DISCLAIMER: The contents of this module including the clip arts, actual samples of photos were lifted from

different cited sources

including but not limited to books, pdf files and websites. The credits and copyrights of the materials are given to its respective
rightful authors and creators. More so, this module has been conceptualized and localized for the purpose of the educational
distance learning of Kolehiyo ng Lungsod ng Lipa College of Communication Arts. In no way does this module should be reproduced,
sold and used for commercial purposes and by other academic institutions.

Positivist Theory and Theories of Individual Outcomes

Positivist Theory
It is a philosophical theory that states that "genuine" knowledge (knowledge of anything that is not true by
definition) is exclusively derived from experience of natural phenomena and their properties and relations.
Thus, information derived from sensory experience, as interpreted through reason and logic, forms the
exclusive source of all certain knowledge. Positivism therefore holds that all genuine knowledge is a
posteriori knowledge. Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses are known as empirical
evidence; thus positivism is based on empiricism.

Positivism also holds that society, like the physical world, operates according to
general laws. Introspective and intuitive knowledge is rejected, as are metaphysics and theology because
metaphysical and theological claims cannot be verified by sense experience. Although the positivist
approach has been a recurrent theme in the history of western thought, the modern approach was
formulated by the philosopher Auguste Comte in the early 19th century. Comte argued that, much as the
physical world operates according to gravity and other absolute laws, so does society.

Theories of Individual Outcomes

At the intrapersonal or individual level theories focus on factors within the person that influence behavior,
such as knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, motivation, self-concept, developmental history, past experience, and
skills.

a. Magic bullet (hypodermic needle theories) (Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qt5MjBlvGcY)

 Magic Bullet Theory. The magic bullet theory (also called the hypodermic needle theory)
suggests that mass communication is like a gun firing bullets of information at a passive
audience. “Communication was seen as a magic bullet that transferred ideas or feelings or
knowledge or motivations almost automatically from one mind to another”. This theory has
been largely discredited by academics because of its suggestion that all members of an
audience interpret messages in the same way, and are largely passive receptors of
messages. This theory does not take into account intervening cultural and demographic
variables such as age, ethnicity, gender, personality, or education that cause us to react
differently to the media messages we encounter. However, many people hold the assumption
that media, like television news outlets, simply release information that does not encourage
audience engagement and critical thinking. Rather than give a story with an unbiased
message, that would allow a consumer create an opinion for themselves, media news outlets
present stories to audiences that are attractive to them. Those who believe reality television
shows actually portray reality hold some assumptions of the magic bullet theory.

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | https://www.facebook.com/KLLOfficial/

b. Two-step flow of media (Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csGHExeP3uA)

 Two-Step Flow Theory. After World War II, researchers began noticing that not all
audiences react in the same ways to mass communication. Media had less power and
relatively less affect than previously assumed. The two-step flow theory suggests that mass
communication messages do not move directly from a sender to the receiver. Instead, a
small group of people, gatekeepers, screen media messages, reshape these messages, and
control their transmission to the masses. Opinion leaders initially consume “media content
on topics of particular interest to them” and make sense of it based upon their own values
and beliefs. In the second step, the opinion leaders filter and interpret the messages before
they pass them along to individuals with shared ideologies who have less contact with the
media, opinion followers.

o An example of this theory occurs during political campaigns. Research has shown
that during an election, media influence your voting preferences through the
information they choose to show about a candidate. This research can still be applied
to current political campaigns.
o Pope Francis has over 4 million followers on twitter and is one of the most re-tweeted
social leaders. He uses social media to engage and influence his followers about
what’s going on in the world.
o Also, President Obama’s use of social media is highly credit as a key factor in the
2008 election. Conservatives often argue that they are marginalized by the “liberal
media,” while liberals argue that they are marginalized because wealthy
conservatives own and control the media. Either way, research reveals that media
dependency becomes increasingly important for the public especially during political
campaigns.

c. Reinforcement theory (Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYWPuG_u6gE)

 Reinforcement theory is a limited effects media model applicable within the realm of
communication. The theory generally states that people seek out and remember information
that provides cognitive support for their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. The main
assumption that guides this theory is that people do not like to be wrong and often feel
uncomfortable when their beliefs are challenged.
 Additionally, this theory focuses on the behavior to consequence connection within the ABC
model. ABC is an acronym for Antecedents, Behavior, Consequences. It is used as a tool for
the assessment and formulation of problem behaviors and is useful when clinicians, clients,
or careers want to understand the ‘active ingredients’ for a problem behavior. This theory, in
management, can also be referred to as operant conditioning or the law of effect. Quite
simply, this theory notes that a behavior will continue with a certain level of frequency based
on pleasant or unpleasant results.

Source: open.lib.umn.edu

Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | https://www.facebook.com/KLLOfficial/