The cardinal points

The four cardinal directions correspond to the following degrees of a compass: the North (N)
- 0° = 360°; the East (E) - 90°; the South (S) - 180°; the West (W) - 270° .The ordinal (or
halfcardinal/intercardinal) direction corresponds to the following degrees of a compass: the
Northeast (NE) - 45°, halfway between north and east, is the opposite of southwest. The
Southeast (SE) - 135°, halfway between south and east, is the opposite of northwest. The
Southwest (SW) - 225°, halfway between south and west, is the opposite of northeast. The
Northwest (NW) - 315°, halfway between north and west, is the opposite of southeast. The
equator is an imaginary line on the Earth's surface that divides the Earth into the Northern
Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. The North Pole is a point in the northern
hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface. The South Pole is
the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth. It borders the continent of Antarctica, on
the opposite side of the Earth from the North Pole.

Port
Ports are the links between maritime and land-based trade. Traditionally ports are where the
coastline provides a sheltered anchorage. Other ports are near the mouths of rivers, where
river and sea traffic meet: Hamburg, Rotterdam, Shanghai, London and New Orleans are
examples. Others are on straits between landmasses – like Istanbul – or where major trade
routes pass – such as Singapore. Some ports are on a lake, a river, or a canal and have access
to a sea or to an ocean. A port is a man-made coastal infrastructure where ships may moor,
anchor, receive/transfer/load/unload cargo, pick up supplies, fuel, etc. There usually are
warehouses for storage of goods and a transport system, such as railway, road or pipeline
transport. A man-made port usually has sea walls or breakwaters and may require dredging.
As a rule a typical port infrastructure includes: the aids to navigation; port/harbor pilot
service; berths, piers, jetties and wharves; cargo-handling equipment; office building and
customs departments, etc. The following types of terminals are usually presented in a port:
bulk terminals; container terminals; oil terminals; and passenger terminals. There are two
types of docks: docks where ships remain afloat and dry docks - areas without water to
check, repair, clean and paint the underwater part of the ships. A canal lock is a structure to
raise or lower a ship from one water level to another.
 Cargo types
Bulk cargo consists of a single commodity and includes liquid bulk cargo and dry/break bulk
cargo (such as oil, salt, scrap metal, grain, logs and wood chips, etc.). General cargo consists
of a variety of goods, including containerized, non-containerized and refrigerated cargo.
Containers are the “fastest” cargo category. Containerized cargo includes everything from
auto parts and machinery components to shoes, toys, frozen meat and seafood. Project cargo
and heavy lift cargo include items, such as manufacturing equipment, factory components,
power equipment, generators, military equipment or almost any other oversized or
overweight cargo too big or too heavy to fit into a container. Dangerous Goods include
explosives; gases; flammable liquids or substances; substances which, in contact with water,
emit flammable gases; substances (agents) in contact with oxygen increase the risk and
intensity of fire; radioactive substances; corrosives; substances which burn rapidly and are
sensitive to impact or friction; toxic and infectious substances. The International Convention
for the Safety of the Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the
Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) regulate the carriage of dangerous goods and
marine pollutants on sea-going ships. The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
Code is a mandatory requirement and includes relevant parts of both SOLAS and MARPOL.

Waterways and shipping routes

A waterway is any navigable body of water. These include rivers, lakes, seas, oceans and
canals. In order to be navigable, a waterway must meet several criteria: The waterway must
be deep enough to allow the draft depth of the vessels using it; The waterway must be wide
enough to allow passage for the beam width of the vessels using it; The waterway must be
free of barriers to navigation, such as waterfalls and rapids, or have a way around them (such
as canal locks); The current of the waterway must be mild. A shipping route is a trade route
used by merchant ships. The shipping routes density depends on the world trade flows,
especially on oil, gas and containers transportation. The oceans and seas occupy nearly 71%
of our planet's surface. There are five oceans in the world: the Pacific Ocean (155,557,000 sq
km), the Atlantic Ocean (76,762,000 sq km), the Indian Ocean (68,556,000 sq km), the
Southern Ocean (20,327,000 sq km), the Arctic Ocean (14,056,000 sq km). Note: in 2000 the
International Hydrographic Organization recognized the fifth ocean - the Southern Ocean.
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean of the world. The equator subdivides it into the North
Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. Mariana Trench is the greatest depth of the
Pacific Ocean. Panama Canal is a man-made canal in Panama which joins the Pacific and
Atlantic oceans. The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean of the world. The equator
subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and the South Atlantic Ocean. North and South
America bound the Atlantic Ocean. The English Channel is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean
that separates England from northern France and joins the North Sea with the Atlantic
Ocean. The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the world. Asia bounds it in the north;
Africa bounds it in the west; Indochina bounds it in the east and the Southern Ocean bounds
it in the south. The Mozambique Channel is a portion of the Indian Ocean between the
island of Madagascar and southeast Africa. The Arctic Ocean is in the Northern Hemisphere
and is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five oceans. Eurasia and North America
surround the Arctic Ocean.

The deepest seas of the world are: the Caribbean Sea (6,946 meters), the South China Sea
(5,016 meters), the Bering Sea (4,773 meters), the Mediterranean Sea (4,632 meters), the Gulf
of Mexico (3,787 meters) and the Japan Sea (3,742 meters). The Caribbean Sea is one of the
largest seas. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays. The South China Sea is a sea to
the south of China. It is a part of the Pacific Ocean. China, Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the
Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam
border the South China Sea. The Bering Sea is a sea of the Pacific Ocean. Alaska Peninsula
separates the Bering Sea by the Gulf of Alaska. The Mediterranean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic
Ocean; Europe surrounds it in the north, Africa in the south and Asia in the east. The
Bosporus (the Istanbul Strait) is the world's narrowest strait which connects the Black Sea
with the Sea of Marmara. The Strait of Gibraltar connects the Mediterranean Sea with the
Atlantic Ocean in the west. The Dardanelles connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Sea of
Marmara and the Black Sea by the Bosporus in the east. The Gulf of Suez, the Suez Canal and
the Gulf of Aden link the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. The Bab-el-Mandeb strait
separates Africa and Asia and links the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden.
The Strait of Magellan is the most important natural passage between the Pacific and the
Atlantic oceans; it is a difficult route to navigate because of the inhospitable climate and the
narrowness of the passage. The Strait of Malacca connects the Pacific Ocean to the east with
the Indian Ocean to the west.

Deck department
Deck department typically includes: Chief Officer; Second Officer; Third Officer; Boatswain;
at least 6 Able Seamen; at least 2 Ordinary Seamen. The Chief Mate/Officer is a head of the
deck department. The Chief Mate's responsibilities include the ship's cargo operations, her
stability and supervising the deck crew and steward's department. The Chief Mate is
responsible for the safety and security of the ship. Additional duties include maintenance of
the ship's hull, proper maintenance of cargo equipment, accommodations, life saving and
firefighting appliances. The Chief Mate also trains the crew and cadets in safety, firefighting,
search and rescue, etc. The Second Mate/Officer typically keeps the 12-4 navigation watch.
That is, the Second Mate will keep watch from 12.00 to 16.00 at noon and again from 00.00
to 04.00 at night. The Second Mate is typically the navigation officer on board the ship. The
navigation officer is responsible for maintaining the charts and the navigational equipment
on the bridge. The duties also include the passage planning under the direction of the ship's
Master. He is also responsible for the management of the ship’s medical locker and the
reordering of medical supplies. On oil tankers, the second officer usually provides the Chief
Mate with assistance in cargo operations and tanks cleaning. The Third Mate usually
maintains firefighting, lifesaving equipment, emergency systems under the supervision of the
Chief Mate and is in charge of the bridge and cargo watch. A Deck Cadet must carry out
training on board the ship, executing tasks of an Officer in Charge of a Navigation Watch
(OICNW) and complete a " On Board Training Record Book for Deck Cadets (Trainee
Officers)". Deck Cadets are trained in Navigation, Shiphandling and Cargo Handling. They
also receive training in firefighting, first aid and survival techniques. A Boatswain is in
charge of the deck crew and equipment. An Able Seaman (AB – Able Bodied Seaman) works
at a ship's deck department as a watchkeeper, a day worker, or a combination of these roles.
At sea an AB watchkeeper's duties include keeping watch as helmsman. A helmsman is
required to maintain a steady course, properly execute all rudder orders and communicate
using navigational terms of heading and steering. While the ship is not underway, AB assists
in cargo operations and keeps security-related watches, such as a gangway watch or anchor
watch. OS’ duties typically include the deck equipment maintenance.

Engine department
A ship's engine department consists of a ship's crew that operates and maintains the
engineering equipment and propulsion complex aboard the vessel. E/D personnel also deals
with fuel transfers, cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems as well as with the
"Hotel" facilities: air conditioning, water systems, lighting and sewage treatment and requires
training in firefighting and first aid. A common E/D includes: Chief Engineer; Electrical
Engineer; Second Engineer/First Assistant Engineer; Third Engineer/Second Assistant
Engineer; Fourth Engineer/Third Assistant Engineer; Wiper. Other possible positions include
Motorman, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer and Tankerman. An Engine Cadet must carry
out training on board the ship, executing tasks under the supervision of senior officers.
Cadets assist the engineers in their duties and complete a "sea project". Engine Cadets are
trained in Applied Mathematics, Physics, Thermodynamics and Control Engineering. Engine
Cadets are also trained in welding, firefighting, survival and first aid. Engine Cadets complete
the sea training to obtain a watchkeeping license. The Chief Engineer is responsible for all
operations and maintenance of all engineering equipment throughout the ship. The Second
Engineer is an officer responsible for supervising the daily maintenance and operation of the
engine department. This is typically the busiest engineer; his operational duties include
responsibility for the main engines, refrigeration systems and other Engine room equipment.
The Third Engineer, or Second Assistant Engineer, is usually in charge of the diesel generator
plant, auxiliary engines and fuel. The duties of this position often depend on the type of ship
and the engine department. The Fourth Engineer or, Third Assistant Engineer, is usually
responsible for lube oil, oily water separation systems, feed systems, boilers, sewage
treatment, deck and cargo equipment. A pumpman (is a position aboard the tankers)
performs all the work necessary for the safe and proper operation of the liquid cargo transfer
system. A wiper is the most junior crew member in the engine room. His work consists of
wiping machinery and constantly keeping it clean. A motorman usually repairs the
equipment under the supervision of the Engineer Officer of the Watch.

Types of merchant and special purpose ships

Cargo ships are categorized partly by their capacity, partly by their weight and partly by
their dimensions according to the various canals and canal locks through which they can
pass. At the same time other classification systems include: the number of hulls; the shape
and size; the building materials used; the type of propulsion system used; the geographic
origin of the vessel; the manufacturer, series, or class. Universal ships (Combined carriers)
carry different types of both liquid and dry bulk cargoes, such as: CONBULKERs –
container/bulk-carrier; Multi-purpose container ships carry containers as well as general
cargo; OBO ships which carry a combination of ore, bulk and oil; PROBO ships –
product/oil/bulk/ore-carriers; O/O ships are combination of oil and ore carriers; BIBO
bulkers are equipped to bag cargo as it is loaded. In one hour, this ship can load and pack 300
tons of bulk sugar into 50 kg sacks. The specialized ships carry one type of cargo and include
timber carriers; bulkers (bulkcarriers), reefer ships, which transport cargo requiring
temperature-controlled transportation, tankers, container ship, etc. Liner business is
typically characterized by carriage of "general cargo" by container ships which operate as
"common carriers" and call at regularly-published schedule of ports. The capacity of a
container ship is measured in TEU. A Container Vessel carries containers of 20ft (6m) or 40ft
(12m) length, 8ft width and 8.5ft to 9.5ft height. Distinguishing Features: containers below
and above the deck; possible deck-mounted cranes. Types of Cargo: any containerized cargo.
Tramp-tanker business is generally a private business between the shipper and the receiver
according to the special contract, called a “charter party”. Different types of tankers transport
a variety of liquids; crude oil, refined oil products and chemicals. When loading and
discharging, the product is pumped on and off the vessel through pipes. Tankers are either
single-hulled or double-hulled. Double-hull tankers decrease the chances of an oil spill in an
accident or collision. A single-hulled tanker carries oil directly within the hull structure,
while a double-hulled tanker has separate tanks within the hull structure. Dry cargo ships
are mainly bulk carriers (bulk freighter, or bulker) and container ships. Gearless carriers are
bulkers without cranes or conveyors. Bulk carriers as a rule contain a number of separated
holds to carry more than one type of cargo at a time. Distinguishing Features: Geared bulk
carriers have cranes or derricks which allow them to discharge cargo in ports without shore-
based equipment. Roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) ships are cargo ships to carry wheeled cargo such
as automobiles, trailers or railway carriages. These ships have bow and stern doors and steel
ramps, which permit vehicles to drive on board and drive off again. Double-ended ferries
have interchangeable bows and sterns, to shuttle back and forth between two terminals
without having to turn around. Fast RoPax ferries have a large garage and a large passenger
capacity and sail over 25 knots (46 km/h). Most ferries operate on regular, frequent routes.
Distinguishing Feature: a ramp which allows motor vehicles (automobiles, trucks, trailers,
farm tractors, etc.) to drive on and off the vessel. Special-purpose vessels include
research/survey vessels and the like, which perform the following specific auxiliary service
tasks: Cable layer ships which lay underwater cables for telecommunications, electricity, etc;
Trawlers (fishing vessels), equipped with the nets and cranes; SAR – Search and Rescue
(salvage) vessels, used in search and rescue operations; Tug/Tugboats and pushboats which
assist to enter and leave port water area; Pilot vessels (launch/boat); Drill ships for drilling for
oil in deep waters; Different types of Lash-ships (Lighter aboard ship) which carry lighters or
floating containers; Barges (flat-bottomed vessels), which transport heavy goods; most barges
are not self-propelled and need tugboats towing or pushing them and Dredgers which
excavate bottom sediments.

Cargo ship construction

Some components exist in vessels of any size and purpose. Every vessel has a hull, propulsion
and steering systems, compartments, holds, as well as: chimney (funnel); stern; propeller;
anchor; bow; deck and superstructure. The hull is the area between the main deck, the sides
(port and starboard) and the bottom. There are frames, beams and the keel inside the hull.
Decks and bulkheads divide the hull into a number of watertight compartments. The hull is
covered with plating and is divided into three main parts: the bow, the stern and midship.
The part of the hull below water is the ship’s underwater body. The hull contains the engine
room, cargo spaces, tanks, holds. The bow is the foremost part of the hull (some ships have a
bulbous bow). The rearmost part of the hull is the stern (and many hulls have a flat back
known as a transom); the part between is called midship. Tanks are used to store fuel, engine
oil and fresh water. The openings giving access to holds are called hatches. If a ship has
double sides, the space between the sides contains wing/ballast tanks. Ballast tanks are
equipped to change a ship's trim and modify its stability. Forepeak tanks are at the fore end
of the hull and afterpeak tanks are at the after end. They are used for fresh water and fuel.
There are usually three decks: the main deck, the upper deck and the lower deck. Deck
superstructure represents the accomodation for the crew. The superstructure is usually
located near the ship's stern. At the top of the superstructure there is a bridge. The forward
raised part of the deck is called the forecastle and its after raised part is the poop. There are
some openings in the decks, they are: ventillators, scuttles and skylights. Shipboard
equipment depends on the ship's design, area of operation and purpose. Some types of
equipment include: Masts; Ground tackle; Cargo equipment and Safety equipment.
Propulsion system typically consists of a motor or engine, turning a propeller for propulsion.
There are many variations of propeller systems: twin, contra-rotating, controllable-pitch and
nozzlestyle propellers. Power is transmitted from the engine to the propeller by way of a
propeller shaft, which may or may not be connected to a gearbox.

There are two-stroke, four-stroke diesel engines and gas turbine engines. Diesel engines are
classified according to: their operating cycle: two-stroke or four-stroke; their construction:
crosshead, trunk, or opposed piston; their speed. Steering system includes rudders (located at
the rear of the hull) rotated by electro-hydraulic systems to generate a lateral force which
turns the boat; stern and bow thrusters; stabilizers to quell a ship's rolling motion and
autopilot systems which combine mechanical rudders with navigation systems. The
generators form the heart of the electrical design of the ship. International maritime
regulations (e.g. SOLAS), require at least two generators for a ship's main electrical power
system. A ship’s Length Overall (LOA) is measured in feet and inches from the extreme
forward end of the bow to the extreme aft end of the stern. A ship’s length is sometimes
given as Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP). It is measured in feet and inches from the
forward surface of the stem, or main bow perpendicular member, to the after surface of the
sternpost, or main stern perpendicular member. On some types of vessels this is a waterline
measurement. A ship’s Length on Load Waterline (LWL) is an important dimension because
the length at the waterline is a key factor of speed, resistance and friction. A ship’s extreme
breadth, commonly called beam, is measured in feet and inches from the most outboard
point on one side to the most outboard point on the other at the widest point on the ship.
Beam Over All (BOA or B): Maximum width of the vessel. BWL – Beam Water Line: Width
of the hull at the level of the water plane. The vessel’s depth is measured vertically in the
following dimensions: Freeboard; Air draught; Draft. Draft marks are numbers marked on
each side of the bow and stern of the vessel. Draft marks show the distance from the bottom
of the keel to the waterline. Load line (Plimsoll line) - the line indicating the depth to which
it sinks in the water when properly loaded.

IMO
The IMO is a specialized agency dealing with marine safety, pollution prevention and other
marine affairs. The highest governing body of IMO is its Assembly, which consists of all
member states. After the Second World War the number of merchant ships increased
considerably. The sailing of so many vessels in the world’s oceans and seas involved many
problems. To avoid accidents at sea it became necessary to coordinate their activities. For this
purpose the organization of the United Nations worked out a special convention to create
IMCO (International Maritime Consultative Organization), now it is called IMO. The IMO
performs many functions through its committees. The main of them are: the Committee of
Safety at Sea, the Committee for Protecting the Sea Environment, the Legal Committee and
the Committee for Technical Cooperation. The Chief IMO Conventions in force are: SOLAS
– 1974; MARPOL - 73/78; COLREG – 1972; STCW – 78/95; Load – 1966.