MODULE 1

DC Circuits
Types of Electric Current
Unidirectional current.

(a) DC current. (b) Pulsating current.

Alternating current.

(a) Sinusoidal ac current. (b) Square-wave ac current.

Defining a Current

Two methods of representation for the same current.

Voltage or Potential

• Mostly, we are interested in potential difference (pd) also called

voltage, and not in absolute potential.
• 1 volt (V) = 1 joule / 1 coulomb = 1 J/C.
• The notation VAB denotes the voltage of point A with respect to point B.
• It is simply the voltage rise from B to A.
• It is same thing as the voltage drop from A to B.
What is the voltage VAB in following three cases ?

(a) (b)

(c)
Answer:
(a) Voltage VAB = 4 V.
(b) Voltage VAB = - 4 V.
(c) Voltage VAB = -(- 4) V = 4 V
Energy

(a) The element is absorbing energy

(a passive element)

(b) The element is delivering energy.

(an active element)

Passive Sign Convention says that the current must enter the
plus-marked terminal of the element.
• Unit of energy is joule (J).
• Unit of power is watt (W).
• 1 hp =746 W.
• Electrical energy is measured in kW h.
Ohm’s Law

V I or V  RI

• R is called resistance, measure in ohm (Ω).

I V or I  GV
G is called conductance, measured in siemens (S).
Obviously,
1
G
R
Ohm’s Law in Graphical Form
Short Circuit and Open Circuit
Resistance

L L
R or R
A A
ρ is resistivity, measured in ohm metre (Ω m).
Inverse of resistivity is conductivity (S/m), i.e.,

1
 (conductivi ty ) 
 (resistivit y)
Voltage Divider
R1
V1  V
R1  R2

R2
V2  V
R1  R2

• The voltage appearing across one of the series resistances is the total
voltage times the ratio of its resistance to the total resistance.
Current Divider
• The current through one of the two parallel
resistors is the total current times the ratio of the
other resistance to the sum of resistances.

R2 G1
I1  I or I1  I
R1  R2 G1  G2

Find I1 and I2 in terms of

R1 G2
current I. I2  I or I 2  I
R1  R2 G1  G2
Star-Delta Connections :
Two ways of connecting three resistors across three points.

(a) Star (Y) connection (b) Delta (∆) connection

 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• (1) KCL : Algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction of
conductors in a circuit is zero.
• It is simply a restatement of the principle of conservation of
charge. b

I
j 1
j 0

• (2) KVL :The

algebraic sum of voltages around a closed circuit or a
loop is zero.
• It is simply a restatement of the principle of conservation of energy.
MESH ANALYSIS
• In circuit terminology, a loop is any closed path.
• A mesh is a special loop, namely, the smallest loop one can have.
• In other words, a mesh is a loop that contains no other loops.
• Mesh analysis is applicable only to a planar network.
• However, most of the networks we shall need to analyze are planar.
• Once a circuit has been drawn in planar form, it often looks like a
multi-paned window.
• Each pane is a mesh.
• Meshes provide a set of independent equations.
Planar Network
• If a network can be drawn on sheet of paper without crossing lines, it is
said to be planar.

• Is it a planar network ?

• Yes, it is. Because it can be drawn in a plane, as shown in the next

figure.
• A planar network in which all branch currents have been marked.
• While marking branch currents, we apply KCL at each node to reduce the
number of unknown currents.
 Is this a planar network ?

• This is definitely non-planar.

Mesh Currents

• By definition, a mesh-current is that current which flows around the

perimeter of a mesh. It is indicated by a curved arrow that almost
closes on itself.
• Branch-currents have a physical identity. They can be measured.
• Mesh-currents are fictitious.
• The mesh analysis not only tells us the minimum number of
unknown currents, but it also ensures that the KVL equations
obtained are independent.
Mesh Analysis Limitations

• It is applicable only to those planar networks which contain only

independent voltage sources.

• If there is a practical current source, it can be converted to an equivalent

practical voltage source.
Procedure for Mesh Analysis

1. Make sure that the network is planar.

2. Make sure that it contains only independent voltage sources.
3. Assign clockwise mesh currents.
4. Write mesh equations in matrix form by inspection.
5. An element on the principal diagonal is the self-resistance of the mesh.
These elements are all positive. An element off the major diagonal is
negative (or zero), and represents the mutual resistance.
6. Check the symmetry of resistance matrix about the major diagonal.
7. An element of the voltage source column matrix on the right side
represents the algebraic sum of the voltage sources that produce current
in the same direction as the assumed mesh current.
8. Solve the equations to determine the unknown mesh currents, using
Calculator.
9. Determine the branch currents and voltages.
Nodal Analysis

• It is dual of the Mesh Analysis.

• It involves the application of KCL equations, instead of KVL.
• One of the nodes is taken as reference or datum or ground
node. It is better to select the one that has maximum number of
branches connected.
• The reference node is assumed to be at ground or zero
potential.
• The potentials of all other nodes are defined w.r.t. the reference
node.
• KCL equations are written, one for each node, except the
reference node.
• The equations are solved to give node voltages.
• Current through any branch and voltage at any point of the
network can be calculated.
Choice Between the TWO

• We select a method in which the number of equations to be

solved is less.
• The number of equations to be solved in mesh analysis is
b – (n – 1)
• The number of equations to be solved in nodal analysis is
(n – 1)