Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Conference Papers in Energy

Volume 2013, Article ID 764132, 9 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/764132

Conference Paper
State of Art of Solar Photovoltaic Technology

Utpal Gangopadhyay, Sukhendu Jana, and Sayan Das

Meghnad Saha Institute of Technology, Techno India Group, Kolkata 700150, India

Correspondence should be addressed to Utpal Gangopadhyay; utpal ganguly@yahoo.com

Received 2 January 2013; Accepted 30 April 2013

Academic Editors: P. Agarwal, B. Bhattacharya, and U. P. Singh

This Conference Paper is based on a presentation given by Sukhendu Jana at “International Conference on Solar Energy
Photovoltaics” held from 19 December 2012 to 21 December 2012 in Bhubaneswar, India.
Copyright © 2013 Utpal Gangopadhyay et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Solar electricity is more expensive than that produced by traditional sources. But over the past two decades, the cost gap has been
closing. Solar photovoltaic (SPV) technology has emerged as a useful power source of applications such as lightning, meeting the
electricity needs of villages, hospitals, telecommunications, and houses. The long and increasing dominance of crystalline silicon
in photovoltaic (PV) market is perhaps surprising given the wide variety of materials capable of producing the photovoltaic effect.
PV based on silicon wafers has captured more than 90% market share because it is more reliable and generally more efficient
than competing technologies. The crystalline silicon PV is reliable as far as long term stability in real field but it is not economically
viable due to starting material silicon itself costly. But still, research continues on developing a diverse set of alternative photovoltaic
technology. Now PV technology is being increasingly recognized as a part of the solution to the growing energy challenge and an
essential component of future global energy production. In this paper, we give a brief review about PV technology particularly
crystalline silicon PV including the world and Indian PV scenarios.

1. Introduction The long and increasing dominance of crystalline silicon

Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of
energy since prehistoric times although it is used in most
primitive way. Solar energy can be used directly for heating
and lighting home and buildings, for generating electricity,
cooking food, hot-water heating, solar cooling, drying mate-
rials, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses [1–3].
Solar energy can be utilized through two different routes,
solar thermal routes and solar photovoltaic routes [4, 5]. Solar
energy can be converted into thermal energy with the help of
solar collectors and receivers known as solar-thermal devices.
PV-created direct current (DC) electricity that can be used
as such is converted to alternating current (AC) or stored
for later use. This type of solar electricity is more expensive
than that produced by traditional sources. But over the past
two decades, the cost gap has been closing. Solar photovoltaic
(SPV) technology has emerged as a useful power source of
applications such as lightning, meeting the electricity needs
of villages, hospitals, telecommunications, and houses.
in photovoltaic (PV) market is perhaps surprising given
the wide variety of materials capable of producing the
photovoltaic effect. PV based on silicon wafers has captured
more than 90% market share because it is more reliable and
generally more efficient than competing technologies [6]. But
it is not economically viable due to starting material silicon
itself costly. Therefore, research continues on developing a
diverse set of alternative photovoltaic technology.
Now PV technology is being increasingly recognized as a
part of the solution to the growing energy challenge and an
essential component of future global energy production. In
this paper, we give a brief review about particularly crystalline
silicon PV technology including the world and Indian PV
scenarios.
2. Photovoltaic Technologies
The early dominance of silicon in the laboratory has extended
to the market for commercial modules. Crystalline silicon
2 Conference Papers in Energy

100
90
80

Total production (MWp) (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Year
Row US
Japan and Taiwan Europe
Japan

Figure 1: PV cells/modules production by region 1997–2011.

designs have never accounted for less than 80% of the market
for commercial modules and nearly 15–18% of the market was
not crystalline silicon. It was based on amorphous silicon-a
PV technology that is almost exclusively used for consumer
electronics such as watches and calculators. If we were to
exclude electronics and define the market as electricity deliv-
ery system of 1 kW or more, current production is dominated
by single-crystal and polycrystalline silicon modules, which
represent 94% of the market. There are a wide range of PV
cell technologies on the market today, using different types of
materials, and an even larger number will be available in the
future. PV cell technologies are usually classified into three
generations, depending on the basic material used and the
level of commercial maturity [7].
(i) First-generation PV systems (fully commercial) use
the wafer-based crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology,
either single crystalline (sc-Si) or multicrystalline
(mc-Si).
(ii) Second-generation PV systems (early market deploy-
ment) are based on thin-film PV technologies and
generally include three main families: (1) amor-
phous (a-Si) and micromorph silicon (a-Si/𝜇c-Si); (2)
cadmium telluride (CdTe); and (3) copper indium
selenide (CIS) and copper indium-gallium diselenide
(CIGS).
(iii) Third-generation PV systems include technologies,
such as concentrating PV (CPV) and organic PV cells
that are still under demonstration or have not yet
been widely commercialized, as well as novel concepts
under development.
Commercial production of c-Si modules began in 1963
when Sharp Corporation of Japan started producing com-
mercial PV modules and installed a 242 Watt (W) PV module
on a lighthouse, the world’s largest commercial PV installa-
tion at the time (M.A. Green 2001). Total PV cells/modules
production by region 2007–2011 (data: Navigant consult-
ing graph: PSE AG 2012) is shown in Figure 1. It has
been observed that Japan attributed to increase their PV
cells/modules production capacity from 1997 to 2004 and
then drastically reduced their production capacity after 2004.
Same trend was observed in PV cells/module production
in Europe also but up to year 2008, and then they reduced
their production capacity. On the other hand in year 1997,
PV cells/module production capacity of US was the highest,
and after then they reduced their production capacity every
year. Whereas PV cells/modules production scenarios of
China were just the reverse compared to US. Given the vast
potential of photovoltaic technology, worldwide production
of terrestrial solar cell modules has been rapid over last
several years, with China recently taking the lead in total
production volume as shown in Figure 1. Another interesting
picture related to the global cumulative PV installation until
2011 was noticed as shown Figure 2. It was observed that still
Germany including other European country contributed to
major role towards the global cumulative PV installation until
2011, that is, 70% of global PV installation. So PV installation
market in Europe is too much promising till now compared
to other countries.
Figure 3 shows the PV production development by tech-
nology in the year 2011. It was from this global PV production
scenario in the year 2011 that almost more than 85% of the
solar cell production was based on crystalline silicon. Even it
was observed that even PV installation scenario, crystalline
silicon solar cell, dominated the world market as indicated in
Figure 4.
The year wise efficiency record of solar cell fabri-
cated under different technological approaches is shown
in Figure 5. From this record, it is evident that laboratory
monocrystalline silicon solar cell efficiency was still higher
Conference Papers in Energy 3

Spain, 6%
Germany, 37%
Rest of
Europe without Europe, 5%
Italy, 18%
Germany, 33%
France,
Row, 12%
4%

China and Taiwan Japan, 7%

4%
North
America, 7%

Figure 2: Global cumulative PV installation until 2011 (data: EPA Graph: PSE AG 2012). All percentages are related to the total global
installation.

100 22.8 GWp end of 2011

90
80
2010
Production (MWp) (%)

70
60
50
40
30 2005

20
10
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010

2000
Year

Thin film 3,204 Multi-Si 10,336 Thin film Multi-Si

Ribbon-Si 120 Mono-Si 9,114 Mono-Si Ribbon-Si

Figure 3: PV production development by technology (data: Navi- Figure 4: Global annual PV installation by technology at end of 2011
gant Consulting Graph: PSE AG 2012). (data: Navigant Consulting Graph: PSE AG 2012).

compared to other existing solar cell technology except lower capital costs including lower production and materials
III-V multijunction concentrator solar cell and monocrys- costs are offset to some extent by lower efficiencies and
talline concentrator solar cell, respectively. very low c-Si module costs make the economics even more
Best laboratory cell versus best laboratory module fabri- challenging.
cated under different PV technology is also given in Figure 6. Thin-film solar cells comprised successive thin layers, just
It is observed from Figure 6 that the lab. made monocrys- 1 𝜇m to 4 𝜇m thick, of solar cells deposited onto a large,
talline solar cell and module efficiency were 25% and 22.9%, inexpensive substrate such as glass, polymer, or metal. As a
respectively, whereas multicrystalline solar cell and module consequence, they require a lot less semiconductor material
efficiency were 20.4% and 18.2%, respectively. One important to be manufactured in order to absorb the same amount
point to be noted is that the efficiency of thin film CI(G)S of sunlight (up to 99% less material than crystalline solar
solar cell was 19.6% (area 0.42 cm2 ). So there is enough scope cells). In addition, thin films can be packaged into flexible
of work related to CI(G)S solar cell technology. and lightweight structures, which can be easily integrated into
After more than 20 years of R&D, thin-film solar cells are building components (building-integrated PV, BIPV).
beginning to be deployed in significant quantities. Thin-film Third-generation PV technologies are at the pre-comme-
solar cells could potentially provide lower cost electricity than rcial stage and vary from technologies under demonstration
c-Si wafer-based solar cells. However, this is not certain, as (e.g., multijunction concentrating PV to novel concepts
4 Conference Papers in Energy

60
19.6
50 15.7

Thin film
Solar cell efficiency (%)

16.7
40
12.8
30
12.5

20 10.4

20.4

Crystalline silicon
10
18.2

0 25
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year 22.9

III-V multijunction concentrator solar cell

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Slicon concentrator cell
Monocrystalline silicon Efficiency 𝜂 (%)
Multi crystalline silicon CI(G)S 0.4 cm2 cell
Thin-film CIGS CI(G)S 0.97 m2 module
Thin-film CdTe CdTe/CdS 1 cm2 cell
Dye-sensitized solar cell CdTe 0.67 m2 module
Organic solar cell a-Si tandem (0.27 cm2 cell)
a-Si tandem (905 cm2 module)
Figure 5: Development of laboratory solar cell efficiency (Data:
Multi-Si block (1 cm2 cell)
Solar Cell Efficiency tables (version 1-40), Progress in PV: Research
Multi-Si block (1.4709 m2 module)
and Applications, 1992–2012, Graph: Simon Philipps, Fraunhofer
Mono-Si FZ n-type (4 cm2 cell)
ISE). Mono-Si FZ n-type (778 cm2 module)

Figure 6: Efficiency comparison of technology: best laboratory

still in need of basic R&D (e.g., quantum-structured PV
cells). Some third-generation PV technologies are beginning
to be commercialized, but how successful they will be in
taking market share from existing technologies remains to be
seen.
Novel and emerging solar cell concepts in addition
to the previously mentioned third-generation technologies;
there are a number of novel solar cell technologies under
development that rely on using quantum dots/wires, quan-
tum wells, or super lattice technologies (Nozik, 2011 and
Raffaelle, 2011). These technologies are likely to be used in
concentrating PV technologies where they could achieve
very high efficiencies by overcoming the thermodynamic
limitations of conventional (crystalline) cells. However, these
high-efficiency approaches are in the fundamental materials
research phase. Furthermore from the market are the novel
concepts, often incorporating enabling technologies such as
nanotechnology, which aim to modify the active layer to
better match the solar spectrum (Leung, 2011).
A newer technology, thin-film PV, accounts for 10%–
15% of global installed PV capacity [8]. Rather than using
polysilicon, these cells use thin layers of semiconductor mate-
rials like amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium diselenide
(CIS), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), or cadmium
telluride (CdTe). The manufacturing methods are similar to
those used in producing flat panel displays for computer
monitors, mobile phones, and televisions; a thin photoactive
film is deposited on a substrate, which can be either glass
cells versus best laboratory module (Data: Green et al.; Solar Cell
Efficiency tables (version 1-40), Progress in PV: Research and
Applications, 2012, Graph: PSE AG 2012).
or a transparent film. Afterwards, the film is structured
into cells. Unlike crystalline modules, thin-film modules are
manufactured in a single step. Thin-film systems usually cost
less to be produced than crystalline silicon systems but have
substantially lower efficiency rates [9]. On average, thin-film
cells convert 5%–13% of incoming sunlight into electricity,
compared to 11%–20% for crystalline silicon cells. However,
as thin film is relatively new, it may offer greater opportunities
for technological improvement.
3. Monocrystalline Silicon Solar
Cell Technology
Traditional c-Si cell design and its development up to year
2000 have been focused on in the Figure 7. Different types of
c-Si cell structure have been used for improving the efficiency
of crystalline silicon solar cell. Metal-insulator NP solar
cell (MINP), passivated emitter solar cell (PESC), passivated
emitter and rear cell (PERC), passivated emitter, rear locally
diffused cell (PERL), and interdigitized back contact cell
(IBC) are useful solar cell structures used by the different
well-recognized universities or laboratories.
Conference Papers in Energy 5

26
UNSW
24 Antireflection
UNSW Top metal
UNSW finger coating
22 Stanford UNSW
UNSW
Efficiency (%)

n-type
20 UNSW

ARCO
18
Westing house
16
RCA Sandia national lab
14 p-type
Mobil solar
Rear metal
12 contact
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Traditional cell design PESC IBC PERC PERL Traditional cell design
Year ∙ No passivation metallic front contacts
Crystalline silicon ∙ Full metallic contact covering entire rear area
Single crystal ∙ May or may not be BSF
(a) (b)

Figure 7: Traditional c-Si cell design and its development up to year 2000.

Finger Microgroove

18 𝜇m
n+ Thin oxide

p
p+

Back contact Figure 9: Laser microgrooving.

Figure 8: Passivated emitter solar cell.

Researchers in the area of crystalline silicon continuously

In MINP structure, there was SiO2 passivation surface
underneath contact and current conduction by tunneling
through the thin oxide [10].
But in PESC structure [11, 12], there was no oxide
underneath contact as shown in Figure 8. Contact width is
reduced by laser microgrooving as shown in Figure 9.
In PERC structure as shown in Figure 10(a), rear surface
of the solar cell was passivated and contact was made by point
rear contact, whereas in PERL structure [13], rear contact is
made by local BSF (back surface field) at rear point contact
by diffusion as shown in Figure 10(b).
Interdigitized back contact solar cell [14] is now well-
known promising solar cell structure used by SUNPOWER in
their solar cell production line. R.M. Swanson is a key person
for the development of IBC solar cell structure [15]. In this
structure, all solar cell contacts were made from rear surface.
Both front and back surface fields have been implemented in
this structure as shown in Figure 11.
tried to find out a new simple route by which large area
high efficiency can be achieved. In 2011, Lai [16] already
achieved 19.4% efficient planar cells on CZ silicon using
simple cell technologies. Figure 12 is the structure used
during fabrication by Lai.
One key to the development of any photovoltaic technol-
ogy is the cost reduction associated with achieving economies
of scale. This has been evident with the development of
crystalline silicon PVs and will presumably be true for other
technologies as their production volumes increase. Price
trend of crystalline installed PV in the world market is shown
in Figure 13.
4. Indian PV Scenarios
Developing countries, in particular, face situations of limited
energy resources, especially the provision of electricity in
rural areas, and there is an urgent need to address this
constraint to social and economic development. India faces
6 Conference Papers in Energy

“Inverted” pyramids “Inverted” pyramids

Finger Finger

p+

n+ n+ n
n Oxide Oxide p+
p-silicon p+ p-silicon
+
p

Oxide Oxide
Rear contact Rear contact
(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 10: (a) PERC and (b) PERL solar cell structure. (c) PERL design cell marketed by SunTech as PLUTO technology cell.

AR layer housing, industry, and so forth, and 5.8% is either barren,

+ snow bound, or generally inhabitable. Thus, only 12.5% of
FSF (n )
n-typ e
Si
Passivation layer
Emitter (B
doped) ( p+ ) Metal finger (p) BSF (n+ )
Metal finger (n)
Figure 11: Interdigitized back contact solar cell.
a significant gap between electricity demand and supply.
Demand is increasing at a very rapid rate compared to the
supply. According to the World Bank, roughly 40 percent
of residences in India are without electricity. In addition,
blackouts are a common occurrence throughout the country’s
main cities. The World Bank also reports that one-third
of Indian businesses believes that unreliable electricity is
one of their primary impediments to do business. In addi-
tion, coal shortages are further straining power generation
capabilities.
India is endowed with rich solar energy resource. The
average intensity of solar radiation received on India is
200 MW/km square (megawatt per kilometer square). With
a geographical area of 3.287 million km square, this amounts
to 657.4 million MW. However, 87.5% of the land is used
for agriculture, forests, fallow lands, and so forth, 6.7% for
the land area amounting to 0.413 million km square can, in
theory, be used for solar energy installations. Even if 10% of
this area can be used, the available solar energy would be
8 million MW, which is equivalent to 5 909 mtoe (million tons
of oil equivalent) per year.
In order to meet the situation, a number of options
are considered. Power generation using freely available solar
energy is one such option. Fortunately, India is both densely
populated and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal
combination for solar power in India. Jawaharlal Nehru
National Solar Mission is one of the major global initiatives
in promotion of solar energy technologies, announced by
the Government of India under National Action Plan on
Climate Change. Mission aims to achieve grid tariff parity by
2022 through the large-scale utilization and rapid diffusion
and deployment of solar technologies across the country
at a scale which leads to cost reduction and promotes the
research and development activity to local manufacturing
and infrastructural support. Table 1 shows the road map of
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission.
Under the plan, solar-powered equipment and appli-
cations would be mandatory in all government buildings
including hospitals and hotels. The scope for solar PV growth
in India is massive, especially growth in distributed solar as
over 600 million people—mostly in rural areas—currently
do not have access to electricity. It is useful for providing
grid quality, reliable power in rural areas where the line
voltage is low and insufficient to be catered to connected load.
Conference Papers in Energy 7

Ag (screen printed), fired

SiNx (PECVD)
SiO2 (thin, thermally grown)

n+ (P)-Si (ion implantation)

P(B)-Si starting wafer

SiO2 (thin, thermally grown)

SiNx (PECVD)
Al-Si eutectic (screen printed,
alloyed)
p+ (Al)-Si (LPE during
alloying)

Figure 12: 19.4% efficient planar cells on CZ silicon using simple cell technologies.

7E+00
$5.92
6E+00

5E+00
Installed cost ($/Wp)

Wafering GP
$3.72 $, 0.17/WP
4E+00
$3.17 Permits
$2.83
3E+00
p-Si + wafer
2E+00 System processing Cell
GP, $0.45/Wp Cell processing
1E+00 GP, $0.12/Wp
Module assy
0E+00
System
1Q
2Q
3Q
4Q
1Q
2Q
3Q
4Q
1Q
2Q
3Q
4 QP
1 QP
2 QP
3 QP
4 QP

expenses
2008 2009 2010 2011 $1.03/Wp

System GP Labor Module assy

Boss Connection GP $0.25/Wp
Inverter Mod ASP
(a) (b)

Figure 13: Price trend of crystalline installed PV in the world market.

Table 1: Road map of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission. The Government of India is planning to electrify 18,000
villages by year 2012 through renewable energy systems
Cumulative Cumulative especially by solar PV systems. This offers tremendous growth
Target for
target for target for potential for Indian solar PV industry.
Application segment phase I
phase 2 phase 3
(2010–13) The growth of Indian PV is shown in the Figure 14
(2013–17) (2017–22)
indicating that the increase of module production up to year
Grid solar power 2011 was significant compared to solar cell production by
including roof top the Indian manufacturer. This may be due to availability to
1,000 MW 4,000 MW 20,000 MW
and distribution grid
solar cell with much lower prices from Chinese solar cell
connected plants
manufacturer and initial investment of the module plant
Off-grid solar with lower CAPEX compared to setting up new solar cell
200 MW 1,000 MW 2,000 MW
applications
plant in India. But the status of Indian PV is related to the
7 million 15 million 20 million application in different areas by installing 53,00,000 systems
Solar collector
sq.meters sq.meters sq.meters (∼2600 MW) up to 2012 as shown in Figure 15.
8 Conference Papers in Energy

700 Karnataka 14
T.N 15
600 Jharkhand 16
600
Maharashtra 20
Others 80
A.P 22
500
Production (MW)

400 Rajasthan 199

320 Gujarat 680

300 300

240 240
200 175
135
110
100 80
65
36 45 37 45 Figure 16: Grid solar PV power plants in India.
20 20 22 23 25 32
0
2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

2007-08

2008-09

2009-10

2010-11
the vast potential of photovoltaic technology, worldwide
Year production of terrestrial solar cell modules has been rapid
Solar cell over the last several years, with China recently taking the lead
PV module in total production volume.
Fortunately India is both densely populated and has high
Figure 14: Growth in Indian PV production. solar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solar
power in India. The Government of India is planning to elec-
trify 18,000 villages by year 2012 through renewable energy
Pumps 14 Off-grid plants systems especially solar PV systems. This offers tremendous
Lights 90 62
growth potential for Indian solar PV industry.

Grid plants Acknowledgments

Int projects 1044
1000 Authors would like to thank Meghnad Saha Institute of
Technology, TIG, for providing the infrastructural support
to carry out research activity in this area. The authors also
Others 270
gratefully acknowledge the DST, Government of India for
financial support for carrying out solar-cell-related research
activity.

Telecom 65
Railways 55 References
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