Mobile Phones in Data Collection:: A Systematic Review

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 3(3), 67-87, July-September 2013 67
Mobile Phones in
Data Collection:
A Systematic Review
Füsun Şahin, University at Albany, SUNY,State University of New York at Albany, SUNY,
Albany, NY, United States
Zheng Yan, University at Albany, SUNY, State University of New York at Albany, SUNY,
Albany, NY, United States
ABSTRACT
Mobile phones are increasingly popular tools not only for daily use but also for research purposes. The authors
systematically searched related literature using mobile phones as a tool for data collection and found 171
publications consisting of review, empirical, methodological, and theoretical studies in various disciplines
such as medicine, engineering, and education. After reviewing contributions of previous review studies, the
authors presented a description of data collection process consisting of four steps and used these four steps
as a framework to review the existing empirical literature. The authors then reviewed contributions of meth-
odological and theoretical studies, and end with a summary of current practices of collecting mobile data.
Current challenges and future directions were also mentioned.
Keywords: Cell Phone, Cellular Phones, Data Collection, iPhone, Literature Review, Mobile Data, Mobile
Phone, Smart Phone
The history of science has witnessed that major to further advance its research methodology and
breakthroughs in data collection (e.g., radio- theoretical foundation. Thus, one of the first and
activity, brain images, and green fluorescent foremost tasks at present is to examine both
protein) and data analysis (e.g., method of least breadth and depth of the existing knowledge of
squares, genome analysis, and neural networks) using mobile phones in collecting data.
often lead to major breakthroughs in a specific To respond to the present need of the
discipline of science (e.g., physics, statistics, literature review, this review is our effort
chemistry, biology, and neuroscience). For the to systematically search and synthesize the
science of mobile phone use in particular (Yan, research literature that has existed as early as
Chen, and Yu, 2013) and behavioral sciences the mid-90s of last century (e.g., Zito, D’Este,
in general, how to best use mobile phones to & Taylor. 1995) but is scattered among a wide
collect behavioral data is extremely important variety of disciplines in behavioral sciences
DOI: 10.4018/ijcbpl.2013070106
Copyright © 2013, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
68 International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 3(3), 67-87, July-September 2013
such as medicine, psychology, and education. related to both collecting data about cell phone
After a summary of methods used to search the usage and developing cell phone software were
literature, we reviews four types of the exiting also excluded. Third, studies using personal
literature, review, empirical, methodologi- digital assistants (PDA) as the mobile data
cal, and theoretical, especially the empirical collection tool were excluded because PDAs
literature in detail. It concludes with a brief do not have the function of a regular phone.
presentation of present challenges and future Fourth, studies that examined general phones
directions. or landline phones were excluded, while we did
not exclude studies dealing with both landline
and mobile phones so that we might compare
METHOD these two tools in data collection.
We employed inclusion criteria based on
Literature Search Strategies
language and participants. First, studies pub-
The search for relevant literature was conducted lished only in English from various disciplines
in three stages. First, electronic databases were were included. Second, studies were included
searched for peer-reviewed journal articles, in- regardless of either collecting data from human
cluding theoretical, review, and empirical ones. participants or retrieved data from a database
Second, we used a “rolling- snowball” method without any human interaction. Note that most
to search more articles by manually checking articles found were published after 2000, al-
references of journal articles identified in the though we did not use the publication year for
first stage. Finally, we expanded our search by either inclusion or exclusion.
visiting websites of core journals and leading On the basis of the criteria specified above,
experts and by consulting with reference librar- as of April of 2013, 171 relevant articles were
ians and experts in the field. found in four broad categories: (a) review, (b)
Specifically, various phrases such as phone, empirical (c) methodological, and (d) theoreti-
cellular phones, cell phone, smart phone, mo- cal. These categories were created depending
bile phone, IPhone, data, data collection, col- on the aims of article to better identify liter-
lecting data, and their different combinations ature-integrative, empirical, methodological,
were searched in keyword, title, or abstract or theoretical contributions of each article.
of an article. Particular databases used were: Articles reviewing multiple empirical studies
PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, Applied Science or multiple research cases were considered as
and Technology, Communication, Computers review articles. We found 26 review articles
and Applied Sciences Complete, Education as a result of our literature search. An article
Full Text, Education Research Complete, aiming at presenting an empirical study that
Educational Administration Abstracts, ERIC, reported collecting data with mobile phones
Film and Television Literature Index, Health was coded as an empirical study. We found
Source, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences 115 empirical studies (see the references for
Collection, Social Sciences Full Text, Academic examples). Articles that aimed at evaluating
Search Complete, Library Information Science the use of mobile phones as a methodological
and Technology, Medline, Primary Search, and method for data collection were considered
Professional Development Collection. as methodological articles. We identified 27
methodological articles (see References section
Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria for details). Lastly, articles aiming at narrating
general mobile data collection process and dis-
We used four criteria for exclusion. First, studies cussing general concerns were categorized as
using mobile phones as an intervention medium theoretical articles. We found three theoretical
without collecting data were eliminated since articles (Berg & Modi, 2010; Mourão & Okada,
it is not the focus of this study. Second, studies 2010; Shilton, 2009).
SYNTHESIZED KNOWLEDGE The 22 discipline-specific review articles

OF USING MOBILE PHONES concern medicine (15 articles), traffic studies
TO COLLECT DATA (three articles), education literature (two ar-
ticles), earth sciences (one article), and travel
The published review articles present synthe- research (one article). These reviews made sub-
sized knowledge of using mobile phones to stantial contributions to the exiting knowledge
collect data. Among the 26 reviews articles we by (a) reviewing various data collection methods
found (see References for citation details), four of using mobile phones and comparing them
of them were not tied to any discipline (Don- with other methods (Ashar, Lewis, Blazes, &
ner, 2008; Kwok, 2009; Muthiah, Prashant, and Chretien, 2010; Blake, 2008, Boulos, Wheeler,
Jhunjhunwala, 2012, & Shilton, 2012) and 22 Tavares, Jones, 2011; Cheung and Hew, 2009;
were tied to various specific disciplines. Chomutare, Fernandez-Luque, Arsand, &
The four discipline-general articles con- Hartvigsen, 2011; Dearnley, Haigh, & Fairhall,
tributed to the literature by identifying major 2008; Ferster and Coops, 2013; Illner, Freisling,
concentrations of research (Donner, 2008), Boeing, Huybrechts, Crispim, & Slimani, 2012;
challenges in developing countries (Muthiah, Kailas, Chong, & Watanabe, 2010 and 2012;
Prashant, & Jhunjhunwala, 2012), concerns Kaplan, 2006, Lieffers, & Hanning, 2012; Mad-
about privacy in collet mobile phone data (Shil- der, Walker, Van Rooyen, Knobel, Vandamme,
ton, 2012), and possibilities of using mobile Berkvens, Vanwambeke, & et al., 2012; Mosa,
phones as a methodological tool (Kwok, 2009). Yoo, & Sheets, 2012; Ozdalga, Ozdalga, &
Donner (2008) reviewed 200 published studies Ahuja, 2012; Rao, Hou, Golnik, Flaherty, &
and identified major research concentrations Vu, 2010; Rose, 2006) and (b) pointing out the
in developing world, including mobile phone use of particular functions of mobile phones in
adoption, impacts of mobile phone usage, and data collection (Kerr, Duncan, Schipperijn, &
interrelationships between mobile technologies Schipperjin, 2011; Lim, Hocking, Hellard, &
and users. Focusing also on the literature about Aitken, 2008; Jones, Drury, & McBeath, 2011;
developing countries, Muthiah, Prashant, and Zito, D’Este,& Taylor, 1995).
Jhunjhunwala (2012) reviewed publications For example, Mosa, Yoo, and Sheets (2012)
from 2005 to 2011 and identified major chal- reviewed healthcare applications with mobile
lenges of collecting data with mobile phones phones and provided a portrayal of various medi-
in rural areas in developing countries. These cal purposes, such as disease diagnosis, drug
major challenges he reported were occasional reference, medical training, and chronic disease
problems in working of mobile network, dif- management. Cheung and Hew’s (2009) study
ficulty of saving data, misuse of devices due to examined five related case studies on education
lack of proper training, existing work load of and provided five means for data collection: test
health workers, and maintaining data accuracy, or quiz, questionnaire, interview or focus group
security and privacy. Shilton (2012) mentioned discussion, observation, and content analysis.
privacy concerns by focusing on a particular As an example looking into a particular function
type of data, participatory personal data (an of using mobile phones, Lim, Hocking, Hellard,
individual recording data about himself), and and Aitken (2008) concentrated on the use of
discussed extensively about characteristics and small message service (SMS) in sexual health,
the technologies used (e.g., mobile phones, such as providing test results and educating
tablets, networked body sensors) to collect the individuals because mobile phones that are easy
type of data. In her narrative review, Kwok in access, convenient in use, and low in cost.
(2009) identified the possibilities of using To sum, from the contributions of existing
mobile phones in data collection by explaining reviews we can conclude that mobile phones
various types of data that can be collected every provide various opportunities for data collec-
time and everywhere. tion such as collecting data everywhere and
any time. This method is also advantageous in 1, every bullet presents an aspect of that step
comparison to other methods such as paper- and possible options in each step were given
based tests. Moreover, specific functions of in parentheses.
mobile phones are easy to learn and research-
ers can easily utilize such functions. Even in Source of Data
developing countries, mobile phones can be an
efficient way to collect data. Users. Both human and non-human subjects can
provide data for research using mobile phone
Empirical Knowledge of Using as a data collection tool.
Mobile Phones to Collect Data First, we observed that seven empiri-
cal studies collected data from non-humans
The 115 empirical articles (see References for (Aanensen, Huntley, Feil, al-Own, & Spratt,
citation details) we found consist of nearly 2009; Bellina & Missoni, 2009; Jiang, Tseng,
70% of the existing literature of using mobile Lu, Yang, Wu, Chen, Lin et al., 2008; Keller-
phones to collect data. The contributions of mann, Kreuzer, Omerovich, Hoetzinger, Kochs,
these empirical studies are that these articles & Jungwirth, 2012; Seidenberg, Nicholson,
have documented a wide variety of practices Schaefer, Semrau, Bweupe, Masese, Bonawitz
of data collection methods with mobile phones et al., 2012; Parikh, Javid, Sasimumar, & Ghosh,
in the real world. We examined data collection 2006; Tuijn, Hoefman, Van Beijma, Oskam, &
process of these empirical studies collected Chevrollier, 2011) For example, Jiang, Tseng,
mobile data to present data collection systemati- Lu, Yang, Wu, Chen, Lin et al. (2008) developed
cally. Based on the current practices presented in and used a system that can monitor the environ-
the empirical studies, we focus on four specific mental parameters and population dynamics of
tasks along the process of data collection: (a) the oriental fruit fly in real-time. The system
data source (how data are initially originated), collects environmental data and the number of
(b) data production (how data are produced), (c) trapped flies and sends all the data back to the
data storage (how data are saved), and (d) data project server in the form of a short cell phone
retrieval (how data are retrieved for analysis). message through the wireless Global System
We use these four sequential data collection of Mobile Communication (GSM). Second,
steps as an organization framework to review 108 presented research cases where humans
the 115 empirical studies. As shown in Figure originated data.
Figure 1. Four tasks in the process of data collection using mobile phones as an organization
framework of reviewing the 115 empirical articles
Second, in addition to categorizing us- Second, 44 studies that collected data with
ers as human and non-human, we can also mobile phones while users were engaging in
categorize users depending on the number of their routine activities such as users’ routine
the users as general users and specific users. communication behaviors with the help of cel-
Our literature search showed that 32 studies lular network data (CND). Phone calls (Sevtsuk
collected data from general users such as sub- & Ratti, 2010) and data exchange using a mobile
scribers of a specific a cellular network provider device (Hoteit, Secci, He, Ziemlicki, Smoreda,
company or citizens in one country whereas Ratti, & Pujolle, 2012) are two examples of such
83 studies collected data from specific users acitivities.. Sevtsuk and Ratti (2010) utilized
such as participants selected for a study. As an longitudinal data on number of calls made by
example of collecting data from general users, each user and each call’s duration from carriers
Phithakkitnukoon, Leong, Smoreda, and Olivier and calculated call volume data that enabled
(2012) collected and analyzed a full calendar them to analyze daily fluctuations in human
year of data for 22,696 mobile phone users mobility in Rome of Italy. Hoteit, Secci, He,
(53.2 million call logs) in Lisbon, Portugal. Ziemlicki, Smoreda, Ratti, and Pujolle (2012)
Their results suggested weather condition had analyzed information on network volume, time
a relationship with people’s calling behavior. and location of connection behavior, and ap-
For instance, people used to have longer calls plications used and then derived users’ habits
during periods of colder weather. Collecting data of mobile Internet usage and crowded spots
from a sample of participants that is chosen for and times in Paris region. In a study collecting
a study (i.e., specific users) is also a common data about human physical activities with sen-
practice. For example, Mulvaney, Rothman, sors embedded into mobile phones, Anderson,
Dietrich, Wallston, Grove, Elasy, & Johnson, Maitland, Sherwood, Barkhuus, Chalmers, Hall,
2012) collected data from 50 adolescents with Brown, et al. (2007) tested a smart phone appli-
Type 1 diabetes using mobile phones. With cation to track people’s daily exercise activities.
the use of an automated interactive telephone With the aim of motivating adults who do not
response system using, participants were called currently achieve the minimum recommended
twice per day for 10 days and asked about their daily activity level by increasing their awareness
blood glucose monitoring frequency, timing of about their activity levels. The system gives
glucose monitoring, insulin administration, and time spent on each four-activity categories
insulin dosing. inactive, light, moderate, and vigorous activity.
Activity. Researchers can use mobile With GPS receiver and accelerometer features
phones to collect data while users are engaged built-in mobile phones Reddy, Mun, Burke,
in a specific activity, their routine activities, or Estrin, Hansen, and Srivastava (2010) were
not even engaging in any activity. able to infer users’ transportation mode as one
First, users can be intentionally engaged in of these modes: stationary, walking, running,
such activities to provide data to the researcher biking, or in motorized transport as long as they
during the data collection episodes. Sixty-three kept their GPS receiver on.
studies reported various projects of this kind. For Third, as it was observed in eight empirical
example, requiring participants to keep mobile studies, users could provide data even if they
phone diaries, Plowman and Stevenson (2012) were not engaging in any activity using their
examined children’s home environments by mobile phones. Researchers can collect informa-
requesting parents to respond to text message tion about location and mobility of phone users
prompts sent by researchers, indicating where (Bar-Gera, 2007; Caceres, Wideberg, & Benitez,
their children were located, who they were with, 2007; Herrera & Bayen, 2010; Herrera, Work,
what they were doing, and, if available, a photo Herring, Jeff, Jacobson, & Bayen, 2010; Wang,
taken at the time of the prompt to collect in- Hunter, Bayen, Schechtner, Gonzales, 2012)
formation about children’s home environment. and their surroundings (Grindrod & Parsons,
2011; Jiang, Tseng, Lu, Yang, Wu, Chen, Lin function, 20 studies used calling function to
et al., 2008; Kukkonen, Lagerspetz, Nurmi, & produce either voice data or ubiquitous call
Andersson, 2009). For example, Caceres, Wide- records, seven studies used sensors such as GPS
berg and Benitez (2007) monitored the flow of and Bluetooth, and eight studies used multiple
mobile phones in a cell-phone network while functions such as SMS and calling or SMS and
the mobile phone is changing the base station camera function together.
it receives signal from. They correlated these Phone types. Researchers used both regular
changes in mobile phone network position with and smart phones to collect data. Among the
users’ actual position and inferred their mobil- 115 empirical studies, 36 utilized smart phones,
ity in traffic. Kukkonen, Lagerspetz, Nurmi, six used regular phones, and 73 studies did not
and Andersson (2009) narrated a smart phone indicate the specific types of phone used for the
application that can read and accumulate data study. Smart phones contributed to data col-
from multiple sensors embedded in the phone lection with various functions unique to smart
(such as Bluetooth and microphone). As long phones (e.g., Hoteit, Secci, He, & Ziemlicki,
as the sensors are open, although a user does 2012; Reddy, Mun, Burke, Estrin, Hansen, &
not perform any activity, he or she can still Srivastava, 2010; Scully, Lee, Meyer, Gorbach,
provide variable data. Granquist-Fraser, Mendelson, & Chon, 2012)
and applications (e.g., Anderson, Maitland,
Production of Data Sherwood, Barkhuus, Chalmers, Hall, Brown,
et al., 2007; Chon & Cha, 2011; You, Wei,
Data types. Mobile phones can be used to Chen, & Chen, 2011). For example, Reddy,
produce various types of data, include ubiq- Mun, Burke, Estrin, Hansen, and Srivastava,
uitous data, text-based data, visual data, and (2010) incorporated GPS and Wifi enabled
participatory personal data. Ubiquitous data smart phones to detect transportation mode
were either in the form of sensory data and of passengers. Scully, Lee, Meyer, Gorbach,
logs such as GSM or in the form of logs such Granquist-Fraser, Mendelson, and Chon (2012)
as call detail records (CDRs). Among 56 exiting used camera enabled smart phones to record
studies collected ubiquitous data, 32 of them physiological parameters. They initiated data
used logs, 20 of them sensors, and 4 of them collection with video recording, then they
used both sensors and logs. Besides the 56 aligned these videos with subject’s electrocar-
studies collecting ubiquitous data, 38 collected diogram measurements, and subject’s finger
text data, seven collected visual data, and five video captures. Through this procedure, they
collected visual or voice data. Moreover, using aligned data from the video, electrocardiogram,
multiple types of data at once is also possible as and finger picture starting from 1 second of
it is observed in six studies. They collected text the initiation of the video. Twenty-four studies
and visual data or text and voice data. Cleary, collected data with the use of a smart phone
one of the major advantages of using mobile application. Chon and Cha (2011) developed
phones is its potential to generate particularly and experimented a smartphone-based context
rich multimedia data. provider application that unites information
Function types. Mobile phones can have from built in accelerometer, digital compass, Wi-
various functions such as calling, SMS, cam- Fi, and GPS to track and automatically identify
era, and sensors to capture various types of users’ locations with room level accuracy. You
data. For example, SMS function captures text (2011) described a smart phone based shopping
data, camera captures visual data, and sensors tracker to detect how much time a user spends
capture other sensory data. Among the exist- on shopping. The program embedded in smart
ing literature, 34 studies used applications to phones incorporated received Wi-Fi signals,
collect ubiquitous, text and a combination of accelerometer and digital compass readings,
different types of data, 28 studies used SMS
and the time stamps to track time spent for database. For example, Arab and Winter (2010)
shopping in stores. utilized an automated image capture system
We examined the studies that did not embedded into mobile phones that captured
indicate the type of phone used the functions snapshots every 10 seconds. The recorded im-
of the phones utilized. Most studies used call- ages were then sent to the project server using
ing (Freedman, Lester, McNamara, Milby, mobile phone service.
& Schumacher, 2006), SMS (Alfvén, 2010), Company databases. Mobile phone carriers
camera, and logs gained from CDRs and CBRs used the company databases to store records of
(Grindrod, & Parsons, 2011) indicating that many instances, such as calling, call duration,
utilizing regular phones were sufficient for those texting, and Internet usage for billing and cus-
studies. For example, Freedman (2006) used tomer service purposes. Specifically, call detail
computer-automated telephone interviewing records (or CDRs) that aggregated records of
with cocaine-addicted patients in a treatment time and duration of calls users made and cell
program for 2-week period. They recorded base records (or CBRs) that saved records of
patients’ cocaine craving and using episodes the location of cell towers connecting with a
almost real time. Alfvén (2010) worked with mobile phone are two types of the most used
children of age 9–15 years who reported inten- datasets. For example, Hoteit, Secci, He, Ziem-
sity of their pain by SMS six times a day for licki, Smoreda, Ratti, and Pujolle (2012) and
a week. Studies used CND taken from carrier Sevtsuk and Ratti (2010) derived call volume,
companies such as data about call detail records network volume, and location information
collect communication data produced by both using CDRs. Isaacman, Becker, and Ca ́ceres
types of phones. Therefore, studies used CND (2011) utilized both CDRs and CBRs for their
did not indicate the type of phone used to col- research on human mobility in New York and
lect data. Los Angeles.
Mixed approaches. Three studies reported
Storage of Data to use a mixed approach to data storage (Bengts-
son, Lu, Thorson, Garfield, & Von Schreeb,
Four approaches are used to store data after 2011; Girardin, Blat, Calabrese, Dal Fiore, &
data are collected with mobile phones: (a) in Ratti, 2008; and Ratti, Sevtsuk, Huang, & Pailer,
a researcher’s digital facility, (b) in a project 2007). For example, Ratti, Sevtsuk, Huang,
databases, (c) in a company database, and (d) in and Pailer sent data from a GSM company in
a mixed approach using both a project database Austria to a server at MIT of USA and stored
and a company database. Among the existing data in an open-source MySQL database. The
literature, 39 studies stored data in research- data is then paired with spatial information on
ers’ facility, 48 studies used project databases, the city of Graz of Austria to show real time
25 used company databases, and three studies image of mobility.
followed a mixed approach by utilizing both
company and project databases. Retrieval of Data
Researchers’digital facilities. With mobile
phones, data can be stored in researchers’ facility The exiting literature documents various
by saving data in the phone memory or sending approaches in data retrieval in dealing with
data to the researcher’s phones (e.g., Plowman & meaningfulness and anonymity of collected
Stevenson, 2012) or saving in a computer with and stored data. Meaningful data do not re-
the use of a specific application (e.g., Muthiah, quire researchers use data mining, merging, or
Prashant, & Jhunjhunwala, 2012). manipulation to extract relevant information
Project databases. Collected data can be from the dataset. In addition to meaningfulness,
stored in a project database. Usually applica- the collected data can be anonymous, pseudo-
tions are programmed to send data to the project anonymous, or non-anonymous. Anonymous
data do not include any identifiable informa- location information given within CBR pro-
tion of users whereas, pseudo- anonymous (or vided by carriers to identify users’ locations. On
anonymized) data include unique IDs assigned the other hand, Shad and Chen (2012) utilized
to each user without revealing any identifiable CBR without the location information and
information. Non-anonymous data include us- merged this dataset with the publicly available
ers’ identifiable personal information. cell location information using unique cell IDs.
Meaningfulness. Among all the empiri- This way, Chan and Chen could yield location
cal articles, 70 yielded meaningful data at the information that was not given by the company.
retrieval step and 45 needed to process data to Anonymity. Anonymity is another property
make it meaningful for further data analysis. of collected and stored data that is highly re-
Meaningfulness of the collected dataset depend lated to the privacy issue. Among 115 empiri-
on the meaningfulness of raw data as well as cal studies, 29 dealt with anonymous data, 18
other factors such as research questions, data pseudo-anonymous data, 30 non-anonymous
mining techniques, and additional data avail- data, and 38 did not indicate the anonymity of
able to researchers. In cases where raw data is data collected.
meaningful, such as in two SMS survey studies First, there were 32 studies found collected
(e.g., Axén, Bodin, Bergström, Halasz, Lange, data from general users where 23 of them yielded
Lövgren, Rosenbaum, Leboeuf-Yde, & Jensen, anonymous data (e.g., Caceres, Wideberg, &
2012; Axén, Bodin, Kongsted, Wedderkopp, Benitez, 2007), six of them utilized pseudo-
Jensen, & Bergström, 2012), researchers collect anonymous data (e.g., Phithakkitnukoon,
meaningful data. For example, Axén, Bodin, Smoreda & Oliver, 2011) and three of them
Kongsted, Wedderkopp, Jensen, and Bergström did not indicate the anonymity of collected
(2012) conducted a study by sending partici- data. For example, Phithakkitnukoon, Smoreda
pants’ text messages using the SMS service. and Oliver utilized pseudo- anonymous data
They asked participants about the number of of 1.3 million mobile phone users in Portugal.
days and intensity of their low back pain during Their data (CDR) included information on
18 weeks. Patients answered these questions time of call, caller ID, callee ID, caller cell
with options ranging from zero to seven. ID, callee cell ID, and call duration. From this
Raw data can be meaningful for some re- data, they found that about 80% of places that
search questions but may need to be processed one visits are within just 20 km of their near-
to answer other different research questions. est (geographical) social ties’ location. Three
For example, Girardin, Vaccari, Gerber, Bider- studies (Muthiah, Prashant, Pushpa, Natarajan,
man, and Ratti (2009) pursued two research Jhunjhunwala, & Waidyanatha, 2011; Ntalasha,
questions: (a) location of users at a given time 2012; Rotheram-Borus, Richter, Van Rooyen,
and (b) temporal and seasonal trends. Authors Van Heerden, Tomlinson, Stein, & Rochat, et
utilized one-week snapshot of aggregate CDRs, al., 2011) can be considered as specific cases
which could reveal the spatial distribution of constituting exceptions of gather identifiable
anonymous local users and visitors in a place data from general users. All these three studies
over a given time. However, to have an insight aim at collecting information about the whole
of temporal and seasonal trends, they plotted population and try to come up with census data.
daily activity patterns of people captured over Second, many studies working with spe-
a year to make their data meaningful. cific users such as participants of a study used
Existence of additional data can be also non-anonymous data. Especially for collecting
helpful to find relevant information to a research participatory personal data, researchers obtained
question. For example, publicly available cell informed consent of participants. For example,
location information was an additional dataset Farmer, Gibson, Hayton, Bryden, Dudley, and
that was helpful for research. For example, Neil (2005) collected and gave feedback to
Isaacman, Becker, and Ca ́ceres (2011) used blood glucose levels of adolescents diagnosed
with Type 1 diabetes. In order to continue their in reducing survey bias but was not effective
treatment properly, patient information was in reducing costs. From these examples, it can
also gathered. be concluded that researchers can collect data
Overall, our review of empirical studies accurately by implementing mobile phones in
documented various common practices that are data collection process, however costs of such
currently carried out in various disciplines dur- implementation can depend on their settings.
ing the cell-phone-based data collection process. For a project held in India, Patnaik,
The four-step process we specified is helpful Brunskill, and Thies (2009) examined accuracy
to describe the process in general, organize the of data entered using mobile phones through
literature review, and identify some common three interfaces: (a) electronic forms filling
challenges and future directions of using mobile applications embedded in smart phones, (b)
phones for data collection. SMS, and (c) voice (an actual phone call).
They observed that electronic forms and SMS
Methodological Knowledge offered comparable error rates (4.2% and 4.5%
of Using Mobile Phones per entry, respectively) whereas voice interface
to Collect Data offered a very low error rate (0.45% per entry).
They concluded that collecting data through
Twenty-nine methodological articles was found voice interface provided an accurate and cost
(see References for citation details) focusing on effective solution in India, and accuracy of
the (a) coverage of mobile phone owners (e.g., data would be enhanced with training people
Wesolowski, Eagle, Noor, Snow, and Buckee, for entering data.
2013), (b) accuracy of results collected via Dillon (2012) described and analyzed the
mobile phones (e.g., Vehovar, Berzelak, and experience of a research project that used mobile
Manfreda, 2010), (c) comparisons of data col- phones to collect data from households in rural
lection with mobile phone and landline phones Tanzania. He highlighted some of the mistakes
(e.g., Carley-Baxter, Peytchev, & Black, 2010), made and lessons learned, and discussed the
(d) data collection with using specific functions applicability of data collection with mobile
of mobile phones (e.g., Patnaik, Brunskill, and phone in other settings.
Thies (2009), and (e) explaining efficiency of All in all, methodological articles contrib-
data collection with mobile phones through case uted our current knowledge by indicating this
studies and comparisons (e.g., Dillon, 2012). tool is an efficient tool that provides accurate
For example, Wesolowski, Eagle, Noor, results and can be used in various settings. First
Snow, and Buckee (2013) questioned a potential the ownership of mobile phones is sufficiently
bias of ownership of phones among differ- widespread to eliminate possible bias of data
ent demographic groups can be given. They collected from mobile phone owners. Second,
coupled data from mobile phone datasets and there are various functions of mobile phones
survey results; their analysis concluded that to collect data. Third, data collected via mobile
mobile phone data are robust to bias of phone phones are accurate. Fourth, mobile data can
ownership. be collected from various settings. Fifth, it is
Carley-Baxter (2010) tested experimented an efficient tool for collecting data.
hypotheses that differences between cell phone
and landline interviewing in survey topic and
length. They concluded that these factors might THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE
not have the same impact in cell phone surveys. OF USING MOBILE PHONES
Vehovar, Berzelak, and Manfreda (2010) TO COLLECT DATA
focused both accuracy and efficiency of data
collection by examining costs and errors of Berg and Modi (2010) discussed the efficiency
implementing mobile phone surveys. They delivering public and social services using data
found that mobile phone surveys was effective collected through SMS. For this purpose, they
defined common terminology regarding compo- Size and privacy of data are the two major
nents, techniques, and approaches of data col- concerns of data collection from general users.
lection process using SMS. Mourão and Okada Size of data collected from each user should
(2010) introduced a new model for survey data be sufficiently small to enable researchers ef-
collection from the field using mobile phones. ficiently store a large dataset collected from a
Their model incorporated survey creation and large number of users. Specifically, data in the
dissemination processes. Shilton’s (2009) study form of text or activity records are smaller in
underlies privacy issues in data collection size than visual or sensory data making collect-
using mobile phones by defining users’ and ing text data or ubiquitous logs will be more
application developers’ roles, responsibilities, feasible. In addition to type of data, storing big
and concerns in protecting unwanted release of size data will not be possible in researchers’
personal data. These theoretical articles led us digital facilities will not be an efficient choice,
think of collecting data with mobile phones as making utilization of company or project data-
a systematic and efficient process with some bases more feasible.
privacy concerns. Privacy is another concern shaping re-
These theoretical articles (see References searchers’ data collection choices. For protect-
for citation details) indicated that data collection ing user privacy, access to user content such as
with mobile phones is promising not only for voice record of calls, SMS content, visuals sent
improving research but also providing services. is beyond the legal boundaries of companies.
Moreover, development of a general model to Although collecting personal data is possible
embrace various modes of collecting mobile by taking users’ informed consents, obtaining
data is needed. The last but not the least, privacy such consents from a large number of people
of data is a big concern. may not be efficient.
These restrictions limit richness of data
collected from general users. This limitation can
SUMMARY be thought in the line with breadth over depth
problem. Data collected from general users can
Examination of empirical studies indicated that
be limited in terms of richness of data on the
“users” is the most critical element data collec-
other hand; data collected from specific users
tion process because it shapes the research scope
can be limited in scope.
and researchers’ decisions about other elements.
Collecting data from specific users also
For example, researchers using CND col-
point out some considerations in each step
lected data from general users. If any specific
of data collection process. In the first step,
user activity was required from subscribers, the
it is observed that 58 studies required users
activity was limited to routine communication
to perform a specific activity (e.g., sending
behavior such as calling. This decision affects
photos, answering SMS) whereas 19 required
utilizing only those functions that are used for
performing a routine activity (e.g., Asakura &
communication purposes. Limited number of
Iryo, 2005) and six of them did not require any
functions lead to limitations in types of data
activity (e.g., Kukkonen, Lagerspetz, Nurmi,
gathered. CND consists of using CDRs or CBRs,
& Andersson, 2009). In the production step,
which provide ubiquitous data. In addition to
variety of the functions (e.g., camera, MMS,
storage, retrieval phase is also affected if CND
SMS, sensor, and smart phone applications) can
is used. CND can provide only anonymous or
be used; enabling researchers collect various
pseudo-anonymous data, which is usually in
types of data (e.g., participatory personal and
aggregated form and not meaningful as raw
visual data). In the storage step, although size of
data. Researchers are required to process data
data collected from each individual can be big,
to make large datasets more manageable and
because data collected from only small number
suitable for analysis.
of participants researchers can still use their
digital facilities. In retrieval step, obtained da- Concerns About Privacy

taset is usually meaningful and not anonymous.
Because usually users themselves provide data, Privacy is a prominent issue. Especially, Shil-
raw data is meaningful and data manipulation ton’s (2009) study underlies privacy issues in
may not be needed. In most studies, research- data collection using mobile phones by defining
ers took informed consents from participants users’ and application developers’ roles, respon-
enabling them to reach user’s identifiable sibilities, and concerns in protecting unwanted
information. Although it is possible to collect release of personal data. Researchers worked
anonymous information from participants in with specific users and collected participants’
a research setting, some contexts may require identifiable information. They also obtained
users’ identifiable information. For example, in participants’ informed consent and protection
medical research settings, researchers can also of privacy was researchers’ responsibility. In
be the medical doctors of the participants. Espe- cases where data were collected from general
cially in cases where an intervention takes place, users, protecting privacy of data was the com-
researchers may like to inform the participants panies’ responsibility. Although by agreeing to
in the light of collected data. In working with the terms and conditions for using the services
specific users, researchers either may not need provided by operators users permit that their
to hide participants’ identifiable information or communication activities can be recorded and
the study aim may require identifiable informa- analyzed to improve services, legislations in
tion about individual participants (participatory the US (i.e., The Electronic Communications
personal data). Researchers can prefer collecting Privacy Act, 1986) and Europe (i.e., Directive
non-anonymous data in working with small by the European Parliament and Council, 2002,
number of users. Directive on Privacy And Electronic Commu-
nications) protect user privacy by prohibiting
companies to share users’ personal informa-
CURRENT CHALLENGES tion with third parties. Therefore, companies
AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS can only provide aggregate and anonymous or
pseudo-anonymous data to researchers. Since
Meaningful Data or Giving general users’ personal information is usually
Meaning to Data not accessible, researchers cannot investigate
Deriving more meaningful information using potentially interesting demographic compari-
less data in retrieval phase is a current chal- sons such as gender and age differences.
lenge among researchers. Same dataset can be
Future Directions
meaningful depending on the research question
and available extra data. First, same data can In Source Step: Collecting unobtrusive data
answer a specific research question but may in research settings. Our review indicates that
not answer another. For example, data gained many studies working with small sample of
from anonymous CDRs can be meaningful for participants required them to perform a specific
analyzing taxi volume but may not be sufficient activity that can possibly damage authenticity of
to analyze social networks. Second, available the setting. Collecting data with mobile phones
extra data can enhance richness of existing provide advantage over surveys or question-
data. For example, CBR without the location naires by providing real time data from actual
information that Shad and Chen (2012) utilized settings by eliminating factors of memory.
was not meaningful by itself. After merging this However, requiring participants to perform an
dataset with the publicly available cell location activity that otherwise they would not perform
information it became meaningful. can impede users’ natural behavior and distort
quality of data. To overcome this issue, more
research exploring unobtrusive ways of collect- innovations will reduce the cost of collecting
ing data is needed. extra data and increase efficiency of data collec-
In Production Step: Using different type tion. On the other hand, as more sophisticated
of tools. Our review indicated that there were data mining techniques emerge, uncovering
only fifteen studies using smart phones to col- identifiable information users’ privacy will be
lect data. Because smart phone technology is more probable. To have an eye of the protection
relatively new and expending, innovative ways of user privacy with the enhancement of data
of using smart phones for data collection need mining techniques is researchers’ responsibility.
attention. Sensors and applications increase the Moreover, laws should also follow and foresee
variety in functions of smart phones. Especially possibilities of uncovering personal informa-
embedded sensors increase variety of sensory tion to hold necessary legal updates parallel to
data collected from various environments. These the advancements in tools and methods used
automatic sensors also enable both researchers in data collection.
and layman users collect data from non-human
subjects as well as human subjects. Moreover,
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International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 3(3), 67-87, July-September 2013 67

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