakram ekam trini nabhyani ka u tacchiketa
tasmintsakam trisata na sankavo arpitah sastirna calacalasah
R.V. I.164.48
With twelve spokes, it is not exhausted, the wheel of the law revolves around
heaven. Oh Agni (fire or the sun) there your twin sons stand who are 720.
dvadasaram nahi tajjaraya varvarti cakram pari dyam rtasya
a putro agne mithunaso atra sapta satani vimsatisca tasthuh
R.V. I.164.11
The same hymn also refers to this wheel as 720 spokes (each a twin or a couple)
divided into twelve parts (Rg Veda I.164.11). This same idea occurs in a number of
places in Vedic literature. The God Vishnu, a Sun God, is said to have four times
ninety names (Rg Veda I.155.6), perhaps reflecting the equinoxes and solstices.
More specifically in the Satapatha Brahmana the fire altar is said to be the sky
(X.5.4.3). The fire altar is also the Sun (X.5.4.4).
“But, indeed, that Fire-altar also is the sun:-the regions are its enclosing
stones, and there are three hundred and sixty of these, because three hundred and
sixty regions encircle the sun on all sides;-the rays are its Yajushmati bricks,
for there are three hundred and sixty of these, and three hundred and sixty rays of
the sun.”
The sun is surrounded by three hundred and sixty directions and gives forth three
hundred and sixty rays that relate to these directions. This suggests a zodiac or
belt through which the Sun travels. The idea is developed further in the same
section.
“But, indeed, that built Agni (the fire-altar) is all beings, all the gods; for all
the gods, all beings are the waters, and that built fire-altar is the same as those
waters;-the navigable streams (round the sun) are its enclosing stones, and there
are three hundred and sixty of these, because three hundred and sixty navigable
streams encircle the sun on all sides; and the navigable streams, indeed, are also
the Yajushmati bricks, and there are three hundred and sixty of these, because
three hundred and sixty navigable streams flow towards the sun.”
The Sun is figured as riding in a boat as early as the Rg Veda (for example RV
V.45.10-11) but also other ancient literature, like the Egyptian. Three hundred and
sixty streams circle and sun and three hundred and sixty more flow toward the sun.
The sun in its travels crosses over these, which are like lines of longitude.
While these 720 rays and directions or streams are equated with the days and nights
of the year, they clearly have a spatial existence as well. This is verified
further by their equation with the Nakshatras and Upanakshatras.
In other words a zodiac of 360 or 720 divisions was known in the late Vedic period
long before any contact with Greek astronomy or even much of Babylonian astronomy.
This zodiac has antecedents in Vedic literature going all the way back to the Rg
Veda itself and may have existed there as well. This suggests the existence of a
long and independent tradition of astronomy in India.
Now this wheel of heaven of 360 parts, as already noted, is also divided by twelve.
As this wheel has a spatial as well as temporal reality, this suggests a zodiac
divided into twelve divisions. In other words a zodiac of twelve divisions does
exist at least as an idea in Vedic thought going back to the Brahmanas or perhaps
even to the Rg Veda. However there appears to be no place in Vedic literature where
these twelve divisions are given names like the twelve signs of the zodiac. Nor are
we certain at which point in the zodiac they began, but further research may help
answer these questions.
3. Later Vedic Astrology
Vedic Astrology of the classical period, after Varaha Mihira, stresses a fourfold
division of Nakshatras or Nakshatra padas of which there are 108 or 27 X 4. One
hundred and eight is a sacred number in Vedic thought going back to the Vedas.
Upanakshatras resemble Vedic divisional charts, which may similarly date to an
early period. Vedic astrology divides the 12 signs into smaller divisions. For
example, it has a twelvefold division of each sign, a sign of the sign, much like
the Upanakshatras that are Nakshatras of Nakshatras. It has divisions of signs by
2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 27, 30, 40, 45 and 60 (hora, drrekana,
caturtamsa, saptamsa, navamsa, dasamsa, dvadasamsa, sodasamsa, vimsamsa,
caturvimsamsa, saptavimsamsa, trimsamsa, khavedamsa, aksavedamsa, sastiamsa,). Such
divisional groupings are characteristic of Vedic astrology and are little used in
Greek astrology.
The Upanakshatras are the same the subtlest or sixty fold division (Sastiamsa),
with 12 X 60 = 720 just like the Upanakshatras. This is the last and perhaps most
important of the subdivisions of the zodiac in Vedic astrology and the only one in
which each of these subdivisions is given a special name (Brhat Parasara Hora
Sastra VI.33-41). The existence of these divisional factors in later Vedic
astronomy may reflect the trend of thought already in evidence in Satapatha
Brahmana.
Astronomical Dating of Vedic Texts
Vedic Nakshatra lists (Atharva Veda, Taittiriya Samhita, Taittiriya Brahmana,
Satapatha Brahmana) make Krttika (Pleiades) the first of the Nakshatras. Satapatha
Brahmana specifically relate it to the eastern direction. This yields clear
astronomical data. Let us examine this position in a hymn of Atharva Veda, which
mentions all the Nakshatras.
Easy to invoke, oh Agni, may the Krttikas and Rohini be, auspicious Mrigasira and
peaceful Ardra. Graceful be Punarvasu, beautiful Pusya, bright Aslesa, with the
solstice at Magha for me. Virtuous be Purva Phalguni and Uttara, Hasta and Citra
peaceful and may Svati give me joy. Bounteous Visakha, easy to invoke, Anuradha,
the best Nakshatra Jyesta, I invoke, and Mula. May Purva Asadha provide me
nourishment and Divine Uttara Asadha give me strength. May Abhijit provide virtue,
as Sravana and Sravista grant beauty. May Satabhisak give me greatness for
expansion, and the two Prostapadas give protection. May Revati and Asvayujaur give
me fortune and Bharani grant me wealth (AV XIX.7.2-4).
The term ‘ayana’ specifically means solstice in later astronomical literature, so
we cannot ignore such a meaning in its occurrence here. We find it in the northern
and southern courses of the Sun as uttara-ayana and daksina-ayana. Moreover, we see
Agni, the God of the east and the vernal equinox, leading the list of the
Nakshatras, as Ashvini did in later times.
Taittiriya Brahmana states:
One should consecrate the (sacred) fire in the Krttikas;…the Krttikas are the mouth
of the Nakshatras (T.B. i.1.2.1).
Here the Krttikas lead the list of the Nakshatras, not as a theoretical statement
but as a practical timing for establishing the sacred fire. The same Brahmana also
states:
The Nakshatras are the houses of the Gods…the Nakshatras of the Gods begin with the
Krttikas and end with Visakha, whereas the Nakshatras of Yama begin with Anuradhas
and end with the Apabharanis (TB i.5.2.7).
The Gods are identified with the constellations. They are divided into two halves,
those that relate to the Gods or the powers of life, and those that relate to Yama,
the God of death (Yama, we should note, is the ruler of Apabharani or Bharani and
Agni of Krttika). This suggests a division of the zodiac by Agni as the point of
the vernal equinox and the autumn equinox occurring between Visakha and Anuradha
(03 20 Scorpio).
Satapatha Brahmana similarly states,
The Krttikas do not swerve from the eastern direction, all the other constellations
do (S.B. II.1,2,3).
This shows a time when the Krttikas marked the vernal equinox, confirming this
order. It provides us a number of references to a time in which the vernal equinox
was in the Krttikas, along with the appropriate other Nakshatras.
Krttika marks early Taurus and Magha early Leo. The vernal equinox and summer
solstice were in this area c. 2500-2000 BCE. Such data reflects the late Harappan
era. This is the same as the late Sarasvati era, shortly before this river, which
is prominent in the Vedas, ceased as a perennial stream, which occurred around 1900
BCE. Knowledge of the Upanakshatras would thus also be of the Harappan era, which
is certainly a sophisticated enough urban culture, to produce such knowledge.
Planets in Vedic literature
I argued in an earlier paper**3 that the planets were also known in Vedic
literature but generally as a group. This information on the Vedic zodiac and
Upanakshatras shows a sophistication of astronomical observation that would have
clearly noted planetary positions.
Conclusion
While one could argue that such subtler divisions were merely conceptual and that
the Vedic people were unable to observe or to use them, the very fact that they had
the idea gives them much more sophistication than generally granted them. If they
had the idea, they would likely have tried to use it, particularly since they had
many related ideas of different divisions of time and space, especially because
Vedic texts speak of observing Nakshatras.
Such information as in this paper suggests that the Vedic level of calculation
relative to time, space and the stars, was much higher than generally acknowledged
and may have had a greater influence on other cultures than yet properly
considered, perhaps extending to Babylonian, Egyptian and Greek thought in which
modern scholars, not knowing the Vedic information, generally see the origins of a
zodiac of 360 degrees.
Usage of the Upanakshatras Today
In Vedic astrology today, there are some computer programs like Sri Jyoti that do
calculate the Upanakshatras. This allows us greater specificity in dealing with the
Nakshatras and their meaning. The normal way of using the Nakshatras is to first
examine their general meaning and second to look into the particular Nakshatra pada
or quarter of the Nakshatra (a division of 3 degees and 20 minutes or 200 minutes),
which have their subset of planetary rulers. These in turn relate to Navamshas and
their respective signs.
The Upanakshatras provide us a deeper level of examination, with each Upanakshatra
covering an area of slightly less than 30 minutes or half a degree. Examining the
Upanakshatras and their effects on the life and personality is an important new
area of chart examination. One looks at the relationship of Nakshatra and
Upanakshatra in terms of nature and rulership and their interrelationship. This can
be done not only relative to the Moon but also relative to all the planets. We
would urge serious practitioners to examine this issue further.
Translations from Satapatha Brahmana are from the Sacred Books of the East Vol. 12,
26, 41, 43, 44. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988. All oher Sanskrit translations
are by the author.
Footnotes
1. Frawley, David, Gods, Sages and Kings. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993. Note
particularly pp. 67-77.
2. Kak, Subhash. The Astronomical Code of the Rgveda. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan,
1994. Note particularly pp. 97-109.
Kak, S. ‘The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars,’ Quarterly Journal of the
Royal Astronomical Society, 36, 385-395,1995.
3. Frawley, David, ‘Planets in the Vedic Literature’, Indian Journal of History of
Science, 29.4.495-506.
Tithi
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The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar day

In Vedic timekeeping, a tithi is a [duration of two faces of moon that is observed
from earth], known as milа̄lyа̄ (𑐩𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅, मिलाल्याः) in Nepal Bhasa,[1] or the time it
takes for the longitudinal angle between the Moon and the Sun to increase by 12°.
In other words, a tithi is a time-duration between the consecutive epochs that
correspond to when the longitudinal-angle between sun and moon is an integer
multiple of 12°. Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from
approximately 19 to approximately 26 hours.[2] Every day of lunar month is called
tithi.
Panchanga[edit]
image to understand the calculation of tithi
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A Hindu muhurta (forty-eight minute duration) can be represented in five attributes
of Hindu astronomy namely, vara the weekday, tithi, nakshatra the Moon's asterism,
yoga the angular relationship between Sun and Moon and karana half of tithi.
Tithi plays an important role along with nakshatra in Hindus' daily as well as
special activities in selecting the muhurta. There are auspicious tithis as well as
inauspicious tithis, each considered more propitious for some purposes than for
other.
There are 30 tithis in each lunar month, named as:
Sl.No Krishna paksha
(dark fortnight) Shukla paksha
(bright fortnight) Deity and properties[citation needed]
1 Prathama / Padyami Prathama / Padyami
The presiding deity of the first lunar day is Agni and it is good for all types of
auspicious and religious ceremonies.
2 Dwitiya / Vidiya Dwitiya / Vidiya
Vidhatr or Brahma rules this lunar day and is good for the laying of foundations
for buildings and other things of a permanent nature.
3 Tritiya / Thadiya Tritiya / Thadiya
Gauri is the lord of this day and is good for the cutting of one's hair and nails
and shaving.
4 Chaturthi Chaturthi
Yama/Ganapati is lord of the 4th lunar day, which is good for the destruction of
one's enemies, the removal of obstacles, and acts of combat.
5 Panchami Panchami
The Naaga or Serpents rule this day, which is favourable for administering
medicine, the purging of poisons, and surgery.
6 Shashthi Shashthi
Karttikeya presides over this day and is favourable for coronations, meeting new
friends, festivities, and enjoyment.
7 Saptami Saptami
The 7th lunar day is ruled by Surya; one may begin a journey, buy conveyances, and
deal with other such things of a movable nature.
8 Ashtami Ashtami
The Rudra rule this day, which is good for taking up arms, building of one's
defenses, and fortification.
9 Navami Navami
The Ambikaa rules this day, which is suitable for killing enemies, acts of
destruction, and violence. Inauspicious for ceremonies and journeys.
10 Dasami Dashami
The day is ruled by Dharmaraja and is auspicious for acts of virtue, religious
functions, spiritual practices, and other pious activities.
11 Ekadasi Ekadashi
Rudra rule this day; fasting, devotional activities, and remembrance of the Supreme
Lord Vishnu are very favourable. This day has special religious significance in
Hinduism and Jainism—usually observed by fasting.
12 Dvadasi Dwadashi
The Vishnu or Aditya rules this day, which is auspicious for religious ceremonies,
the lighting of the sacred fire, and the performance of one's duties.
13 Trayodasi Thrayodashi
The day is ruled by Kamadeva and is good for forming friendships, sensual
pleasures, and festivities.
14 Chaturdashi Chaturdashi
Kali rules this day, suitable for administering poison and calling of elementals
and spirits.
15 Amavasya
(new moon)
Purnima or Paurnami
(full moon)
The Pitru-devas rule the New Moon, suitable for the propitiation of the Manes and
performance of austerities. Purnima is ruled by Moon and is suitable for merry
making and fire sacrifice.
References[edit]
1. ^ Kapali, Rukshana. "नेपाल संवत् - नेपाल सम्बत" (PDF). Nepal Sambat. Retrieved 3
November 2021.
2. ^ Defouw, Hart; Robert Svoboda (2003). Light on Life: An Introduction to the
Astrology of India. Lotus Press. p. 186. ISBN 0-940985-69-1. Shukla paksha -
inpublisher:icon.
External links
Parahita
Parahita is a system of astronomy prevalent in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, India. It was
introduced by the Kerala astronomer Haridatta, (c. 683 AD[1]). Nilakantha Somayaji
(1444–1544), in his Dr̥kkaraṇa, relates how Parahita was created based on the
combined observations of a group of scholars who had gathered for a festival at
Tirunāvāy on the banks of the Bhāratappuzha River. The Sanskrit etymology literally
means "for the benefit of the common man", and the intention was to simplify
astronomical computations so that everyone could do it.
Parahita is a significant step in the simplification of the siddhantic tradition.
Of the two texts of the system, Grahacāranibandhana and Mahāmārganibandhana, only
the former is known. The system simplified the computational cycle of the
Aryabhatiya by introducing a sub-aeon of 576 years and introduced a zero correction
called Vāgbhāva based on which the system worked accurately around the time of
Haridatta.[2]
Also Haridatta simplified the representation of numerals from the cumbersome
notation of Aryabhata to the katapayadi system which gained wide currency in later
Kerala mathematics. In the katapayadi system, numerals may be represented by
various letters so that the large numerical tables required for astronomical
computations could be represented as verses and memorized.
The work Grahacāranibandhana-sangraha (932 AD) gives further details of the
parahita technique. The methods were retained but some of the constants downgraded
by Parameshvara in his DrggaNita (1483), and also by Achyuta Pisharati in his
rAsigolasphuTanIti (1600).
See also[edit]
• Drigganita
References[edit]
1. ^ K. Chandra Hari (2002). "Date of Haridatta, promulgator of the Parahita
system of astronomy in Kerala". Indian Journal of History of Science. 37 (3): 223–
236.
2. ^ K. V. Sarma (2008). Helaine Selin (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the History of
Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 1059-60
Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad

Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad (1891-1981) was a Nambudiri Brahmin in the
State of Kerala in India who helped rejuvenate interest in the Indian traditional
architectural styles known collectively as Vastu shastra[citation needed]. He was a
consultant for the renovation of many temples in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka,
and also the Royal Architect for the three royal families of Travancore, Cochin and
Kozhikode (Calicut)[citation needed]. He was a prolific writer authoring more than
a hundred books on a variety of books relating to traditional knowledge areas like
vastu shastra (architecture),[1] jyothisha (astrology and astronomy), ayurveda
(Indian system of medicine), and also books on history.[2] He compiled a Sanskrit-
Malayalam Dictionary and a Dictionary of Indigenous Medicines.[3]
Sankaran Namboodiripad was born as the ninth child of Kanippayyur Subramanian
Namboothiripad, who himself was a great scholar in vasthu vidya, and Kanippayyur
Kali Antharjanam.[4] (According to some legends, after Parasurama created Kerala
from the sea, the practice of various professions essential for the society were
distributed among different families. In this process, Kanippayyur was a
Namboothiri family to which was assigned the profession of architecture and
construction of temples.[5]) He had his traditional primary education and Rig Vedic
studies at home. He took higher lessons in Rigveda at the famous Vedic School at
Thrissur and became well versed in Sthapathya Veda and Astrology under the tutelage
of his elders. He also studied Ayurveda. He rejuvenated Vaastu Shastra and
popularized it further[citation needed]. He also started work centers for making
icons and other ancillaries connected with temples.[6] Kannippayur Narayanan
Namboothiripad is often quoted from this family nowadays as he is a renowned
Astrologer appearing in TV Shows, Online etc.
Contents
• 1Panchangam Press
• 2Research Library
• 3Works
• 4References
Panchangam Press[edit]
In 1929, Shankaran Namboodiripad established a printing press in Kunnamkulam to
print mainly the almanacs prepared by him and other members of his family. The
press, named Panchangam Press, has developed into an icon of Kunnakulam producing
books related to Hindu religious practices. The press has brought out works on many
knowledge systems like Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Upavedas,
Epics and Puranas, Tantra, Mantra, classical Sanskrit literature, etc. Another
establishment is the Kanippayur Bookstall which is also functioning at Kunnamkulam
since 1999.
Research Library[edit]
The descendants of Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad have established a research
library in memory of Shankaran Namboodiripad at Kunnamkulam to continue the
scholarly traditions of learning and research established by him. The Library
founded in 1990 aims to be a repository of palm leaf manuscripts and books related
to traditional Indian systems of knowledge, and to be a center for the propagation
of such knowledge by bringing out translations of works in these knowledge areas.
The Library also aims to be a pioneer in the popularization of Sanskrit language
among the younger generation. The Library has procured large collections of
manuscripts and books held in many Namboothiri houses.
Works[edit]
• Ent̲e smaraṇakaḷ
• Āryanmāruṭe kuṭiyēt̲t̲aṃ, Kēraḷattil (4 Vols.)
• Vaidyaratnaṃ auṣadhanighaṇṭu : Grāhyāṃśaṃ Aṭaṅṅiyatȧ. Sampādakan
• Nāyanmāruṭe pūrvvacaritr̲aṃ.[7]
References[edit]
1. ^ Kanippayyur Shankaran naboodiripad (1965). Manuṣyālaya candṟika.
Kunnamkulam, Kerala: Pañcāṃgaṃ Pustakaśāla.
2. ^ Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad (1966). Āryanmāruṭe kuṭiyēṯṯaṃ,
Kēraḷattil.
3. ^ Kanippayyur Sankaran Nambudiripad (1965). Vaidyarantnam ausadhanighantu.
Kunnamkulam, Kerala: Pañcaṅgam Pustakaśāla.
4. ^ K Raman Bhattathiripad. "Contributions of Namboothiris in "Vaasthu Vidya"".
Namboothiri websites. Namboothiri websites Trusst. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
5. ^ "Kanippayyur Krishnan Namboothiripad". Kerala tourism. Department of
Tourism, Government of Kerala. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
6. ^ "Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad". Kanippayur Nurturing Tradition.
Retrieved 23 November 2015.
7. ^ "Results for 'au:Sankaran Nambudiripad, Kanippayyur,' [WorldCat.org]".
2018-05-20. Archived from the original on 2018-05-20. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
The Hindu calendar is based on a geocentric model of the solar system. A large part
of this calendar is defined based on the movement of the sun and the moon around
the earth (saura māna and cāndra māna respectively). Furthermore, it includes
synodic, sidereal, and tropical elements. Many variants of the Hindu calendar have
been created by including and excluding these elements (solar, lunar, lunisolar
etc.) and are in use in different parts of India.
Elements of the Hindu calendar
synodic elements sidereal elements tropical elements
saura māna rāśi, sauramāsa, varṣa
uttarāyaṇa, dakṣiṇāyana, devayāna, pitṛyāṇa, ṛtu
cāndra māna tithi, pakṣa, candramāsa, varṣa
nākṣatra māna dina, ghaṭikā (aka nāḍī), vighaṭikā (aka vināḍī), prāṇa
(aka asu)
sāvana māna dina
The solar months (rāśi) along with the approximate correspondence to Hindu seasons
and Gregorian months are:[29]
Rāśi Sidereal signs
Gregorian
months[30]
Ṛtu
(season) Ṛtu in Devanagari script
Bengali name for Ṛtu
Gujarati name for Ṛtu
Kannada name for Ṛtu
Kashmiri name for Ṛtu
Malayalam name for Ṛtu
Odia name for Ṛtu
Tamil name for Ṛtu
Telugu name for Ṛtu
Tibetan name for Ṛtu
Kalachakra tantra Tibetan-name for Ṛtu
Mīna
Mesh
♓
♈ Mid March–
Mid May Vasanta
(Spring)
वसन्त বসন্ত (Bôsôntô) વસંત ઋતુ (Vasaṃta r̥tu) ವಸಂತ ಋತು (Vasaṃta Ṛtu) ‫تھ‬ٛ‫سون‬
[sõ:tʰ] വസന്തം‌ (Vasaṃtam) ବସନ୍ତ (Basanta) இளவேனில் (ilavenil) వసంత ఋతువు
(Vasaṃta Ṛtuvu) དཔྱིད་ར་བ་དང་དཔྱིད་བར་མ (shid rawa, thang, shid warma) དཔྱིད་ཀ (shid ka)
Vṛṣabha
Mithuna
♉
♊ Mid May–
Mid July Grīṣma
(Summer)
ग्रीष्म গ্রীষ্ম (Grishsho) ગ્રીષ્મ ઋતુ (Grīṣma r̥tu) ಗ್ರೀಷ್ಮ ಋತು (Grīṣma Ṛtu) ‫ێشم‬ ِ ‫گر‬
ٛ
[greʃim] ഗ്രീഷ്മം (Grīṣmam) ଗ୍ରୀଷ୍ମ (Grīsma) முதுவேனில் (mudhuvenil) గ్రీష్మ ఋతువు
(Grīṣma Ṛtuvu) དཔྱིད་ཐ་མ་དང་དབྱར་ར་བ། (shid dama, thang, yar rawa) སོ་ག(soga)
Karkaṭa
Siṃha
♋
♌ Mid July–
Mid Sep Varṣā
(Monsoon)
वर्षा বর্ষা (Bôrsha) વર્ષા ઋતુ (Varṣa r̥tu) ವರ್ಷ ಋತು (Varṣa Ṛtu) ‫ؤہراتھ‬
[wəhraːtʰ] വര്‍ഷം‌ (Varṣām) ବର୍ଷା (Barsā) கார் (kaar) వర్ష ఋతువు (Varṣa Ṛtuvu) དབྱར་བར་མ་
དང་དབྱར་ཐ་མ (yarwarma, thang, yardama) དབྱར་ག (yarka)
Kanyā
Tulā
♍
♎ Mid Sep–
Mid Nov Śarad
(Autumn)
शरद् শরৎ(Shôrôt) શરદ ઋતુ (Śarad r̥tu) ಶರದೃತು (Śaradṛtu) ‫َہ ُرد‬
[harud] ശരത്‌ (Śarat) ଶରତ (Sarata) குளிர் (kulir) శరదృతువు
(Śaradṛtuvu) སྟོན་ར་བ་དང་སྟོན་བར་མ (ston rawa, thang, ston warma) སྟོན་ཁ (stonka)
Vṛścika
Dhanu
♏
♐ Mid Nov–
Mid Jan Hemanta
(Pre-Winter)
हेमन्त হেমন্ত (Hemôntô) હેમંત ઋતુ (Hēmaṃta r̥tu) ಹೇಮಂತ ಋತು (Hēmaṃta Ṛtu) ‫ ٕد‬ٛ‫َون‬
[wandɨ] ഹേമന്തം‌ (Hemantam) ହେମନ୍ତ (Hemanta) முன்பனி (munpani) హేమంత ఋతువు
(Hēmaṃta Ṛtuvu) སྟོན་ཐ་མ་དང་དགུན་ར་བ (ston da ma, thang, dgun rawa) དགུན་སྟོད (dgun stod)
Makara
Kumbha
♑
♒ Mid Jan–
Mid March Śiśira
(Winter)
शिशिर শীত (Śeet) શિશિર ઋતુ (Śiśira r̥tu) ಶಿಶಿರ ಋತು (Śiśira Ṛtu) ‫ِش ُشر‬
[ʃiʃur] ശിശിരം‌ (Śiśiram) ଶୀତ/ଶିଶିର (Sīta/Sisira) பின்பனி (pinpani) శిశిర ఋతువు
(Śiśira Ṛtuvu) དགུན་བར་མ་དང་དགུན་ཐ་མ (dgun warma, thang, dgun dama) དགུན་སྨད (dgun smad)
The names of the solar months are also used in the Darian calendar for the planet
Mars.
Lunar months[edit]
See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § chandramana
Lunar months are defined based on lunar cycles, i.e. the regular occurrence of new
moon and full moon and the intervening waxing and waning phases of the moon.
Paksha[edit]
See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § paksha
A lunar month contains two fortnights called pakṣa (पक्ष, literally "side").[2] One
fortnight is the bright, waxing half where the moon size grows and it ends in the
full moon. This is called "Gaura Paksha" or Shukla Paksha.[45] The other half is
the darkening, waning fortnight which ends in the new moon. This is called "Vadhya
Paksha" or Krishna Paksha.[2] The Hindu festivals typically are either on or the
day after the full moon night or the darkest night (amavasya, अमावास्या), except for
some associated with Krishna, Durga or Rama. The lunar months of the hot summer and
the busy major cropping-related part of the monsoon season typically do not
schedule major festivals.[46]
Amanta and Purnimanta systems[edit]
Calendar usage across India

See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § chandramana
Two traditions have been followed in the Indian subcontinent with respect to lunar
months: Amanta tradition which ends the lunar month on no moon day, while
Purnimanta tradition which ends it on full moon day.[47] As a consequence, in the
Amanta tradition, in a month, Shukla paksha precedes Krishna paksha whereas in the
Purnimanta tradition Krishna paksha precedes Shukla paksha. As a result, a Shukla
paksha will belong to the same month in both traditions, whereas a Krishna paksha
will be associated with different (but succeeding) months in each tradition.
Variations in the naming of lunar months
Krishna Paksha Shukla Paksha Krishna Paksha
Amanta Phalguna Chaitra
Purnimanta Chaitra Vaishaka
The Amanta (Amavasyanta, Mukhyamana) tradition is followed by most Indian states
that have a peninsular coastline (except Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala which follow
the solar months). The states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana. Most Indian states north of the Vindhya mountains follow the
Purnimanta (Gaunamana) tradition.
Purnimanta tradition was being followed in the Vedic era. It was replaced with
Amanta system and in use as the Hindu calendar system prior to 1st century BCE, but
the Purnimanta tradition was restarted in 57 BCE by Vikramaditya who wanted to
return to the Vedic roots.[47] The presence of this system is one of the factors
considered in dating ancient Indian manuscripts and epigraphical evidence that have
survived into the modern era.[47][48]
The two traditions of Amanta and Purnimanta system has led to alternate ways of
dating any festival or event that occurs in Krishna paksha in the historic Hindu,
Buddhist or Jain literature, and contemporary regional literature or festival
calendars. For example, the Hindu festival of Maha Shivaratri falls on the
fourteenth lunar day of Magha lunar month's dark fortnight in the Amanta system,
while the same exact day is expressed in the Purnimanta system as the fourteenth
lunar day of Phalguna lunar months' dark fortnight.[49] Both time measuring and
dating systems are equivalent ways of meaning the same thing, they continue to be
in use in different regions, though the Purnimanta system is now typically assumed
as implied in modern Indology literature if not otherwise specified.[30][29]
List of Lunar Months[edit]
names of the Hindu months vary by region. Those Hindu calendars which are based on
lunar cycle are generally phonetic variants of each other, while the solar cycle
are generally variants of each other too, suggesting that the timekeeping knowledge
travelled widely across the Indian subcontinent in ancient times.[1][29]
During each lunar month, the Sun transits into a sign of the zodicac (sankranti).
The lunar month in which the Sun transits into Mesha is named Chaitra and
designated as the first month of the lunar year.
A few major calendars are summarized below:
Lunar calendar month names in different Hindu calendars[1]
# Vikrami
(lunar)[30]
Sankranti Hindi/
Marathi/
Nepali Kannada Kashmiri Maithili Meitei (Manipuri) Punjabi Sindhi
Telugu Tulu Tibetan Gregorian
1 Chaitra
Mēsha चैत्र / चैत ಚೈತ್ರ (Chaitra) ‫[ ِژت ٕھر‬t͡sitʰɨr]
or
‫[ ٕژت ٕھر‬t͡sɨtʰɨr] 𑒔𑒻𑒞𑒱 (Chait) ꯂꯝ ꯥꯇꯥ (Lamta) ਚੇਤ
(Chēt) ‫چيٽ‬ ُ (Chēṭu) చైత్రము
(Chaitramu) Suggi ནག་པ་ཟླ་བ March–April
2 Vaisākha
Vrisha वैशाख ವೈಶಾಖ (Vaisākha) ‫[ َوہؠکھ‬wahʲakʰ]
or
‫[ بیساکھ‬beːsaːkʰ] 𑒥𑒻𑒮𑒰𑒐 (Baishakh) ꯁꯖꯤꯕ ꯨ (Sajibu) ਵਸਾਖ
(Vasākh) ‫ويساک‬ ُ (Vēsāku)
or
‫هاء‬
ُ ‫( ِو‬Vihāu) వైశాఖము
(Vaiśākhamu) Paggu ས་ག་ཟླ་བ April–May
3 Jyeshta
Mithuna ज्येष्ठ / जेठ ಜ್ಯೇಷ್ಠ (Jyeshta) ‫زیٹھ‬
[zeːʈʰ] 𑒖𑒹𑒚 (Jeth) ꯀꯥꯂꯦ ꯥ ꯦꯟ (Kalen) ਜੇਠ
(Jēṭh) ‫ڄيٺ‬ ُ (Jēṭhu) జ్యేష్ఠము
(Jyēsṭhamu) Bēsha སྣྲོན་ཟླ་བ May–June
4 Āshāda
Karka आषाढ़ / असार ಆಷಾಢ (Āshāda) ‫ہار‬
[haːr] 𑒁𑒮𑒰𑒜𑓃 (Asadh) ꯥꯏꯉꯥ (Eenga) ਹਾੜ੍ਹ
(Hāṛh) ‫( آکا ُڙ‬Ākhāṛu)
or
‫( آها ُڙ‬Āhāṛu) ఆషాఢము
(Āṣāḍhamu) Kārtel ཆུ་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ June–July
5 Shraavana
Singa श्रावण / साउन ಶ್ರಾವಣ (Shrāvana) ‫شر ُاون‬ ٛ
[ʃraːwun] 𑒮𑒰𑒍𑒢 (Saon) ꯏꯉꯦꯟ (Eengen) ਸਾਓਣ
(Sāoṇ) ُ‫سانوڻ‬ َ (Sānvaṇu) శ్రావణము
(Śrāvaṇamu) Aaṭi གྲོ་བཞིན་ཟླ་བ July–August
6 Bhādra
Kanya भाद्र / भदौ ಭಾದ್ರಪದ (Bhādrapada) ‫[ بٲ ٕدرپؠتھ‬bəːdɨrpʲatʰ]
or
‫[ بٲدرؠتھ‬bəːdrʲatʰ]
or
‫[ بٲ ٕدر‬bəːdɨr] 𑒦𑒰𑒠𑒼 (Bhado) ꯧꯥ ꯧ ꯥ ꯟ(Thouwan) ਭਾਦੋਂ (Bhādōn)
or
ਭਾਦਰੋਂ (Bhādrōn) ‫( بَڊو‬Baḍo)
or
‫( بَڊرو‬Baḍro) భద్రపదము Sona ཁྲིམས་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ August–September
7 Ashwina
Tula आश्विन / असोज ಆಶ್ವಯುಜ (Āswayuja) ‫ٲشد‬ ِ
[əːʃid] 𑒂𑒮𑒱𑒢 (Aasin) ꯂꯥꯡꯕꯟ (Langban) ਅੱਸੂ
(Assū) ‫( ا َُسو‬Asū) ఆశ్వయుజము Kanya/Nirnāl ཐ་སྐར་ཟླ་བ September–October
8 Kartika
Vrischika कार्तिक / कात्तिक ಕಾರ್ತೀಕ (Kārtika) ‫کار ِتکھ‬
[kaːrtikʰ] 𑒏𑒰𑒞𑒱𑒏 (Katik) ꯃꯦ ꯦꯔ ꯥ (Mera) ਕੱਤਕ
(Kattak) ‫ڪ ِتي‬ َ (Katī) కార్తికము Bontel སྨིན་དྲུག་ཟླ་བ October–November
9 Mārgasirsa
(Agrahayana)
Dhanus मार्गशीर्ष / मंसिर ಮಾರ್ಗಶಿರ (Mārgasira) ‫جہۆر‬ٛ‫[ َمن‬mand͡ʒhor]
or
‫جہ ہور‬ ِ ٛ‫[ مۄن‬mɔnd͡ʒihoːr]
or
‫[ َمگ َر‬magar] 𑒁𑒑𑒯𑒢 (Agahan) ꯍꯤ ꯌꯥꯤ ꯥꯀꯩ ꯡꯩ (Heeyangkei) ਮੱਘਰ (Magghar) ‫ناهري‬
ِ
(Nāhrī)
or
‫نگه ُر‬
ِ ‫( َم‬Manghiru) మార్గశిరము Jārde མགོ་ཟླ་བ November–December
10 Pausha
Makara पौष / पुष ಪುಷ್ಯ (Pushya) ‫[ پوہ‬poːh]
or
‫[ پۄہ‬pɔh] 𑒣𑒴𑒮 (Poos) ꯄꯣ ꯣꯢ ꯅꯨ (Poinu) ਪੋਹ
ꯨ
(Poh) ‫پوهه‬ ُ (Pohu) పుష్యము Perarde རྒྱལ་ཟླ་བ December–January
11 Māgha
Kumbha माघ ಮಾಘ (Magha) ‫ماگ‬
[maːg] 𑒧𑒰𑒒 (Magh) ꯋꯥ ꯥ ꯛꯤꯡ ꯆꯤ ꯡ (Wakching) ਮਾਘ
(Māgh) ‫مانگھه‬
ُ (Mānghu) మాఘముPuyintel མཆུ་ཟླ་བ January–February
12 Phālguna
Mina फाल्गुण / फागुन ಫಾಲ್ಗುಣ (Phalguna) ‫پھاگ ُن‬
[pʰaːgun] 𑒤𑒰𑒑𑒳𑒢 (Fagun) ꯥꯢꯔꯦꯜ
ꯥ (Fairel) ਫੱਗਣ
(Phaggaṇ) ُ‫( َڦڳ ُڻ‬Phaguṇu) ఫాల్గుణము Māyi དབོ་ཟླ་བ February–March
Corrections between lunar and solar months[edit]
See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § adhikamasa
The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar months. Also illustrates Adhika Masa
(Year 2-Bhadrapada) repeats; the first time the Sun moves entirely within Simha
Rashi thus rendering it an Adhika Masa
Twelve Hindu mas (māsa, lunar month) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the
length of a sidereal (solar) year is about 365 days. This creates a difference of
about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53/10.63) = 2.71 years, or
approximately every 32.5 months.[28] Purushottam Maas or Adhik Maas is an extra
month that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned. The twelve
months are subdivided into six lunar seasons timed with the agriculture cycles,
blooming of natural flowers, fall of leaves, and weather. To account for the
mismatch between lunar and solar calendar, the Hindu scholars adopted intercalary
months, where a particular month just repeated. The choice of this month was not
random, but timed to sync back the two calendars to the cycle of agriculture and
nature.[28][29]
The repetition of a month created the problem of scheduling festivals, weddings and
other social events without repetition and confusion. This was resolved by
declaring one month as Shudha (pure, clean, regular, proper, also called Deva
month) and the other Mala or Adhika (extra, unclean and inauspicious, also called
Asura masa).[50]
The Hindu mathematicians who calculated the best way to adjust the two years, over
long periods of a yuga (era, tables calculating 1000 of years), they determined
that the best means to intercalate the months is to time the intercalary months on
a 19-year cycle. This intercalation is generally adopted in the 3rd, 5th, 8th,
11th, 14th, 16th and 19th year of this cycle. Further, the complex rules rule out
the repetition of Mārgasirsa (also called Agrahayana), Pausha and Maagha lunar
months. The historic Hindu texts are not consistent on these rules, with competing
ideas flourishing in the Hindu culture.[51]
Rare corrections[edit]
The Hindu calendar makes further rare adjustments, over a cycle of centuries, where
a certain month is considered kshaya month (dropped). This occurs because of the
complexity of the relative lunar, solar and earth movements. Underhill (1991)
describes this part of Hindu calendar theory: "when the sun is in perigee, and a
lunar month being at its longest, if the new moon immediately precedes a samkranti,
then the first of the two lunar months is deleted (called nija or kshaya)." This,
for example, happened in the year 1 BCE, when there was no new moon between Makara
samkranti and Kumbha samkranti, and the month of Pausha was dropped.[52]
Day[edit]
Just like months, the Hindu calendar has two measures of a day, one based on the
lunar movement and the other on solar. The solar (saura) day or civil day, called
divasa (दिवस), has been what most Hindus traditionally use, is easy and empirical to
observe, with or without a clock, and it is defined as the period from one sunrise
to another. The lunar day is called tithi (तिथि), and this is based on complicated
measures of lunar movement. A lunar day or tithi may, for example, begin in the
middle of an afternoon and end next afternoon.[53] Both these days do not directly
correspond to a mathematical measure for a day such as equal 24 hours of a solar
year, a fact that the Hindu calendar scholars knew, but the system of divasa was
convenient for the general population. The tithi have been the basis for timing
rituals and festivals, while divasa for everyday use. The Hindu calendars adjust
the mismatch in divasa and tithi, using a methodology similar to the solar and
lunar months.[54]
A tithi is technically defined in Vedic texts, states John E. Cort, as "the time
required by the combined motions of the sun and moon to increase (in a bright
fortnight) or decrease (in a dark fortnight) their relative distance by twelve
degrees of the zodiac.[55] These motions are measured using a fixed map of
celestial zodiac as reference, and given the elliptical orbits, a duration of a
tithi varies between 21.5 and 26 hours, states Cort.[55] However, in the Indian
tradition, the general population's practice has been to treat a tithi as a solar
day between one sunrise to next.[55]
A lunar month has 30 tithi. The technical standard makes each tithi contain
different number of hours, but helps the overall integrity of the calendar. Given
the variation in the length of a solar day with seasons, and moon's relative
movements, the start and end time for tithi varies over the seasons and over the
years, and the tithi adjusted to sync with divasa periodically with intercalation.
[56]
Weekday/Vāsara[edit]
Vāsara refers to the weekdays in Sanskrit.[57] Also referred to as Vara and used as
a suffix.[44] The correspondence between the names of the week in Hindu and other
Indo-European calendars are exact. This alignment of names probably took place
sometime during the 3rd century CE.[58][59] The weekday of a Hindu calendar has
been symmetrically divided into 60 ghatika, each ghatika (24 minutes) is divided
into 60 pala, each pala (24 seconds) is subdivided into 60 vipala, and so on.[58]
Names of the weekdays in different languages
No. Sanskrit[58][59]
Latin weekday Celestial object Assamese
Bengali
Bhojpuri
Gujarati
Hindi
Kannada
Kashmiri
Konkani
Malayalam
Maithili
Marathi
Meitei
(Manipuri) Nepali
Odia
Punjabi
(Hindus and Sikhs)[note 1]
Sindhi
Sylheti
Tamil
Telugu
Urdu
Balinese
Cham
1 Ravivāsara
रविवासर or
Aditya vāsara
आदित्य वासर Sunday/dies Solis
Ravi, Aditya = Sun
Dêûbār/Rôbibār
দেওবাৰ/ৰবিবাৰ Rôbibār
রবিবার Aitwār
अतवार Ravivār
રવિવાર Ravivār
रविवार Bhānuvāra
ಭಾನುವಾರ [aːtʰwaːr]
‫آتھوار‬ Āytār
आयतार Njaayar
ഞായർ Ravidin
𑒩𑒫𑒱𑒠𑒱𑒢 Ravivāra
रविवार Nongmaijing
ꯅꯣ ꯣꯡ ꯃꯥꯏꯖ
ꯥ ꯖꯤꯡAaitabar
ꯤ ꯡ
आइतवार Rabibāra
ରବିବାର Aitvār
ਐਤਵਾਰ Ācharu
‫آچ ُر‬
َ
or
Ārtvāru
‫آرتوار‬
ُ Rôibbār
ꠞꠂꠛ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ Nyayiru
ஞாயிறு Ādivāraṁ
ఆదివారం Itvār
‫اتوار‬ Redite
ᬋᬤᬶᬢᭂ Adit
2 Somavāsara
सोमवासर Monday/dies Lunae
Soma (deity), Chandra = Moon
Xûmbār
সোমবাৰ Śombār
সোমবার Somār
सोमार Sōmavār
સોમવાર Somavār
सोमवार Sōmavāra
ಸೋಮವಾರ [t͡səndrɨwaːr]
‫د ٕروار‬ٛ‫ٔژن‬ Somaar
सोमार Thinkal
തിങ്കൾ Somdin
𑒮𑒼𑒧𑒠𑒱𑒢 Somavāra
सोमवार Ningthoukaba
ꯅꯤ ꯤꯡꯧ ꯊꯧꯥꯀꯥꯕ
ꯕ Sombar
सोमवार Somabāra
ସୋମବାର Somavār
ਸੋਮਵਾਰ Sūmaru
‫وم ُر‬
َ ‫ُس‬ Śombār
ꠡꠝ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ Thingal
திங்கள் Sōmavāraṁ
సోమవారం Somvār
‫سوموار‬
or
Pīr
‫پیر‬ Soma
ᬲᭀᬫ Thom
3 Maṅgalavāsara
मङ्गलवासर or
Bhaumavasara
भौम वासर Tuesday/dies Martis
Maṅgala = Mars
Môṅôlbār/Môṅgôlbār
মঙলবাৰ/মঙ্গলবাৰ Môṅgôlbār
মঙ্গলবার Mangar
मंगर Maṅgaḷavār
મંગળવાર Maṅgalavār
मंगलवार Maṁgaḷavāra
ಮಂಗಳವಾರ [boːmwaːr]
‫بوموار‬
or
[bɔ̃waːr]
‫وار‬ٛ‫بۄن‬ Mangaḷār
मंगळार Chovva
ചൊവ്വ Maṅgaldin
𑒧𑓀𑒑𑒪𑒠𑒱𑒢 Maṅgaḷavāra
मंगळवार Leipakpokpa
ꯂꯩꯄꯥꯛꯄꯣꯛꯄ Mangalbar
मङ्गलवार Maṅgaḷabāra
ମଙ୍ଗଳବାର Maṅgalavār
ਮੰਗਲਵਾਰ Mangalu
‫نگل‬ُ ‫َم‬
or
Angāro
‫ا َنڱارو‬ Môṅgôlbār
ꠝꠋꠉꠟ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ Chevvai
செவ்வாய் Maṁgaḷavāraṁ
మంగళవారం Mangal
‫منگل‬ Anggara
ᬳᬂᬕᬭ Angar
4 Budhavāsara
बुधवासर or
Saumya vasara
सौम्य वासरWednesday/dies Mercurii
Budha = Mercury
Budhbār
বুধবাৰ Budhbār
বুধবার Buddh
बुध Budhavār
બુધવાર Budhavāra
बुधवार Budhavāra
ಬುಧವಾರ[bɔdwaːr]
‫ بۄد وار‬Budhavār
बुधवार Budhan
ബുധൻBudhdin
𑒥𑒳𑒡𑒠𑒱𑒢 Budhavāra
बुधवार Yumsakeisa
ꯌꯨꯝꯁꯀꯩꯁ Budhabar
बुधवार Budhabāra
ବୁଧବାର Buddhavār
ਬੁੱਧਵਾਰ Budharu
‫ٻُ َڌ ُر‬
or
Arbā
‫ا َربع‬ Budbār
ꠛꠥꠗ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ Budhan
புதன் Budhavāraṁ
బుధవారం Budh
‫بدھ‬ Buda
ᬩᬸᬤ But
5 Guruvāsara
गुरुवासर
or
Brhaspati vāsara
बृहस्पतिवासर Thursday/dies Iovis/Jupiter Deva-Guru Bṛhaspati = Jupiter
Brihôspôtibār
বৃহস্পতিবাৰ Brihôśpôtibār
বৃহস্পতিবার Bi'phey
बियफे Guruvār
ગુરુવાર Guruvār
गुरुवार
or
Brihaspativāra
बृहस्पतिवार Guruvāra
ಗುರುವಾರ [braswaːr]
‫برسوار‬ َٛ
or
[brʲaswaːr]
‫برؠسوار‬ ٛ Bhirestār
भीरेस्तार Vyaazham
വ്യാഴംBrihaspatidin
𑒥𑒵𑒯𑒮𑓂𑒣𑒞𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 Guruvāra
गुरुवार Sagolsen
ꯁꯒꯣꯜꯁꯦꯟ Bihibar
बिहीवार Gurubāra
ଗୁରୁବାର Vīravār
ਵੀਰਵਾਰ Vispati
‫ت‬ ِ َ‫ِوسپ‬
or
Khamīsa
‫َخمي َِس‬ Birôiśôtbār
ꠛꠤꠡꠥꠗꠛꠣꠞ Vyazhan
வியாழன் Guruvāraṁ, Br̥haspativāraṁ
గురువారం, బృహస్పతివారం, లక్ష్మీవారం Gurūvār
‫گرووار‬
or
Jume'rāt
‫ جمعرات‬Wrespati
ᬯ᭄ᬭᭂᬲ᭄ᬧᬢᬶ Jip
6 Śukravāsara
शुक्रवासर Friday/dies Veneris
Śukra = Venus
Xukurbār/Xukrôbār
শুকু ৰবাৰ/শুক্রবাৰ Śukrôbār
শুক্রবার Sukkar
सुक्कर Śukravār
શુક્રવાર Śukravār
शुक्रवार Śukravāra
ಶುಕ್ರವಾರ [ʃokurwaːr]
‫شۆک ُروار‬
or
[jumaːh]
‫ُجمعہ‬ Shukrār
शुक्रार Velli
വെള്ളി Śukradin
𑒬𑒳𑒏𑓂𑒩𑒠𑒱𑒢 Śukravāra
शुक्रवार Eerai
ꯏꯔ ꯥꯢ Sukrabar
शुक्रवार Sukrabāra
ଶୁକ୍ରବାର Śukkaravār
ਸ਼ੁੱਕਰਵਾਰŚukru
‫ڪر‬ُ ‫ُش‬
or
Jum'o
‫ُجمعو‬ Śukkurbār
ꠡꠥꠇ꠆ꠇꠥꠞ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ/ꠎꠥꠝ꠆ꠝꠣꠛꠣꠞ Velli
வெள்ளி Śukravāraṁ
శుక్రవారం Śukarvār
‫شکروار‬
or Juma'a
‫جمع‬ Sukra
ᬲᬸᬓ᭄ᬭ Suk
7 Śanivāsara
शनिवासर Saturday/dies Saturnis
Śani = Saturn
Xônibār
শনিবাৰ Śônibār
শনিবার Sanichchar
सनिच्चर Śanivār
શનિવાર Śanivār
शनिवार Śanivāra
ಶನಿವಾರ [baʈɨwaːr]
‫ بَٹ ٕہ وار‬Shenvār
शेनवार Shani
ശനി Śanidin
𑒬𑒢𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 Śanivāra
शनिवार Thangja
ꯊꯥ ꯥ ꯡꯖSanibar
शनिवार Sanibāra
ଶନିବାର Śanīvār
ਸ਼ਨੀਵਾਰ
or
Śaniccharvār
ਸ਼ਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ
or
Saniccharvār
ਸਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ
or
Sanīvār
ਸਨੀਵਾਰ Chancharu
‫نڇ ُر‬
َ ‫َڇ‬
or
Śanscharu
‫نسچ ُر‬
َ ‫ َش‬Śônibār
ꠡꠘꠤꠛꠣꠞ Shani
சனி Śanivāraṁ
శనివారం Sanīchar
‫سنیچر‬
or Haftah
‫ہفتہ‬ Saniscara
ᬲᬦᬶᬲ᭄ᬘᬭ Thanchar
1. ^ Punjabi Muslims use Urdu/Arabic words for Friday / Saturday etc.[60]
The term -vāsara is often realised as vāra or vaar in Sanskrit-derived and
influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional
languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.
Five limbs of time[edit]
The complete Vedic calendars contain five angas or parts of information: lunar day
(tithi), solar day (diwas), asterism (naksatra), planetary joining (yoga) and
astronomical period (karanam). This structure gives the calendar the name
Panchangam.[44] The first two are discussed above.
Yoga[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (March 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)
The Sanskrit word Yoga means "union, joining, attachment", but in astronomical
context, this word means latitudinal and longitudinal information. The longitude of
the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging
between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided
into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the
arcminute which means 1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are
labelled:
1. Viṣkambha
2. Prīti
3. Āyuśmān
4. Saubhāgya
5. Śobhana
6. Atigaṇḍa
7. Sukarma
8. Dhrti
9. Śūla
10. Gaṇḍa
11. Vṛddhi
12. Dhruva
13. Vyāghatā
14. Harṣaṇa
15. Vajra
16. Siddhi
17. Vyatipāta
18. Variyas
19. Parigha
20. Śiva
21. Siddha
22. Sādhya
23. Śubha
24. Śukla
25. Brahma
26. Māhendra
27. Vaidhṛti
Again, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day
is the prevailing yoga for the day.
Karaṇa[edit]
A karaṇa is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the
angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting
from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.)
Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one
would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas
which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4
"fixed" (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.
The 4
1. Śakuni (शकु नि)
2. Catuṣpāda (चतुष्पाद)
3. Nāga (नाग)
4. Kiṃstughna (किं स्तुघ्न)
The 7 "repeating" karaṇas are:[61]
1. Vava[disambiguation needed] or Bava (बव)
2. Valava or Bālava (बालव)
3. Kaulava (कौलव)
4. Taitila or Taitula (तैतिल)
5. Gara or Garaja (गरज)
6. Vaṇija (वणिज)
7. Viṣṭi (Bhadra) (भद्रा)
• Now the first half of the 1st tithi (of Śukla Pakṣa) is always Kiṃtughna
karaṇa. Hence this karaṇa is "fixed".
• Next, the 7-repeating karaṇas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-
tithis. Thus these are the "repeating" (cara) karaṇas.
• The 3 remaining half-tithis take the remaining "fixed" karaṇas in order. Thus
these are also "fixed" (sthira).
• Thus one gets 60 karaṇas from those 11 preset karaṇas.
The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be
the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day. (citation needed )
Nakshatra[edit]
See also: Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar § nakshatra
Nakshatras are divisions of ecliptic, each 13° 20', starting from 0° Aries.
Festival calendar: Solar and Lunar dates[edit]
Main article: List of Hindu festivals
Many holidays in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions are based on the lunar
cycles in the lunisolar timekeeping with foundations in the Hindu calendar system.
A few holidays, however, are based on the solar cycle, such as the Vaisakhi, Pongal
and those associated with Sankranti.[62] The dates of the lunar cycle based
festivals vary significantly on the Gregorian calendar and at times by several
weeks.The solar cycle based ancient Hindu festivals almost always fall on the same
Gregorian date every year and if they vary in an exceptional year, it is by one
day.[63]
Regional variants[edit]
The Hindu Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty
well-developed calendars, in use across different parts of India.
Variants include the lunar emphasizing Vikrama, the Shalivahana calendars, as well
as the solar emphasizing Tamil calendar and Malayalam calendar. The two calendars
most widely used today are the Vikrama calendar, which is in followed in western
and northern India and Nepal, the Shalivahana Shaka calendar which is followed in
the Deccan region of India (Comprising present day Indian states of Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa).[64]
Lunar[edit]
Calendars based on lunar cycle (lunar months in solar year, lunar phase for
religious dates and new year):
• Vikram Samvat
o Vikrami era – North and Central India (Lunar)
o Gujarati samvat – Gujarat, Rajasthan
o Sindhi samvat – Sindhis
• Shalivahana calendar (Shaka era) – Used in Deccan region states of
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
• Saptarishi era calendar – Kashmiri Pandits
• Nepal Sambat – Newaris in Nepal, Sikkim
• Meitei calendar – Manipur
Solar[edit]
Calendars based on solar cycle (solar months in solar year, lunar phase for
religious dates but new year which falls on solar date – South and Southeast Asian
solar New Year):
• Assamese calendar – Assam
• Bengali calendar – West Bengal
• Odia calendar – Odisha
• Tirhuta Panchang – Maithilis
• Tripuri calendar – Tripura
• Malayalam calendar – Kerala
• Tamil calendar – Tamil Nadu
• Tulu calendar – Tulus
• Vikram Samvat
o Punjabi calendar – Punjab, Haryana
o Vikrami era – North and Central India (Solar)
o Bikram Sambat – Nepal, Sikkim
Other related calendars across India and Asia[edit]
• Indian national calendar – used by Indian Government (civil calendar based on
solar months)
• Vira Nirvana Samvat (Lunar) – Jain
• Nanakshahi calendar (Solar) – Sikh
• Buddhist calendar (Lunar) – Buddhist
• Tibetan calendar (Lunar) – Tibet, Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
• Pawukon calendar – Bali
• Balinese saka calendar (Lunar) – Bali
• Cham calendar (Lunar) – Chams
• Chula Sakarat (Solar) – Myanmar
• Thai solar calendar – Thailand
• Thai lunar calendar – Thailand
• Khmer calendar (Solar) – Cambodia
See also[edit]
• Hinduism
• Panjika
• Sankranti
• Ekadashi
• Panchangam
• Kollam era
• Hindu astrology
• Hindu units of time
• Malayalam calendar
• List of Hindu festivals
• Hindu units of measurement
• List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties
• Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar
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69112-04-85.
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Bibliography[edit]
• Kim Plofker (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. ISBN
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• Pingree, David (1973). "The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical
Astronomy". Journal for the History of Astronomy. SAGE. 4 (1): 1–12.
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• Pingree, David (1981). Jyotihśāstra : Astral and Mathematical Literature.
Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3447021654.
• Yukio Ohashi (1999). Johannes Andersen (ed.). Highlights of Astronomy, Volume
11B. Springer Science. ISBN 978-0-7923-5556-4.
• Yukio Ohashi (1993). "Development of Astronomical Observations in Vedic and
post-Vedic India". Indian Journal of History of Science. 28 (3).
• Maurice Winternitz (1963). History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0056-4.
Further reading[edit]
• Reingold and Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition,
Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004.
ISBN 0-521-77752-6
• S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press,
Hyderabad, 2000.
• Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, The Paleography of India, 2
ed., Ajmer, 1918, reprinted Manshuram Manoharlal publishers, 1993.
External links[edit]
• Kyoto University Gregorian – Saka – Vikrami Calendar Converter Tool, M. YANO
and M. FUSHIMI
• Converter: Gregorian and 1957 Normalized Indian Calendar, Shalivahana Hindu
calendar, United Kingdom
• Hindu Calendar of Nepal The Official Hindu Calendar of Nepal
• Hindu Odia Calendar The most followed Hindu Odia Calendar of Odisha, India
• Hindu Calendar 2020 Fasting Dates & Festivals for New Delhi, India
• Accurate Hindu Calendar/Drik Panchang
• Today Marathi Calendar current year
• Indian Hindu Calendar 2020 in Hindi

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1. In Vedic astrology, meaning "five attributes" of the day.

No Natchathara Name Natchathara Temple Name

Nakshatras and Upanakshatras

The astronomical basis of the Hindu lunar day

Kanippayyur Shankaran Namboodiripad

sāvana māna dina

Calendar usage across India

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