Geochemical exploration for gold in Jamaica: a comparison of stream

sediment and soil surveys

Robert G. Garrett1, Gerald C. Lalor2 & Mitko Vutchkov2
1
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0E8 (e-mail: garrett@gsc.NRCan.gc.ca)
2
International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica
(e-mail: gerald.lalor@uwimona.edu.jm and mitko@uwimona.edu.jm)

ABSTRACT: The geology of Jamaica is reviewed with reference to gold. Two

geochemical surveys, one employing stream sediments for mineral exploration in
selected regions of Jamaica considered a priori to have greater mineral potential, and
the other an island-wide low-density soil survey to meet agro-environmental
objectives, were undertaken in 1986 and 1988, respectively. The paper presents an
interpretation of the previously unpublished soil data for gold, and undertakes a
comparison of the two surveys in terms of their effectiveness for gold exploration.
The stream sediment survey (1 site per 1 km2) led to the discovery of three new gold
occurrences, one of which became a producing mine in 2001, and the recognition of
two previously known auriferous districts. The low-density soil survey (1 site per
64 km2) identified the host rocks of three of these auriferous districts as having gold
potential, including those of the producing mine, demonstrating its value as a
broad-scale regional mineral reconnaissance tool. Geochemical studies of gold in
Jamaica are complicated by the presence of transported palaeo-anomalies, related to
Miocene ash-falls, in terra rossa soils in karst terrain. The Fe/Na ratio is an index of
soil maturity and increases over two-and-a-half orders of magnitude with increasing
soil age and mature. The plotting of Au versus the Fe/Na ratio in soils offers a simple
procedure for identifying samples most likely to be related to gold occurrences in
bedrock, i.e. high Au and low Fe/Na ratio. It is concluded that in the specific
instance of Jamaica’s high relief terrain and the apparent limitation of gold
occurrences to the Cretaceous Inliers and Eocene Wagwater Trough underlying
those high relief areas, stream sediment sampling is the most effective mineral
exploration tool.
KEYWORDS: Caribbean, Jamaica, mineral reconnaissance, gold, exploration, soil, karst, terra rossa,
palaeo-anomalies

When Spaniards first reached Jamaica in the late fifteenth
century they found the indigenous Arawaks wearing gold
ornaments (Porter 1990). This spurred the search for gold, and
Fenton (1982) reports that in 1519 samples of Jamaican gold
were sent to the King of Spain. The source was likely the
Clarendon area and the Cretaceous Central Inlier that includes
volcano-sedimentary sequences and igneous intrusive rocks.
Long (1774) reports the presence of a ‘lavadero’, a Spanish gold
washing site to which auriferous river sediment was carried, on
the banks of the Rio Minho at Longville in Clarendon (see Fig.
1). The fact that no records remain of significant production
probably reflects that there was little, and that Spanish mineral
exploration and mining activity passed westwards to Central
and South America where the prizes were much richer.
With the British conquest in 1655 sugar became the focus of
development. Though considerable effort has been expended
prospecting for copper and gold in Jamaica over the past
two centuries (Fenton 1982) it has taken the application of
modern geochemical exploration methods to bring the search
to fruition.
The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
Metallic Mineral Survey and the Geological Survey Division of
the Jamaica Department of Mines and Energy undertook a
reconnaissance stream sediment survey of the Cretaceous
Inliers, Eocene Wagwater Trough and Richmond shales in
1986–87 (CIDA 1988a; Garrett & Geddes 1991). The selection
of this area (18% of Jamaica) was recommended in a review and
feasibility study based on all previous available geochemical
data, and consideration of the regional geology and known
mineral occurrences of Jamaica in the context of the then
current metallogenic models (Baldwin & Garrett 1984). In
making this recommendation the younger Oligocene and
Miocene carbonates and recent Quaternary deposits were
excluded from the geochemical survey, except immediately
adjacent to the survey areas, as they were considered to have
low non-alumina metallic mineral potential.
In 1988 the Centre for Nuclear Sciences (since 1995 the
International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Sciences –
ICENS) at the University of West Indies, Mona, Kingston,
undertook an orientation survey (Simpson et al. 1991) and

Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, Vol. 4 2004, pp. 161–170 1467-7873/04/$15.00  2004 AEG/ Geological Society of London
162 R. G. Garrett et al.
Fig. 1. Major geological features of Jamaica, and locations discussed in the text.
island-wide soil survey (Lalor et al. 1995). The objective of
the soil survey was dominantly agro-environmental to establish
geochemical baselines for a wide range of elements to
support a variety of science activities in Jamaica’s terrestrial
environment.
Both the CIDA stream sediment survey and the ICENS soil
survey determined gold. This, and the importance of gold as the
only metallic non-alumina mineral product of Jamaica make a
comparison of the results of the two surveys, one a detailed
stream sediment reconnaissance and the other a low-density soil
survey, desirable. This paper undertakes that task.
GEOLOGY, GEOMORPHOLOGY AND PEDOLOGY
OF JAMAICA
The following summary is based on McFarlane (1977); Fenton
(1982); Robinson (1994) and other cited references. Jamaica
(11,000 km2), the third largest island of the Greater Antilles, lies
at the eastern end of the Nicaraguan Rise, a topographic
extension of northern Central America. The Cayman Trench,
immediately to the north, separates Jamaica from Cuba and the
remaining islands of the Greater Antilles.
The oldest rocks are of Cretaceous age and are found in
seven major and 14 minor ‘Inliers’ (Fig. 1); they consist of
schists, serpentinites, igneous intrusive rocks, volcano-
sedimentary sequences, sandstones, shales and limestones. They
can be divided into a western suite of volcaniclastic rocks with
minor limestones; a central volcano-sedimentary region with
substantial lava flows, pyroclastic deposits and both femic and
felsic plutonic intrusives; and an eastern suite consisting of
schists and minor ophiolitic slices within younger volcano-
sedimentary rocks, felsic igneous intrusions, and some lime-
stones.
Laramide uplift, significant felsic igneous intrusion, and
major rifting at the close of the Cretaceous and into the
Palaeocene led to the formation of graben in the Wagwater and
Montpelier–Newmarket Belts (Fig. 1), locally referred to as
Troughs. The former contains a wide range of matrix- and
clast-supported red and purple conglomerates, intruded by
basalts, dacites and quartz-keratophyres (Jackson 1987) of early
Eocene age. With filling of the Wagwater Trough, small shale
and evaporite basins developed. Finally marine shales of the
Richmond Formation were deposited in the graben and sur-
rounding the Blue Mountain Inlier. None of these rocks are
visible at surface in the Newmarket–Montpelier Trough where
middle Eocene to late Miocene limestones outcrop. These two
major structural features, together with the Duanvale Fault
Zone, parallel to the Cayman Trough, dominated the post-
Eocene development of shelf and deep water carbonates. The
structural features (see Fig. 1) of the two Troughs and the
Duanvale Fault Zone delimit the Hanover Block in the west;
the Clarendon Block between the two Troughs, with the North
Coast Belt to the north of the Duanvale Fault Zone; and the
Blue Mountain Block to the east of the Wagwater Trough
(Horsfield & Roobol 1974; Wadge & Dixon 1984; Draper
1987). Locally the limestones are divided into ‘Yellow’ (middle
Eocene) and ‘White’ (middle Eocene to late Miocene). In the
following description the nomenclature of the Geological Map
of Jamaica (McFarlane 1977) has been used; however, a new
lithostratigraphic classification for the White Limestone has
been proposed by Mitchell (2004). The Yellow and White
Limestones on-lap the older Cretaceous rocks, but are con-
formable in deeper water facies. By late Oligocene time
proto-Jamaica was appearing, in the middle Miocene much of
south-central Jamaica was a land surface (Eva & McFarlane
1979), and by the late Miocene (12–10 Ma) there was active
subaerial weathering (Lewis & Draper 1990). Thus, while the
Montpelier Formation was being laid down off-shore in the
late Miocene a karst topography was developing on-shore.
Evidence of volcanism is present as bentonite beds in both
the Montpelier Formation and in deep marine cores from the
Cayman Trough (Comer & Jackson 2004; Mitchell 2004).
Finally, Pliocene uplift led to the Port Royal and Blue
Mountains, and folding produced the broad anticline that was
breached to expose the Cretaceous rocks of the Central Inlier.
Pliocene and Pleistocene movement related to the Cayman
Trough has caused uplift on the north coast to expose Pliocene
age near-shore carbonates of the Coastal Limestone. A minor
middle Pliocene basaltic intrusion on the NE coast at Low
Layton is associated with this uplift. On the south coast
submergence has preserved Quaternary deposits in the broad
alluvial plains of the major south-flowing rivers, e.g. the Rio
Cobre, Rio Minho, and the Black and Carbarita Rivers, and peat
deposits (morasses).
The island is mountainous and rugged in the east, with peaks
up to 2882 m in the Blue Mountains and 1539 m in the Port
Royal Mountains at the south end of the Wagwater Trough (Fig.
1). In central, and extending into western, Jamaica there is an
 Geochemical exploration for gold in Jamaica
extensive dissected karst limestone plateau that commences at
c. 300 m, has extensive areas above 600 m, and reaches a height
of just less than 1000 m. Surrounding the rugged interior is a flat
coastal periphery, especially well developed on the south side of
the island.
The climate is tropical, with two well defined rainy seasons.
Rainfall in the west is about 200–250 cm/a, 150 cm/a in central
regions, and over 500 cm/a in the Blue Mountains. As a result
of the interaction of climate with geology Jamaica exhibits a
wide range of soil types. The soils may be divided into four
broad groups based on the categories presented by Campbell
(1998):
(1) Highland soils of the Blue and Port Royal Mountains and
the central and western high relief regions underlain by
Cretaceous igneous, volcanic and sedimentary rocks. They
comprise Categories II, III, IV and V, and may be divided
into two basic types: (1) inceptisols – generally highly
porous and low in plant nutrients unless a humic layer has
developed; and (2) ultisols and vertisols – clay-rich soils
produced by the weathering of shales in areas of impeded
drainage.
(2) Upland Plateau soils, accounting for c. 60% of Jamaica’s
land-surface, occur in the 600–1000 m range on the Yellow
and White Limestone karst plateau. The soils can be divided
into two broad categories. Firstly, terra rossas that are
leached, acidic, well oxidized residual soils. This grouping
(Category VII) is composed dominantly of entisols and
oxisols, with some inceptisols, alfisols and ultisols; locally
they include bauxites that are commercially developed.
Secondly, rendzinas that are fine-grained, marly and
relatively Ca-rich, poorly drained, and lack the typical red
colouration of the terra rossas. They form Category VIII and
are classified as entisols and vertisols.
(3) Alluvial Plain and Valley Soils have developed on river
deposits, most abundant in southern Jamaica, and in the
poljes, uvalas and dolines developed in the limestone karst.
The alluvial plain soils vary from sandy to clay-loams,
Category I, to heavier older clay-richer soils, Category X,
and comprise inceptisols, mollisols, alfisols, entisols and
vertisols. In contrast, the interior valley soils, Category VI,
are mostly acidic heavy clays and dominantly ultisols and
alfisols.
(4) Lowland Soils that dominantly, but not exclusively, occur in
southern and western Jamaica. These are heavy clays, often
K-rich, and comprise Category IX, that are classified as
inceptisols and ultisols.
In the context of the discussions to follow, the most influential
soils on regional geochemistry are the terra rossas.
GOLD OCCURRENCES IN JAMAICA AND
PREVIOUS MINERAL EXPLORATION
As mentioned in the introduction, the Spanish won gold from
the Rio Minho in the sixteenth century. Following that, there is
no record of gold recovery until auriferous copper deposits
were developed in the mid-nineteenth century in the Cretaceous
Central Inlier, the probable source area of the ‘Spanish Gold’.
Fenton (1982) reports that Sawkins (1869) drew attention to the
association of gold (Au) with the oxidized copper (Cu) deposits
that had been mined in the 1850s at Stamford Hill, Charing
Cross and Gold Mine. Later exploration by the Jamaica
Consolidated Copper Company for Cu resources confirmed the
presence of Au associated with the Cu-minerals (Outerbridge
1909). There was further activity in 1926, but it was not until the
1950s and the global search for Cu that interest was rekindled,
163
and again Au was confirmed in association with the Cu
occurrences. It was then that recognition of the Connors-
Ginger Ridge (see Fig. 1) porphyry deposit (Fenton 1982) put
the surrounding vein deposits within the framework of a single
hydrothermal system.
In other parts of Jamaica, Cu exploration was often
accompanied by assays for Au. A boulder of ‘copper ore’
discovered near the Swift River (see Fig. 1) contained over
8 oz/ton Au (Edwards 1942, unpublished report cited in
Fenton 1982). Subsequent mapping by the Geological Survey
Division in the 1960 s revealed a Cu-bearing fault zone (striking
120–300) cutting the Swift River granodiorite (Sinclair 1965).
Apart from Au being reported in minor base metal occurrences
in the Wagwater Trough (Fenton 1982), additional information
that would have encouraged exploration was unavailable. This
changed in 1989 (CIDA 1988a, b) with the release of the data
for the CIDA Metallic Minerals Survey.
The CIDA stream sediment survey led to the recognition of
17 ‘Priority 1’ areas of elevated Au and other trace elements
(anomalies) in Cretaceous Inliers over the length of Jamaica
(CIDA 1998a, b; Garrett & Geddes 1991). These occur on the
southeastern and eastern flanks of the Lucea Inlier (two areas),
Hanover Block; in the central and eastern parts of the Central
Inlier (two) and in the Above Rocks (one) Inlier, Clarendon
Block; in the Wagwater Trough (seven), dominantly on the
southwest side; and on the eastern and southern flanks of the
Blue Mountains (five), Blue Mountain Block.
The release of these data led to renewed interest and
exploration activity in the Priority 1 areas by off-shore and
Jamaican mineral exploration groups. Drilling programmes
were initiated at the Connors-Ginger Ridge porphyry system,
and further geochemical exploration and drilling were under-
taken at three new sites with Au potential – Hungry Gully in the
southern Blue Mountains, and at Main Ridge and Browns Hall
in the Central Inlier (see Fig. 1). Economic concentrations of
Au were found at Main Ridge, where the Bennett Zone was
discovered to contain 75,500 tonnes of 20.4 g/t Au, 95% of
which is recoverable by simple cyanidation (Orvana 1996,
unpublished data). This led to the opening of the Ausjam mine,
near Pennants in March 2001, with reserves of c. 35,000 oz of
Au with fineness between 375 and 625 (quoted as 9 to 15 carats;
report in Gleaner 16 May 2001), 12 years after the release (1989)
of the CIDA geochemical reconnaissance data.
The Bennett Zone lies within a broad 4 by 1 km area
characterized by geochemically anomalous gold in stream
sediments and soils. It is in general conformity with the volcanic
stratigraphy consisting of andesitic volcaniclastics and lahars,
and is parallel to and several hundred metres south of the
Crawle River Fault, a major east–west structure within the
Central Inlier. The gold is finely disseminated; the zone con-
tains quartz and quartz-carbonate veins, and finely dis-
seminated (<2%) eudhedral pyrite. Locally ‘bonanza’ grades
up to 10 oz/ton are encountered, but significantly the only
accompanying elements, and therefore useful pathfinders, for
this deposit are Ag and Sb (Bradshaw & Lutynski 1995). The
new porphyry–Cu system at Browns Hall occurs east of the
Ginger Ridge tonalite stock in andesitic rocks of the Arthur’s
Seat Formation (Pyle 1995). The Browns Hall Cu–Au system
occurs as a 1 km zone centred on the contact of andesites and
a porphyritic quartz monzonite body; the latter serves as the
centre for hydrothermal alteration, with a quartz–sericite–pyrite
zone surrounding a core of secondary feldspar and biotite (Pyle
1995). Drilling has identified Cu mineralization, with associated
Au, and geochemically anomalous levels of Zn, Pb, Ag and Ba.
This confirms the southeastern extremity of the Central Inlier as
a widely mineralized Ba–Pb–Zn–Cu zone as indicated by
164 R. G. Garrett et al.

Garrett and Geddes (1991, specifically fig. 4), and the gold
potential of the area as noted by Simpson et al. (1988).

STREAM SEDIMENT AND SOIL SURVEYS –

SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The CIDA survey was designed as a traditional mineral
exploration exercise (Rose et al. 1979) and collected stream
sediments at a density of c. 1 site per km2, and heavy mineral
concentrates at c. 1 site per 2.6 km2. The <105 µm (
150
mesh) fraction of the stream sediments was retained for
analysis, as while yielding sufficient sample material for analysis
this size fraction reduced the inter-sample site variability due to
local stream and climatic conditions relative to the traditional
<177 µm (
80 mesh) fraction (CIDA 1988a; Garrett &
Geddes 1991). The >2.96 SG material of the <420 µm fraction
of field-collected pan concentrates were retained for analysis.
Aliquots of 15 g of both stream sediments and heavy
minerals were commercially (Bequerel Laboratories) analysed
by Instrumental Neutron Activation (INA) for 21 elements,
including Au, Fe and Na, in Canada (CIDA 1988a).
Occasionally, and particularly for heavy minerals, only smaller
amounts of sample material were available for analysis.
The ICENS soil survey was designed to establish background
levels and identify broad regional variations of trace elements in Fig. 2. The statistical distribution of Au (ppb) in the <150-µm
fraction of Jamaican surface soils.
the Jamaican terrestrial environment for agricultural, environ-
mental, health and other purposes (Lalor et al. 1995). The design
employed stratified random sampling (Garrett 1983; 1986) with duplicate samples permitted the combined sampling and ana-
a grid size of 8 km, leading to collection at 1 site per 64 km2 in lytical variability to be estimated by the Thompson & Howarth
165 (48%) cells out of the 348 defined by the grid. The (1978) method, it was found graphically to be c.50% (RSD)
unsampled cells posed serious logistical problems due to lack of (Garrett & Grunsky 2003).
road access or severe topography, e.g. the karst Cockpit country
and the Blue Mountains. Field replication was undertaken in 33
(20%) of sampled grid cells. Following the recommendations of INTERPRETATION OF STREAM SEDIMENT
an orientation survey (Simpson et al. 1991), and of Darnley et al. DATA
(1995) for low-density regional geochemical surveys, the A detailed interpretation of the CIDA stream sediment data is
<150 µm fraction of the soil samples was retained for analysis available in CIDA (1988a, b), and a summary is available in
by INA. Initially the samples were analysed by a procedure Garrett & Geddes (1991). In the comparison of the results of
developed for Phase II of the CIDA Jamaica Metallic Minerals the two surveys, presented below, attention will be confined to
Survey which allowed the irradiation of 5 g samples in the issues concerning Au geochemistry.
pool surrounding the ICENS SLOWPOKE reactor (Beeley &
Garrett 1993). This procedure had a matrix-dependent detec-
tion limit of approximately 10 ppb (ng g
1) and was not INTERPRETATION OF GOLD IN SOIL DATA
adequate for mapping low-level background variation. To meet The statistical and spatial distributions of the Au in soil data are
this requirement, an in-core procedure using a 450 mg sample displayed in Figures 2 and 3. Data are available for 155 sample
was developed with a matrix-dependent detection limit of 4 ppb sites, and demonstrate a typical long-tailed distribution (Fig. 2).
(Grant et al. 1998). Thus the soil survey led to two data sets The mean and median are 7.3 and 4.8 ppb, respectively, and the
that had to be merged. Not all samples had Au determinations standard deviation and median absolute deviation are 6.4 and
by both methods. The in-core data were plotted against the 3.6, respectively. It is proposed that 5 ppb be accepted as
in-pool data; it was determined graphically, and confirmed by the background concentration of Au in Jamaican soils, close to
re-plotting, that the in-core data were 20% low relative to the the global average of 4 ppb (Reimann & de Caritat 1998).
in-pool data. Therefore, the in-core data were adjusted, as it is Subdividing the data by underlying geology (i.e. Cretaceous
believed that the greater in-pool sample size was more represen- Inliers; Wagwater Trough; Yellow, White and Coastal
tative, and any data gaps were filled with in-pool data. One of Limestones; and Quaternary Sediments), the medians are 5 or
the field duplicate samples showed a greater Au concentration 6 ppb Au for all groups except Yellow Limestone at 2 ppb Au.
than the sample collected as part of the regional survey; the Similarly, subdividing by soil order (entisols, ultisols, mollisols,
regional survey value was replaced by the higher duplicate vertisols and inceptisols), the medians are 4 or 6 ppb Au for all
sample value. This is characteristic of the problems encountered soil orders except mollisols at 7 ppb Au.
due to sampling and analytical variability and the nugget effect The cumulative probability plot shows the presence of
in gold and precious metal geochemistry. The substitution is outliers (Fig. 2). Following the three extreme values of
justified by the recognition of that variability. But, in doing so, d30 ppb Au, a group of 13 samples range from 15 to 23 ppb
it has to be recognized that there may have been instances Au. Another group of four samples range from 12 to 14 ppb Au
where if a duplicate had been collected at a site it may also have before the background population that appears to start at
reported a higher Au concentration, and vice versa. Therefore, around 11 ppb Au, about twice the estimated average back-
the data must be regarded as a conservative estimate of the ground concentrations of the underlying geological units and
regional Au levels geochemistry of Jamaican soils. The field soils.
 Geochemical exploration for gold in Jamaica 165

Fig. 3. The spatial distribution of Au (ppb) in the <150-µm fraction of Jamaican surface soils.

Table 1. Table of anomalous gold samples

ID Geologya Soil orderb Au (ppb) Fe/Na Anomaly name

A238 CL E 50 210 Amity Hall
A083 WL E 30 126.5 Kirkpatrick Hall
A170 QS I 30 3.3 Wizards Run
A070 QS M 22.8 205 Montpelier
A066 WL E 21.6 213.8 Kilmarnoch
A139 YL E 20.4 72.3 Swan River
A283 KI V 20.4 4.6 Chelsea
A179 WL E 18 97.7 Mt. Ararat
A068 WL E 18 202.5 Cedar Grove
A317 WL E 18 111.8 Packi River
A059 WL E 18 180.7 Belvedere
A188 WL E 16.8 255.7 Roadside
A173 WL E 16.8 137 Rodons Store
A079 WL E 16.8 158 Carr
A166 WL E 16.8 348 Culloden
A175 YL/KI E 15.6 25.8 Crofts River
A186 KI I 13.2 47.6 Pindars River
A067 WL E 13.2 122 Hopeton
A119 WL E 13.2 80.3 Top Hill
A162 KI I 12 30.9 Nine Turns
a
CL, Coastal Limestone; KI, Cretaceous Inlier; QS, Quaternary sediments; WL, White Limestone; WT, Wagwater Trough; YL, Yellow Limestone
b
E, Entisol; M, Mollisol; V, Vertisol; I, Inceptisol

Regional patterns are apparent in the spatial distribution of
Au (Fig. 3). The plotted symbols have been selected to identify
below- and above-average background areas (0–5 and 5–8 ppb
Au, respectively), high background (8–11 ppb Au), anomalous
(11–25 ppb Au) and highly anomalous (25–50 ppb Au, i.e.
>five times background). The 8–11 ppb Au range is referred to
as high background as 63% of the 41 sites in this range occur
over White (25) or Yellow (one) Limestones, and, as will be
discussed later, this is considered a regional parent material
feature. Only 22% of the sites overlie Cretaceous Inlier (five) or
Wagwater Trough (four) rocks, and in this bedrock context
the sites are better described as weakly anomalous. Of interest
are sites overlying Eocene Richmond shale, the southern
Wagwater Belt and isolated sites in the Above Rocks and
Blue Mountains Inliers (Fig. 3), these likely reflect minor
auriferous mineral occurrences. The remaining six (15%)
of these high background/weakly anomalous sites overlie
Quaternary Sediments (four) or Coastal Limestone (two). The
most notable spatial features are the high background and
anomalous sites in central Jamaica, the Newmarket–Montpelier
Trough and the North Coast Belt. Less consistent high back-
ground and anomalous sites occur in northern central Jamaica.
Eastern Jamaica is characterized by the preponderance of
background levels, with the exception of the three anomalies
discussed below.
Twenty anomalous samples, i.e. >11 ppb Au, are listed in
Table 1 in descending order of Au concentration, and their
locations are plotted in Figure 4. Notably, 15 of the soils are
entisols and terra rossas, and overlie White (12), Yellow (two)
or Coastal (one) Limestones. The remaining five are from a
variety of soil types and overlie Cretaceous Inliers (three) or
Quaternary sediments (two). This latter group of five will be
discussed first.
Sample A170 (Wizards Run; 30ppb Au) lies close to the
mouth of the Rio Minho, and it is postulated that the gold
present was derived from the weathering of auriferous zones in
the Central Inlier. Possible candidates are the Bennett Zone that
drains directly into the Rio Minho, or the auriferous copper
166 R. G. Garrett et al.
Fig. 4. The spatial distribution of samples (squares and diamonds, see Fig. 5 for explanation) where Au in Jamaican surface soils exceeds 11 ppb
(Table 1).
occurrences, associated with the Connors-Ginger Ridge
mineralized system, that are drained by the Rock and Little Juan
de Bolas rivers, tributaries of the Rio Minho. It is noteworthy
that a black beach sand collected some 8 km west of the river
mouth at Farquhars Beach in Phase II of the CIDA Metallic
Minerals Project contained almost 10 ppm Au (CIDA 1993).
Subsequent sampling west to Alligator Pond (18 sites) failed to
produce any Au concentrations >19 ppb. Two high background
samples occur west of A170 (Fig. 3) in similar Quaternary
sediments of the Clarendon Plain, and a Central Inlier source is
postulated. A third lies east of A170 (Fig. 3) in a low (9.7)
Fe/Na ratio vertisol associated with weakly anomalous As lying
on White Limestone; the source of the Au is unknown.
Sample A070 (Montpelier; 23 ppb Au) lies on recent sedi-
ments that in turn overlie Eocene Gibraltar–Bonny Gate
(Montpelier) limestones on the margin of the Montpelier–
Newmarket Trough. As this soil appears to be a terra rossa, this
sample will be discussed with that group below.
Sample A283 (Chelsea; 21 ppb Au) lies on the Swift River
granodiorite on the northern flank of the Blue Mountain Inlier.
As discussed previously, the Swift River granodiorite is known
to contain auriferous copper mineralization (Edwards 1942,
unpublished report cited in Fenton 1982; Sinclair 1965). There
are four weakly anomalous sites nearby (Fig. 3). However, only
one of these, that immediately west of A283, is in similar
terrane. That to the NE lies on Coastal Limestone where the
soil is likely contaminated by middle Pliocene Low Layton
basaltic detritus, and of those further west, one lies on White
Limestone (the westermost) and the other on Richmond shale.
Sample A186 (Pindars River; 13 ppb Au) lies on the andesitic
Arthur’s Seat Volcanics in the Central Inlier. This area contains
a number of copper showings (Fenton 1982), and it is likely, on
the basis of knowledge of the metallogeny of the Central Inlier,
that at least some of these are auriferous.
Sample A162 (Nine Turns; 12 ppb Au) lies on the Bull Head
and Main Ridge Volcanics in the Central Inlier. This geological
unit hosts the Bennett Zone, the Ausjam Mine being c. 5.5 km
to the east.
The remaining 15 anomalous samples, in decreasing order of
Au content, A328, A083, A066, A139, A179, A068, A317,
A059, A188, A173, A079, A166, A175, A067 and A119 all fall
within areas mapped as entisols lying on Yellow or White
Limestones. For discussion purposes sample A070 is added to
this group.
It is widely believed that the source of the alumina in
Jamaican bauxites was volcanic ash-falls with sources in Central
America that fell on the karst surface in the middle to late
Miocene proto-Jamaica or into the surrounding sea (Comer
1974; 1984; Lyew-Ayee 1986; Lyew-Ayee et al. 1989). The
record of ash-falls spanning 25 to 8.5 Ma in the marine
environment, preserved as bentonite beds, is discussed by
Comer & Jackson (2004). Peak volcanic activity was between
20–22 and 11 Ma, and the trace element and rare earth
composition of the bentonites suggests sources from multiple
centres in a sub-alkaline volcanic arc, with compositions vary-
ing from basaltic/andesitic to rhyodacitic/dacitic (Comer &
Jackson 2004). It is probable that at that time Jamaica, as a part
of the Chortis continental fragment, was close to its current
position (Pindell & Barrett 1990; Pindell 1994).
The starting material for the bauxites and terra rossas of
proto-Jamaica was a combination of the residuum from the
tropical weathering of the remarkably pure White, and less pure
Yellow, Limestones and ash-fall material that was washed into
pre-existing karstic depressions. Considering the purity of the
limestones it is likely that the major contribution to the surficial
materials came from ash-falls. Thus, the terra rossas have been
developing for at least 5 Ma, and possibly as long as 10 Ma.
Where terra rossas have developed on late Miocene limestones
the source of the ash-fall material was the bentonites preserved
in the limestones. The starting material has undergone extreme
chemical differentiation, and is now silica and base (Ca, Mg, Na
and K) cation-poor, and iron- and alumina-rich relative to the
starting materials and soils in general. Norton (1973) discusses
this geochemical development and how pH and Eh conditions
influence the preferential accumulation of Fe and/or Al oxy-
hydroxides. The terra rossas exhibit unusual trace element
compositions (Lalor et al. 1995; Lalor 1999); in particular, two
suites of trace elements: (1) Hf, U, Th, the REEs, Ti, Sc, Cr and
P; and (2) Mn, Zn, Co, Cd, Hg, As and Sb, exhibit exceptionally
high levels for soils. The first suite are those elements expected
to be in resistate accessory minerals that would be mechanically
concentrated by the removal of silica- and base-cation-rich
minerals. The second suite are those elements that would occur
in minor sulphides in the ash-falls, and on weathering would be
sequestered by Mn- and Fe-oxyhydroxides. Once sequestered in
these stable minerals, e.g. goethite, they would follow the same
process of concentration as the resistate minerals with the
further removal of silica and base cations. A visual inspection of
 Geochemical exploration for gold in Jamaica
plots of Au versus the 35 major, minor and trace elements in the
entisol subset (n = 117) of the island-wide soil survey (Lalor
et al. 1995) indicates a correlation with Cu, and general
tendencies for above detection limit Au data to be associated
with elevated levels of Sc, Co, P, La, Sm, Eu, Tb, Sm and Dy
and Na depletion. The correlation with Cu is suggestive of an
original sulphide association, and the remaining elemental
patterns suggest a mechanical concentration together with Na
(base cation and assumed silica) depletion. It is proposed that
the anomalous gold patterns observed in the terra rossas devel-
oped by liberation from sulphides in the ash-falls and subse-
quent mechanical concentration. A comparison of the 5 g and
450 mg aliquot data for samples with c20 ppb Au shows good
agreement between analyses of the two aliquots. The inference
from this is that the Au is in very fine particles, which would
support the hypothesis that it has been liberated from ash-fall
sulphides.
The proportion of high background and anomalous sites is
higher in the Newmarket–Montpelier Trough and North Coast
Belt than elsewhere. A possible cause for this is the presence
of Montpelier Formation rocks (mapped as Bonny Gate
Formation (McFarlane 1977) in the Newmarket–Montpelier
Trough and reassigned by Mitchell (2004)) containing bentonite
beds. Thus, following uplift this lithified ash-fall material has
contributed to the geochemistry of the soils. This demonstrates
the age range of the terra rossa soils. Firstly, the oldest are present
where ash-falls fell on the late Miocene karst surface of
proto-Jamaica, i.e. >5 Ma, that has remained above sea level
since that time. Secondly, younger terra rossa soils occur on
Miocene limestones containing bentonites that have been raised
above sea level and developed a karst topography following
Pliocene and current uplift.
However, the hypothesis of an ash-fall origin is not entirely
satisfying. Firstly, how are the two high anomalous samples
explained, i.e. A328 (Amity Hall) and A083 (Kirkpatrick Hall),
with 50 and 30 ppb Au, respectively? That the field duplicate at
Amity Hall reported only 10 ppb Au indicates large small-scale
spatial variation, and probably variable particle size, i.e. nugget
effect. Amity Hall lies on the SE corner of Jamaica where the
Northeast Trade Winds strike land driving sea spray inland,
though the data (Lalor et al. 1995) do not indicate Cl

accumulation as it is rapidly leached from surface soils.
However, the possibility exists that Au–chloride complexes, e.g.
AuCl2, could mobilize Au to be locally reprecipitated on
pre-existing gold particles (Boyle 1979). Seward (1991) has
shown that AuCl2 is stable under surface conditions, and once
this process starts, large particles, having larger surface areas,
grow faster at the expense of smaller particles. This could
explain the increased heterogeneity observed. Kirkpatrick Hall
is close to the north coast, but not proximal, and underlain by
Montpelier Formation rocks. Secondly, and more difficult to
explain, is the near-north–south alignment of six anomalous
sites (A070, A059, A068, A079, A067 and A066) in the
Montpelier–Newmarket Trough (Fig. 4). An inspection of the
geological maps shows no structural feature that might correlate
with this alignment. The CIDA (1992) recompilation of the
aeromagnetic data for Jamaica clearly indicates the alignment
follows the western margin of the Clarendon Block and
graben-edge faulting that extends back to the Palaeocene.
Alternately, the six samples may be viewed as a close cluster of
three (A079, A067 and A066) in the south on high ground over
300 m, and a looser grouping of three (A070, A059 and A068)
in the north, where the first two lie below 300 m in the
Great River Valley. A further point is that bentonite-bearing
Montpelier Formation rocks underlie these areas and likely
provided ash-fall material to the soils.
167
Fig. 5. The distribution of Au in the <150 µm fraction of Jamaican
surface soils vs. their Fe/Na ratio; squares represent samples with
> 11 ppb Au and Fe/Na <50, diamonds represent samples with
> 11 ppb Au and Fe/Na >50.
Considering the above observations, the weight of evidence
from the terra rossa association, trace element associations in the
soils classified as entisols, and the apparent fine particle size of
the gold, leads to the conclusion of an ash-fall source for the
gold in the terra rossas.
An outstanding issue is, therefore, how to recognize terra rossa
sites and distinguish these exotic anomalies from genuine
Jamaican bedrock-related Au anomalies. The extreme geo-
chemical development of the terra rossas provides a convenient
tool. The processes of Al and Fe accumulation, and removal of
base cations, Ca, Mg, Na and K, are clearly reflected in the
geochemical data. The Fe/Na ratio varies over two-and-a-half
orders of magnitude and was selected as an index of Jamaican
soil development (Garrett & Lalor 2003). The Au data are
displayed versus the Fe/Na ratio in Figure 5: the Au threshold
of 11 ppb is plotted as a horizontal dotted line. In addition, a
vertical line has been plotted at a Fe/Na ratio of 50. The upper
left quadrant, Au >11 ppb and Fe/Na <50, contains all the
Au anomalies associated with Cretaceous Inliers. This includes
an additional sample not previously specifically discussed,
A175 (Crofts River), that although within the areas mapped
as entisols and Yellow Limestone lies close to the Yellow
Limestone–Arthur’s Seat Volcanics boundary. On the basis of
its Fe/Na ratio and proximity to the Arthur’s Seat Volcanics it
is considered an indicator of the potential of the Arthur’s Seat
Volcanics as a host for auriferous occurrences. Firstly, this
demonstrates the use of the Fe/Na ratio as an internal
discriminator with finer resolution than the soil maps used to
classify the sampled sites. Secondly, it demonstrates the utility
of the Fe/Na ratio as a screening tool, though it should not be
used exclusively in place of careful site-by-site interpretation of
those samples falling close to the quadrant boundary.
In discussing discriminators, pathfinders for gold in Jamaica
must be addressed. Bradshaw & Lutynski (1995) noted the
absence of pathfinders, other than Ag (as indicated by the
fineness of the gold) and Sb, for the Bennett Zone. Pyle (1995)
reported the presence of Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag and Ba at Browns Hall.
168 R. G. Garrett et al.
The Hungry Gully anomaly (CIDA 1988b, M-31) where an
auriferous zone was later identified by diamond drilling was
accompanied by Cu alone in stream sediments. Therefore, Cu is
the most consistent pathfinder element for the gold deposits
discovered to date with only one exception: the one producing
mine in the Bennett Zone which contains Ag and Sb but no
significant Cu.
DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON OF THE
GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS
The gold data fall into two groups: firstly, an Inlier-associated
group, and secondly, a terra rossa-associated group. The Inlier
anomalies relate to bedrock sources, and therefore reflect the
gold potential of Jamaica. However, the terra rossa anomalies
appear to be exotic, transported from outside Jamaica, and have
no relationship to the underlying geology, other than terra rossa
development on Yellow and White Limestones, particularly on
the karst topography of late Miocene proto-Jamaica. As such,
the terra rossa gold anomalies appear to be a unique example of
a transported palaeo-anomaly. The preservation of the terra
rossas is due to their presence on the high central plateau of
Jamaica where erosion and transport have been essentially local
as the karst has developed since the late Miocene. In some cases
there appears to have been mass transport of terra rossa/bauxitic
materials into local grabens where their preservation has led to
economic accumulations of bauxite (Hill 1973). Additionally,
Pliocene uplift of Miocene limestones that have developed karst
topography has also led to the development of terra rossa soils to
which lithified ash-fall materials, bentonites, have contributed.
The breached (8 Ma) cover of the Pliocene anticline running
along the axis of the Central Inlier led to accelerated erosion of
these Cretaceous rocks, and Pliocene uplift of the Wagwater
Trough and Blue Mountain Inlier rocks, which reached
a maximum at 3 Ma, has exposed them to active erosion
(Robinson 1971) and the development of relatively immature
soils.
In the context of the CIDA Jamaica Metallic Minerals Survey
detailed stream sediment data, the island-wide soil survey
provides an interesting comparison and demonstrates what
low-density surveys can achieve. Firstly, the Wizards Run
(A170) anomaly over Rio Minho alluvial deposits at its mouth
on the Caribbean Sea indicates the presence of auriferous
deposits in the hinterland. Secondly, in the Central Inlier, the
Pindars River (A186 and CIDA (1988b), C13-B) and Crofts
River (A175) anomalies are associated with the Arthur’s Seat
Volcanics, and the Nine Turns (A162 and CIDA (1988b), C6)
anomaly occurs over the Bull Head and Main Ridge Volcanic
Formation. The former is known to contain auriferous copper
occurences and the latter the Ausjam gold mine. Lastly, the
Chelsea (A283 and CIDA (1988b), M-7) anomaly occurs over
the northeastern part of the Swift River granodiorite in the Blue
Mountain Inlier, that is known to host, or be proximal to, an
auriferous copper occurrence. The conclusion is that the
low-density island-wide soil survey identified two of the three
main currently known auriferous areas in Jamaica (Fenton
1982). The third auriferous area is at Hungry Gully (CIDA
(1988b), M-31) in the southern Blue Mountains, where
follow-up and drilling confirmed the presence of gold in highly
fractured rocks of the Mt. Hibernia Schist Complex. There is
some element of chance in these results, particularly in the case
of the Chelsea anomaly in the Blue Mountains. With a square
cell size of 64 km2 a circular ‘target’ would require to be at least
64 km2 in area to be intersected with certainty; by using a
stratified random sampling design the average target size
increases to 76 km2 (Garrett 1983, 1986). To this has to be
added the uncertainty associated with sampling and analytical
variability. In this context, it is significant that the island-wide
survey identified two of the three known auriferous areas on the
island: the Central Inlier, ‘remotely’ in a major river alluvial
plain, and the two known host rocks of auriferous deposits
there, the Bull Head and Main Ridge Formation, and the
Arthur’s Seat Volcanics; and the Swift River granodiorite.
Failure to detect the Hungry Gully gold occurrence is likely due
to the chance associated with sampling, and the extremely
rugged nature of the terrain. It is interesting to surmise if soil
sampling of the Morant River flood plain, into which Hungry
Gully drains, would have led to recognition of the Morant River
basin as having gold potential, as was the case for the Rio
Minho.
The question of relative effectiveness of the soil and stream
sediment surveys can be addressed. In hindsight it appears that
the Baldwin & Garrett (1984) recommendation to focus on the
Inliers and Wagwater Trough areas was correct, at least for gold.
The stream sediment survey at an average sample density of 1
sample per km2 identified the Bennett Zone and Browns Hall
porphyry system to within 800 m, and the Hungry Gully
occurrence to c. 1 km.
The orientation soil survey (Simpson et al. 1991) recom-
mended that for an island-wide mineral exploration survey, grid
sampling be undertaken at 1 sample per 5 km2. That yields
c. 2200 sites across Jamaica, and if only the 18% CIDA survey
area is considered, c. 400 sites. However, due to the rugged
nature of the Port Royal and Blue Mountains this sample design
could not have been completed without major helicopter and
other logistical support. In those terrains, and other areas with
well developed drainage systems, stream sediment sampling
offers major advantages because samples represent composites
of the weathering and eroding rocks and soils upstream.
In tropical terrains, the effects of seasonal and catastrophic
weather may cast doubt on the reliability of stream sedi-
ments for mineral exploration. Fortuitously for geochemistry,
Hurricane Gilbert had passed through eastern Jamaica in
October 1988, between CIDA Phases I and II. This provided
the opportunity to carry out a detailed temporal variation study.
This involved resampling of multiple anomalous and back-
ground streams in two Wagwater Trough areas in the Port
Royal Mountains close to Kingston, one for 14 and the other
for 24 months; and at Hungry Gully, 15 months, in the Blue
Mountains. The resulting data permitted assessment of the
annual variability of Cu and Au data, and a comparison with
the 1986 pre-Gilbert Phase I survey (Garrett & Amor 1994).
The results showed that, although individual geochemical levels
and patterns had changed, Cu and Au levels varied in a
predictable fashion annually and that anomalous samples,
including Hungry Gully, remained clearly anomalous after the
passage of Hurricane Gilbert.
CONCLUSIONS
Geochemical surveys in Jamaica to date have confirmed the
gold potential of the Cretaceous Inliers, in particular the Central
Inlier. Geochemical Au anomalies outside the Inliers are
dominantly associated with terra rossa soils and represent a
transported palaeo-anomaly of Miocene ash-fall origin. A plot
of Au versus the Fe/Na ratio, as an indicator of soil maturity,
with the ratio increasing from younger immature soils to old
mature soils, provides a useful tool with which to identify sites
associated with Jamaican bedrock sources, i.e. high Au and low
Fe/Na ratio.
In the context of the Cretaceous Inliers and Wagwater
Trough, which form the most rugged terrains in Jamaica, stream
 Geochemical exploration for gold in Jamaica
sediment sampling (1 sample per km2) is preferred for mineral
exploration relative to low-density soil sampling due to access
and logistical considerations. However, it is noteworthy that the
low-density soil survey at 1 sample per 64 km2 clearly identified
the Central Inlier as having gold potential, and in which rock
units that potential lay. It also identified three of the four known
auriferous areas or auriferous host rocks known in Jamaica.
The authors wish to acknowledge the work of the teams involved in
both the CIDA Phase I and II projects and the ICENS island-wide
soil survey and the analysis of the resulting samples. In addition, John
Preston, Charles Grant, Noel McKenzie and Jane Arimah are
especially thanked for assistance with the ICENS database, INA
analysis and data handling; and Susan Davis, Geological Survey of
Canada, Ottawa, for assistance with the figures. Peter Bradshaw,
Chris Gleeson and Yvon Maurice kindly read and commented on the
draft of this paper, we thank them for their helpful suggestions; any
errors and omissions remain the responsibility of the authors.
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