STEM 12

CHEMISTRY 2

QUARTER 3: MODULE 1
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES,
LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS (PART 1)

PHOEBE T. MARCHAN
INSTRUCTOR

Time Frame: One Week

Module 1
Learning outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students must be able to;
 Illustrate the kinetic molecular model of liquid and solids.
 Differentiate the following intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA): hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole, ion-dipole,
and van der Waals or London dispersion force.
 Differentiate solids from liquids through their properties and the IMFA that holds the atoms/molecules together.
(Surface tension, viscosity, capillarity, vapour pressure and boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization)

Discussion
If you recall since you study chemistry, the three states of matter were always part of the discussion, namely
solid, liquid and gas. Let us try to focus the discussion on solids and liquids. The particles of solid have definite
arrangement while those of the liquids are irregular. With this, you will learn that the particles of solids behave
differently with those of the particles of liquids.

THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

The physical properties of a substance depend upon its physical state. Water vapour, liquid water and ice have
the same chemical properties, but their physical properties are considerably different. The following help determine the
physical and chemical properties of solids and liquids.

1. Covalent bonds determine

a. molecular shoe
b. bond energies
c. chemical properties
2. Intermolecular forces (non-covalent bonds) influence
a. physical properties of liquids and solids

LIQUIDS
1. The intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to hold molecules close together
2. Liquids are more dense and less compressible than gasses
3. Liquids have a definite volume, independent of the size and shape of their container
4. The attractive forces are not strong enough, however, to keep neighboring molecules in a fixed position and
molecules are free to move past or slide over one another or have the capacity to flow. Thus, liquids can be
poured and assume the shape of their containers.

SOLIDS
1. The intermolecular forces between neighboring molecules are strong enough to keep them locked in position
2. Solids (like liquids) are not very compressible due to the lack of space between molecules
3. If the molecules in a solid adopt a highly ordered packing arrangement, the structures are said to be crystalline.

Due to the strong intermolecular forces between neighboring molecules, solids are rigid. The state of a substance
depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of the individual particles (molecules or atoms) and the
intermolecular forces
1. Kinetic energy keeps the molecules apart and move around, and is a function of the temperature of the
substance’
2. Intermolecular forces try to draw the particles together.

Gases have weaker intermolecular forces than liquids, while liquids have weaker intermolecular forces than solids.
1. Solids and liquids have particles that are fairly close to one another, and are called “condensed phases” to
distinguish them from gases.
Do you know that there are several factors affecting the state of a substance, namely?
1. Temperature – Heating and cooling can change the kinetic energy of the particles in a substance, and so, we can
change the physical state of a substance by heating or cooling it.
a. Cooling gas may change the state to a liquid.
b. Cooling a liquid may change the state to a solid.
2. Pressure – Increasing the pressure on a substance forces the molecules closer together which increase the
strength of intermolecular forces as shown on figure 1.2.
a. Increasing the pressure on a gas may change the state to a liquid.
b. Increasing the pressure on a liquid may change the state to a solid.
Figure 1.2 Effect of Pressure on the Particles of Gas, Liquid and Solid (T for temperature; P for Pressure)

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Activity: Take a glass of water; add a few drops of red food coloring in it. What happens? Why does this happen?

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behavior of matter. It is based on a series of
postulates. Some of the postulates of KMT are as follows:
1. Matter is made up of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic energy.
2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
3. There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the substance’s state of
matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of these forces increase
as particles gets closer together.

KMT and Properties of Liquid

One of the most significant properties of liquids is that they are fluid and they can flow. The liquid particles having
relatively more energy than solid particles, is what allows liquids to flow. Liquids have definite volume, but not a definite
shape. Liquids have low compressibility; which means that compared to gases, there is little space between particles but
with solids, liquids have greater space between particles. On the molecular level, these two factors make liquids to
appear as disorganized. The types of intermolecular forces in a liquid depend on the chemical make-up of the liquid
itself. Strength of intermolecular force is related to the type of intermolecular force, but it is also affected by the amount
of kinetic energy in the substance. The higher the kinetic energy, the weaker the intermolecular forces of a substance.
Liquids have more kinetic energy than solids, so the intermolecular forces between liquid particles tend to be weaker.

KMT and Solid

Solid substances have definite shapes and volumes. Solid particles do move, but not very far! Solid particles have
relatively little kinetic energy and vibrate in place. Because of this, they cannot flow like liquids. Most solids are
arranged in a tightly pack crystalline structure. The crystalline structure is comprised of an orderly, repeating
arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice. The shape of the crystal shows the arrangement of the particles in the
solid. In contrast to crystalline solids, amorphous solids do not have orderly internal structures. Examples of amorphous
solids include rubber, plastic and glass. Wax is also an amorphous solid. It can be molded into any shape and remolded
anytime it is heated a bit.

Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between particles. They are distinctly different from the bonds that
occur within particles. The type of intermolecular forces present depends on the type of particle present. Depending on
its strength, intermolecular forces cause the forming of three physical states; solid, liquid and gas. The physical
properties such as melting point, boiling point, vapour pressure, evaporation, viscosity, surface tension, and solubility
are related to the strength of attractive forces between molecules. The amount of interaction is important in the
interpretation of the various properties listed above.

Dipole-dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces occur between the oppositely charged poles of polar molecules. Dipole-dipole interactions result
when two dipolar molecules interact with each other through space. When this occurs, the partially negative portion of
one of the polar molecules is attracted to the partially positive portion of the second polar molecule. This type of
interaction between molecules accounts for many physically and biologically significant phenomena such as the elevated
boiling point of water.

Ion-dipole Forces
Ion-dipole forces occur between an ion and a polar molecule. An ion will form an attraction with an oppositely
charged pole of a neighboring molecule. Salt water is loaded with ion-dipole attractions. Positive sodium ions are
attracted to the negative poles of water molecules. Negatively charged chloride ions are attracted to the positive poles
of water molecules.

Dispersion Forces
A German-American physicist, Fritz London proposed a weak intermolecular force that arise from the interactive forces
between instantaneous dipoles or induced dipoles in molecules are called London dispersion forces or dispersion
forces.

Van der Waals force, named after a Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals is a force of attraction between two
nonpolar substances. Molecules can attract each other at moderate distance and repel each other at close range. The
attractive forces are collectively called “vander Waals forces”. Van der Waals forces are much weaker than chemical
bonds, and random thermal motion around room temperature can usually overcome or disrupt them.

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds occur between polar molecules that contain an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom covalently bonded
to a hydrogen atom as shown on figure 1.8. The intermolecular attraction happens between the partially negatively
charged oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen and the partially positively charged hydrogen of a neighboring molecule. Hydrogen
bonds are relatively strong intermolecular forces.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND IMFA

Surface Tension
Surface tension and water is illustrated on figure 1.9, floating paper clip made of steel with copper plating. The
cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules
at the surface of a glass of water do not have other water molecule on all sides of them and consequently they cohere
more strongly to those directly associated with them (in this case, next to and below them, but not above). It is not
really true that a “skin” forms on the water surface; the stronger cohesion between the water molecules as opposed to
the attraction of the water molecules to the air makes move difficult to move an object through the surface than to
move it when it is completely submersed.
The cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid are shared with all neighboring molecules. Those on the surface
have no neighboring molecules above and thus exhibit stronger attractive forces with their nearest neighbors on and
below the surface. Surface tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
Water molecules cling to each other. At the surface, however, there are fewer water molecules to cling to since
there is air above (thus, no water molecules). This results in a stronger bond between those molecules that come in
contact with one another, and a layer of strongly bonded water. This surface layer (held together by surface tension)
creates a considerable barrier between the atmosphere and the water. In fact, other than mercury, water has the
greatest surface tension of any liquid. Due to the surface tension, small objects will “float” on the surface of a fluid, as
long as the object cannot break through and separate the top layer of water molecules. When an object is on the surface
of the fluid, the surface under tension will behave like an elastic membrane.

Examples of Surface Tension

1. Walking on water. Small insects such as water strider can walk on the water surface because their weight is not
enough to penetrate the surface of the water.
2. Floating a needle. A small needle even though it is several times as dense as water that is carefully placed on the
surface of water will float. If the surface is agitated to break or decrease the surface tension, the needle quickly sinks.
3. Surface tension disinfectants. Disinfectants are usually solutions of low surface tension. This allows them to spread
out on the cell walls of bacteria and disrupt them.
4. Soaps and detergents. These help the cleaning of clothes by lowering the surface tension of the water so that it
readily soaks into pores and soiled areas.
5. Why bubbles are round. The surface tension of water provides the necessary wall tension for the formation of
bubbles with water. The tendency to minimize that wall tension pulls the bubbles into spherical shapes.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid’s resistance to flow. Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed
objects through them as well as to the motion of layers with differing velocities within them. There are actually two
quantities that are called viscosity. The quantity defined above is sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute
viscosity, or simple viscosity. On the other hand, the quantity called kinematic viscosity (represented by the Greek
letter v “nu”) is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to its density. It is a measure of the resistive flow of the fluid under the
influence of gravity. It is frequently measured using a device called capillary viscometer – basically a graduated glass
tubing with narrow part on one side. When two fluid of equal volume are placed in identical capillary viscometers and
allowed to flow under the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid takes longer than a less viscous fluid to flow through the
tube.
The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is the square meter per second [m 2/s], which has no special name. This unit is so
large that it is rarely used. A more common unit of kinematic viscosity is the square centimetre per second [cm 2/s],
which is given the name stokes [St] after the Irish mathematician and physicist George Stroke (1819-1903). One square
meter per second is equal to ten thousand stokes.
Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under extreme pressure often experience an increase in
viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible, an increase in pressure doesn’t really bring the molecules
significantly closer together. simple models of molecular interactions won’t work to explain this behavior and, there is
no generally accepted more complex model that does. The liquid phase is probably the least well understood of all the
phases of matter.

CAPILLARITY – is the rise or depression of a liquid in a small passage such as a tube of small cross-sectional area, the
spaces between the fibers of a towel or the openings in a porous material. Capillarity is not limited to the vertical
direction. Water is drawn into the fibers of a towel, no matter how the towel is oriented.

Liquids that rise in small-bore tubes inserted into the liquid are said to wet the tube, whereas liquids that are
depressed within thin tubes below the surface of the surrounding liquid do not wet the tube. Water is a liquid that wets
glass capillary tubes; mercury is one that does not. When wetting does not occur, capillary does not occur.

Capillarity is the result of surface, or interfacial, forces. The rise of water in a thin tube inserted in water is caused by
forces of attraction between the molecules of water and the glass walls and among the molecules of water and the glass
walls and among the molecules of water themselves. These attractive forces just balance the force of gravity of the
column of water that has risen to a characteristic height. The narrower the bore of the capillary tube, the higher that has
rises. Mercury, conversely, is depressed to a greater degree, the narrower the bore.

VAPOR PRESSURE AND BOILING POINT

Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapour in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed
(solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system. The equilibrium vapour pressure is an indication of a liquid’s
evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or solid). A substance with a high
vapour pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the
kinetic energy of its molecules also increases, thus energy of the molecules also increases. The number of molecules
transformed into a vapour also increases, thereby increasing the vapour pressure.
The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature
at which the vapour pressure equals the surrounding atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that
temperature, the vapour pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form
vapour bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubbles formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and
therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth
increases.
The vapour pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius-
Clapeyron relation.
Let us try to have a short discussion on Clausius-Clapeyron equation. The equation allows you to estimate the
vapour pressure at different temperature, if the vapour pressure is known at a given temperature, and if the enthalpy of
vaporization is also known. Mathematically, it can be expressed as

( T1 − T1 )∨¿ eliminate the exponential form , we have

−∆ Hv
R
P2=P1
2 1

R (T T )
P ∆H 1 1
1 V
¿ = −
P 2 2 1

where P1 is the vapour pressure at T1 R is the universal gas constant

P2 is the vapour pressure at T2 ∆ Hv is the heat of vaporization

Illustrative Example 1.1

kj
The vapour pressure of water at 100oC and 1 atmosphere is 40.65 , what is the vapour pressure at 120 oC?
mole
GIVEN: P1 = 1 atm P2 = ?
T1 = 100oC + 273 T2 = 120oC + 273
=373K =393K
kj joules
∆ Hv = 40.65 R = 8.3145
mole mole−K
J
= 40,650
mole
SOLUTION: Using the relationship
 ( T1 − T1 )
−∆ Hv
R
P2=P 1
2 1

= (1.0atm)-(40650joules/mole)/(8.3145joules/mole-K) ( 3931 K − 3731 K )

= 0.68 atm ~ 506.95 mm Hg or 507.0 mm Hg

NORMAL BOILING POINT

The vapour pressure is constant at a certain temperature. As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure
increases. The normal boiling point is the temperature the equilibrium vapour pressure is exactly 1 atm (760 mm Hg).
The normal boiling point for water is 100 oC, volatile liquids boil at lower temperatures, such as, CHCl 3 at 61oC and
C2H5OH at 78oC.
As the liquid boils, bubbles of vapour form throughout the liquid. At the normal boiling point, the pressure of
the gas in the bubbles is equal to the pressure outside which is 1 atm and the bubbles rise to the surface and escape into
the atmosphere. Sometimes, a liquid is heated to its boiling point, but no bubbles form, continue heating so that a liquid
becomes superheated, that is, the temperature of the liquid is higher than its normal boiling point. A superheated liquid
is not stable and if more heat is added, bubbles then form and when it does, the vapour pressure in the bubble is greater
than 1 atm and the bubble expands very fast, causing hot liquid to spatter. This phenomenon is termed as dumping.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a
substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).
Liquids may change to a vapour at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation.
Evaporation is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in temperature
and/or pressure. It is an essential part of the water cycle and continuously occurring in nature. On the other hand,
boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapour bubbles
within the liquid.
Molar heat of vaporization is an important part of energy calculations since it helps you to know how much
energy is needed to boil each mole of substance.

CHEMISTRY 2
MODULE 1

ASSESSMENT

Identification
_____1. is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of
vapour bubbles within the liquid.
_____2. is the process of a substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in
temperature and/or pressure.
_____3. is a model used to explain the behavior of matter. It is based on a series of postulates.
_____4. This energy in motion is called __________.
_____5. forces occur between the oppositely charged poles of polar molecules.
_____6. forces occur between an ion and a polar molecule
_____7. a weak intermolecular force that arise from the interactive forces between instantaneous dipoles
or induced dipoles in molecules are called _____________.
_____8. is a force of attraction between two nonpolar substances.
_____9. are the attractive forces between particles.
_____10. Heating and cooling can change the kinetic energy of the particles in a substance, and so, we can
change the physical state of a substance by heating or cooling it.

Essay (5 points each)

1. Explain the kinetic molecular theory in your own idea.
2. Give atleast 3 examples of surface tension and explain each.