Flight Mechanics: UNIT 1: Aerodynamic and Propulsive Forces

FLIGHT MECHANICS
UNIT 1: Aerodynamic and Propulsive forces
PART –1 : 2D AERODYNAMIC FORCES

SEPTEMBER 17TH 2012
Private & Confidential

FLIGHT MECHANICS - UEM 2012
AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS
REVISION
Private & Confidential

Introduction – Forces of Flight
The “Mechanics of Flight” studies the trajectories and orientation of flight vehicles
Aircraft flying through the atmosphere are subjected to 4 forces:
Effect of pressure distribution and change of

direction of the airflow velocity past the aircraft
LIFT
-Viscous drag
THRUST
-Lift-Induced drag
“Wind” vector, DRAG -Other (compressibility, etc)
relative air Propulsive

velocity force
WEIGHT
Weight = m·g, gravitational

force always pointing towards
the center of the Earth (defines
the local vertical direction)
© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

DRAG is the aerodynamic force aligned with the “wind” vector caused by viscous
friction, energy lost in the generation of downwash (lift-induced drag) and by other
phenomena like entropy generation if the air flow is compressible (noticeable at
speeds above 50% of the speed of sound)
LIFT is the aerodynamic force perpendicular to the wind vector. It is produced as a

consequence of the change of direction of the airflow past the aircraft (downwash). It
can also be calculated by integrating the pressure distribution around the aircraft
surface
THRUST is the propulsive force generated (generally) by mechanical engines which

transform the chemical energy of the fuel into kinetic energy of the airflow. It is
required to balance the drag in steady flight, to overcome the drag in accelerated flight
and to overcome the drag and weight when climbing
WEIGTH = m·g is the gravitational force acting on the aircraft center of mass. It
always points “down” – in fact, it defines the local “downwards” direction.
The most important equation in Flight Mechanics is Newton’s second law:
Newton’s second law for a particle; “The force (f) acting on the particle is
equal to the rate of change of the particle’s momentum (p = m·v)”
dp d (mv)
f= =
dt dt
If the particle has constant mass this is equivalent to: “the force acting on
the particle is equal to its mass (m) times the acceleration (a) of the particle”
f= m·a
dp d(mv) d(v)
f= = =m = m$a
dt dt dt
f = m·a
WAKES, MOMENTUM DEFICIT AND DRAG
After the end of a body moving through air, the boundary layer becomes a
wake.
The wake is a region of the flow with lower velocity than the freestream
velocity and contains turbulence
The thickness and the turbulence of the wake are related to the kinetic
energy extracted from the freestream

Average speed of wake. This is
just a mathematical model of a
complex physical process
Uwake
U∞
D
kD
In order to calculate the drag force a series of simple assumptions can be made:
- The object moves with velocity U ∞ through a fluid at rest
- The wake is dragged behind the object with an average velocity (in time and
space) Uwake with respect to the unperturbed fluid
- The “size” (for example diameter or cross section) of the wake is proportional to
a characteristic “size” of the object

WAKES, MOMENTUM DEFICIT AND DRAG Fluid mass dragged
in the wake
Uwake∆t
U∞
A K’ · A
The representative average wake velocity is averaged through the wake cross
section and in time, so the fluctuations are ignored.
This wake velocity is just a mathematical idealisation to perform the calculation. It is
reasonable to assume that this average wake velocity is proportional to the object
velocity and to a “shape” factor w which accounts for how “streamlined” the object
is. A high “w” means that a lot of fluid is being dragged and thus poor streamlining
U wake = w · U 1
The mass of fluid dragged in the wake of the object in a time ∆t is therefore;
m = (tU3 Dtwk'A)
Uwake∆t
U∞
A K’ · A
The mass of fluid dragged in the wake has gained a certain momentum with respect
to the fluid at rest. (when the object is assumed to be stationary and the unperturbed
flow in motion, the wake has less momentum and this effect is normally known as
momentum deficit)
This change in fluid momentum per unit time is caused by a force that the object
exerts against the fluid. The reaction is called “DRAG FORCE”, D (or Fx)
D (mv)
Fx = = (tU3 Dtwk'A) = tU32 w $ w $ k' $ A
Dt

D(mv)
Fx = = (tU3 Dtwk'A) = tU32 w $ w $ k' $ A
Dt
We rename the product w·w·k’ as;
Introducing a ½ factor to w·w·k’ = ½ Cd0
obtain dynamic pressure
1ff
f
f 2
DRAG FORCE = D = F x = ρ U 1 C d A = q 1 C d A
2
Therefore, the DRAG force is proportional to the freestream dynamic

pressure, the Drag Coefficient (Cd) and the “size” of the object
1
D = tv Cd A
2
2
For mathematical convenience we do: w·w = ½ Cd
Cd is the DRAG COEFFICIENT. A high Cd means that a large mass of air is
being dragged and thus kinetic energy is imparted to the flow at the expense of
the energy of the moving object
An “streamlined”
object has a shape
which follows the
natural stream lines
The “Drag Coefficient” Cd depends on the “size” of the wake, which, in turn,
depends on the shape of the object (and also on the Reynolds number)
Streamlined objects leave smaller wakes and thus have lower drag coefficients
1ff
f
f 2
DRAG FORCE = D = F x = ρ U 1 C d A = q1 C d A
2
DRAG COEFFICIENT
The Form Drag coefficient Cd is therefore a function of the shape of the object (specially
the afterbody) AND the Reynolds number, which determines the form in which the
boundary layer separates.
DRAG
Cd =
q$A
The drag coefficient is non-dimensional:
Cd is a FORCE / (PRESSURE·AREA)
Non-dimensional parameters are very
useful as allow us to compare similar
objects and calculate their aerodynamic
forces at different velocities and for
different sizes
In the previous formulae the “reference
area” A is the frontal area, but this is not
always the case
Any definition of reference area can be
used as long as one is consistent!

LIFT and 2D Airfoils
Let us now consider a two-
dimensional airfoil (the flow field
only depends on the x and z z Wake
coordinates, i.e., the airflow is
planar)
Once the flow over the airfoil has
been fully established (the
starting vortex is far behind the
airfoil), the streamlines are
“pused” downwards
x
As the fluid has mass, the airfoil
is exerting a force on the fluid (it
is giving it a vertical velocity) and
by the law of action and reaction
(Newton’s second law), the fluid
exerts a force in the opposite
direction, called LIFT

BASIC AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS
Airfoil Geometry
The figure shows the key parameters of an airfoil

The maximum thickness of the airfoil is a very
important parameter and is called t/c and
expressed in %
t/c of usual airfoils range between 6% and 15%
x of maximum camber Camber line
x of maximum thickness upper surface
Leading edge Trailing edge
lower surface
Maximum camber
Maximum thickness
C = chord length

Downwash – Lift as change in air vertical momentum
U∞
α
Uwake
vZ
U∞
An airfoil causes a deflection of the incoming flow by a angle ε, called “downwash ε
angle” which is measured at the start of the wake.
The downwash angle ε is proportional to the angle of attack α; ε=w α
Airfoils normally operate at angles of attack below 15º, where we can make the
approximation (sin α) = α (when α is given in radians; e.g. α = 15º = .262 radians;
sin α = .2588 , so in this case the approximation is correct with an error of 1%)
The change in vertical velocity of the fluid caused by the airfoil is, then;
Dvz = U3 $ sin f = U3 $ sin (wa) , U3 $ wa

U∞
C = cho
rd
streamtube
b
α
kC
Control volume U∞∆t
It can be assumed that the airfoil changes C = cho

the vertical velocity of a streamtube of a rd
height kc proportional to the airfoil chord “c”
This is just a qualitative approximation to
obtain the main factors contributing to the lift kC
force
The airfoil (and the streamtube) are assumed
to have a “span” (width) “b” (but the flow is
still two-dimensional)
U∞
c
b
α
kC
1
2
U∞∆t
As the airfoil changes the vertical velocity of the fluid there is a net change
vZ
in momentum of the control volume in the vertical direction
From Newton’s second law, a force is required to generate a change in
momentum of the control volume as it is deflected by the airfoil;
b c
` a ρf
∆f 1 ∆ t ·b · k ·c · U 1 · wα
f
ff
ff
fff
f
ff
ff
vf
f
ff
zf
f
ff
ff ∆f
f
ff
vf
f
ff
zf
f
ff fff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
fff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
m U
Fz= = m =
∆t ∆t ∆t
span
c
chord
The reference surface is chosen to be that of the plan view of the airfoil is c·b = S
Note that as the flow is 2D, b is arbitrary and could be taken as the unit length
Grouping the constants k and w into a new constant k’ and eliminating the time
increment from the equation;
b 2
c
f
f
f
ρ U ∆ t ·b ·c · k · wα
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
1
f
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
f 2
Fz= = k. ρ U 1 S A α
∆t
U∞
c
b
α
kC
1
2
U∞∆t
The force exerted by the fluid on the airfoil (which is the reaction to the
force that the airfoil exerts on the fluid) is called LIFT vZ
This is the force responsible for dynamic flight; i.e., flight due to the
motion of an airfoil through a fluid
LIFT is proportional to the fluid density, the airfoil reference area, the
angle of attack and the square of the fluid free-stream velocity
2
Lift = L = F z = k. ρ U 1 αS
For small angles of attack the constant k’ is expressed in terms of a coefficient
called “lift slope coefficient” clα and a ½ is introduced to use dynamic pressure in the
equation so that the LIFT EQUATION is:
1f
f
ff 2
Lift = L = F z = ρ U 1 cl α α S
2
1f
f
ff 2
Lift = L = q 1 cl α α S ; q1 = ρ U 1
2
In general the Lift force may not depend linearly on the angle of attack (as when
the airfoil is entering the stall regime). The general equation is expressed in terms
of the “lift coefficient” cl which is a function of the angle of attack;
` a
Lift = L = q 1 cl α S
downwash
LIFT and DRAG equations for an AIRFOIL
The LIFT and DRAG equations for an airfoil have the same form
Both the lift coefficient (cl) and drag coefficient (cd) depend on the angle of attack
When considering lifting surfaces or aircraft, the reference area to non-dimensionalise
the forces is S, the planform area
1
LIFT = L = t V2 cl S
2
1
DRAG D= = t V2 cd S
2

Lift of a Flat Plate
The simplest airfoil is a flat plate
This is not very practical because
if it was used in a wing the
structure would not be able to
carry the aerodynamic forces
The streamlines have to turn-
around the sharp leading edge
following a highly curved
trajectory which increases the
flow velocity locally
This creates a strong “suction
High local velocity,
peak”, a local region of very low streamlines close to Suction peak
Cp each other

Flat plates, and all airfoils with
sharp leading edges have a bad
stall behaviour, the flow cannot
recover the strong adverse
pressure gradient after the
Leading Edge and the boundary
layer separates into a large wake
Cl (Lift coefficien)
Flat plates are important in
aerodynamic theory because it is
easy to calculate the “Lift slope”,
the tangent of the angle Ω
df
f
ff
f
Cf
ff
f
lf
f
f
Lift slope = = C l α = 2π
dα ` a ff
f
f
dcf
flf
f
f
Ω ; tan Ω =
when α (Angle of attack) is expressed in dα
radians
The lift slope of all airfoils at speeds below ½ of the speed α (Angle of attack)
of sound is approximately 2π rad-1
Lift slope : Lift gradient : Clα
• For small angles (<10º approx.) of attack (aplha, α), the lift force varies linearly with
alpha
• This is characteristic of all aerodynamic forces and moments and enables a
linearization of the dynamic equations involving forces and moments
• The slope around alpha=0 of the cl-alpha curve is a very important coefficient called
“lift slope”, “lift gradient” or “lift derivative” and is noted as :
` j = = Cl
dCl
da a 0 a
Aerodynamic Coefficient
Derivative
ff
f
ff
flf
f
f
First sub-index = force or
dc
` a moment index
= Cla
Ω ; tan Ω =
dα
Cl a Sub-sub-index =
parameter for derivation
10º
α (Angle of attack)
It can be shown (you will do this in Aerodynamics) that the Lift force (resultant of the
net pressure distribution) of a flat plate acts at 25% of the chord for any angle of
attack (remember, this is only true for a flat plate)
This point is called “center of pressure” (CoP) and the aerodynamic pitching moment
around it is 0
Therefore, on a flat plate, when the angle of attack is increased, the pressure
distribution is scaled linearly so that the net pressure distribution keeps its resultant at
25% of the chord. LIFT
+
Positive orientation for
aerodynamic “pitching” moment
x 25%c

Thickness effect
When the airfoil is given a thickness distribution the local air velocities increase following
the shape of the airfoil as in a Venturi tube
At zero angle of attack the maximum velocity occurs near the point of maximum
thickness
The flow accelerates from the leading edge to this point and in this region there is a
favourable pressure gradient
From the point of maximum thickness to the trailing edge the velocity decreases and
therefore there is an adverse pressure gradient (remember the Bernouilli equation)
f
f
f
Uf
ff
f
ff
f
U1 Favourable pressure gradient
Adverse pressure gradient
Alpha=0º

Thickness effect
Increasing angle of α
f
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f
attack
U
U1
When the angle of attack is
increased the airflow has to
Upper surface overcome higher curvature on
the upper airfoil surface, creating
lower pressure (Bernouilli’s
principle again)
The velocity on the lower surface
decreases and so the pressure
Lower surface on the lower surface increases
Increasing angle of Due to the leading edge radius
attack the adverse pressure gradient is
not as high as on the flat plate

Camber effect
“thin” plate with
camber
(curvature)
If a flat plate is curved in the direction of the flow it generates a pressure

difference between the upper and lower surface even at zero angle of attack
This curvature is called “camber”
The effect of camber is that the airfoil produces lift at alpha=0
Camber effect
These drawings are from the first book on
aerodynamics written by Lanchester in 1909
The lift slope of cambered airfoils

is the same as for the flat plate
At alpha=0 the lift coefficient is
called Cl0
The angle of attack that produces
zero lift is called alpha0
The stall behaviour of cambered
airfoils of zero thickness is similar
to a flat plate, the adverse
pressure gradient is still very
large
Cl0
` a ff
f
f
dcf
flf
f
f
Ω ; t an Ω =
dα
alpha0 α (Angle of attack)

Camber + Thickness
Adding camber to the airfoil creates an assymetry between the upper and lower surfaces
and the airfoil creates lift even if the angle of attack is zero
The thickness distribution is responsible for the development of the boundary layer and
controls the point of transition from laminar to turbulent and the point of separation and
start of the stall
Camber reduces the suction peak and enables the airfoil to reach a higher stall angle of
attack
f
f
f
Uf
ff
f
ff
f
U1
Alpha=0º
BASIC AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS z
Lift of a Cambered Airfoil +

aerodynamic “pitching” moment
x
On a cambered airfoil at zero angle of attack, the
resultant of the net pressure (LIFT) acts at 50% of the
chord
When the angle of attack is increased, an
LIFT due to additional pressure distribution is generated
CAMBER with resultant at 25% of the chord (as in a
flat plate)
The net LIFT force is the sum of:
- the “flat plate” lift acting at 25%c, which
increases linearly with angle of attack
- The lift “due to camber” which is constant
(depends on the airfoil geometry) and does
not depend on the angle of attack
50%c

Pitching moment of a Cambered Airfoil
The total lift of a cambered airfoil is the sum of a constant lift acting at 50%c and a
lift proportional to angle of attack acting at 25%c
The pitching moment around the 25%c point is therefore INDEPENDENT from
angle of attack for any airfoil
The 25%c point is called the AERODYNAMIC CENTER (AC)
The Aerodynamic Center is only the same as the Center of Pressure for symmetric
airfoils
Lift due to angle

of attack,
increases linearly
with alpha
Lift due to
camber, constant
with angle of
attack
“Aerodynamic
Center” (AC),
point at 25% of
the chord
z
BASIC AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS +
Aerodynamic Center aerodynamic “pitching” moment
The Aerodynamic Center (AC) is the point of the airfoil around which the pitching
moment is constant for a given air speed and does not change with angle of attack
From thin airfoil theory, the AC is at 25% of the airfoil chord
In reality, the pitching moment around the AC position changes slightly with angle of
attack due to viscous effects, but for most purposes it can be assumed that it is
constant
Total Lift, applied

at 20%c
Negative airfoil
pitching moment,
(nose down)
“Aerodynamic
Center” (AC),
point at 25% of
the chord
Airfoil Pitching Moment Coefficient
The pitching moment of an airfoil is m
Moment = force · distance
The pitching moment is non-dimensionalised with dynamic pressure, reference area
and CHORD
The pitching moment coefficient is Cm;
m
Cm =
1 2
tv $ S $ c
2
The slope of the pitching moment coefficient

(derivative of Cm with angle of attack) is
dCm = The pitching moment of an

Cm airfoil is negative “nose
da a down”

AIRFOIL LIFT CURVE - STALL
At low angles of attack, the relationship between lift and angle of attack is linear
After a certain angle of attack, the airflow separates and the circulation is broken, the
airfoil generates less lift. This is called STALL

BASIC AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS Sharp stall, rapid loss of lift:
dangerous condition for flight at low
Airfoil shape and stall characteristics speeds near the ground
Smooth stall, good for pilot

response

BASIC AIRFOIL AERODYNAMICS “Abbott and Doenhoff”, the bible of NACA airfoils
NACA airfoils
Experimental airfoil data
from NACA tests in the
1940’s
Notice that for the

symmetric
NACA0012 airfoil
Cl-alpha curve for the pitching
NACA0012 with a moment is 0 in the
trailing edge flap linear regime
Cl-alpha curve
for NACA0012
The pitching
moment becomes
Moment coefficient negative (nose
around 25%c with down) at the stall
flap (stable behaviour)
Moment coefficient
around 25%c with
flap

Examples of airfoil data plots
Airfoil characteristics
Typical computer simulation data (Xfoil) for various low speed airfoils
The pitching
moment becomes
negative (nose
down) at the stall
(stable behaviour)

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FLIGHT MECHANICS

UNIT 1: Aerodynamic and Propulsive forces

PART –1 : 2D AERODYNAMIC FORCES

Private & Confidential

Private & Confidential

Effect of pressure distribution and change of

relative air Propulsive

Weight = m·g, gravitational

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

LIFT is the aerodynamic force perpendicular to the wind vector. It is produced as a

THRUST is the propulsive force generated (generally) by mechanical engines which

The most important equation in Flight Mechanics is Newton’s second law:

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Therefore, the DRAG force is proportional to the freestream dynamic

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

The figure shows the key parameters of an airfoil

x of maximum camber Camber line

x of maximum thickness upper surface

Leading edge Trailing edge

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Dvz = U3 $ sin f = U3 $ sin (wa) , U3 $ wa

Control volume U∞∆t

It can be assumed that the airfoil changes C = cho

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Adverse pressure gradient

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

If a flat plate is curved in the direction of the flow it generates a pressure

The lift slope of cambered airfoils

alpha0 α (Angle of attack)

Lift of a Cambered Airfoil +

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Lift due to angle

Aerodynamic Center aerodynamic “pitching” moment

Total Lift, applied

The slope of the pitching moment coefficient

dCm = The pitching moment of an

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Smooth stall, good for pilot

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

Notice that for the

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

© RCL 2012 Private & Confidential

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