Materiology The Creative Industry S Guide To Mater... - (03 Processes)

03PROCESSES
Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.
CUTTING p.260 / FOLDING, BENDING p.264 / MACHINING p.268 / ASSEMBLY p.272 / BONDING p.278 / HEAT
SEALING p.284 / SEWING p.288 / STAMPING p.290 / FOUNDING p.292 / FORGING p.294 / SINTERING p.296 / CAST
MOULDING p.298 / RESIN MOULDING p.300 / CALENDERING p.302 / INJECTION p.304 / EXTRUSION p.308 / ROTA-
TIONAL MOULDING p.312 / THERMOFORMING p.314 / DIGITAL PROCESSES p.316 / PRINTING p.320 / FINISHES
p.324 / RECYCLING p.330.
255
Kula, Daniel, and Elodie Ternaux. <i>Materiology : The Creative Industry's Guide to Materials and Technologies</i>, Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2013. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/itup/detail.action?docID=1157177.
Created from itup on 2019-07-12 05:26:58.
Make
the right
choices
The aim of the three tables below is to facilitate the choice of fabrication process by looking at three
important parameters: what material is being used, what quantity of parts is to be produced and what
sort of geometry do they have?
Obviously, in reality, there are many parameters to be taken into account (aesthetic, geographical,
political, etc.) and they go beyond these three aspects of fabrication; however, it gives a guide to the
complex, constantly developing, multitude of fabrication process possibilities.
Numerically-controlled process
Resin-injection moulding
Mechanical assemblies
Rotational moulding
Use of adhesives
Thermoforming
Cast moulding
Calendering
Machining
Stamping
Founding
Extrusion
Finishing
Sintering
Injection
Welding
Forging
Printing
Folding
Sewing
Cutting
Ceramic
Composite
Concrete
Glass
Leather and skin
Metal
Paper and cardboard
Plastic
Stone
Textile
Wood
Choice of fabrication procedure as a function of the material used
257
Rotational moulding
controlled process
Thermoforming
Resin-injection
Cast moulding
Numerically-
Calendering
Stamping
Founding
moulding
Extrusion
Sintering
Injection
Forging
Folding
Single part
Small cottage-
industry run
(<100)
Small
industrial run
(<1 000)
Major production
run (>1 000
up to millions)
NB : There are two major categories of fabrication techniques: piece by piece or continuous. Continuous techniques (extrusion, for
example) are sometimes adapted for major industrial production runs.
Choice of fabrication process as a function of the quantity of parts to be produced
Numerically-controlled process
Stamping / Hydroforming /
Compression SMC / BMC
Calendering / Laminating /
Resin-injection moulding
Expansion extrusion
Rotational moulding
Machining (milling)
Folding / Bending
Filament winding
Profiling (routing)
Blown extrusion
Blow moulding
Thermoforming
Flow moulding
Centrifugation
Wire drawing
Float (glass)
Explosion
Founding
Extrusion
Sintering
Injection
Drawing
Forging
Flat part
Tubular part
(profile of
determined length)
Drawn material
(in kilometres)
Hollow-body part
Solid part
Choice of fabrication process as a function of the geometry of the part to be produced
258
4
1
2
3
7
5
DIFFERENT CUTTING METHODS

1 Cutting with bandsaw 2 hacksaw 3 circular saw 4 water-jet 5 knife with retractable/disposable blade 6 scissors 7 shears
Cut-
ting
All materials. All materials can be cut, albeit through specific procedures for each material. Words
like segmenting or sectioning, contouring and fretwork, and also edge trimming are mainstays of
the vocabulary of cutting. Strongly linked to the wood industry they apply, by extension, to other
materials. Segmenting can be used to describe a widthways cut: one cuts a rod, or a structural sec-
tion into segments; edge trimming describes a straight lengthways cut (along the grain of wood, for
example); and finally, contouring and fretwork are used to make curved and complex cuts. Another
term which frequently turns up when talking about various cuts is a mitre joint, where the workpiece
is bevelled at a 45° angle.
Many industrial cutting tools, described below, stem from classic hand tools like scissors, cutters, or
traditional saws which we know so well.
A dichotomy reigns over cutting techniques. A cut ei- to be cut: steel can be cut by classic tools, tungsten
ther occurs with: carbide, diamond.
• Removal of matter: The cutting stroke has a tan- • Speed of rotation: As a general rule, the harder the
gible thickness: cutting by sawing (band saws, circular material to be cut, the slower the tool should turn. Met
saws, oscillating saws); cutting by abrasion; cutting al cutters, for example, turn much slower than wood
with a jet of water or sand; flame cutting; laser cutting; saws. Some materials are cut whilst dry (like wood or
ultrasound cutting or hot wire cutting. some stones, for example), others need cooling and
• No removal of matter (shearing): The cutting stroke lubricating during cutting. Cutting oils can be used for
has no tangible thickness: cutting using a guillotine or metals, and water for plastics.
shears; nibbling; clamping and snapping; cutting with
a diamond point; punching or piercing. Various types of saws exist:
• Band saw: The blade is a band of toothed steel
(except for the cutting of foam and textiles where the
SAWING blade is just a sharp edge like a cutter blade) which
turns in a continuous circle. Band saws are used to

Sawing is generally done using a serrated, or toothed, roughly cut items to shape, in other words, the result is
tool. not very precise and often needs subsequent amend-
According to the materials, the following can be varied: ments. Both straight and contoured cuts can be made,
• Angle of attack: The angle of incidence of the blade so long as the curves are not too marked.
penetrating into the matter. This angle will vary de- • Reciprocating saw: This is often a hand tool, where
pending on the tools and the matter to be cut. Some the toothed blade is moved backwards and forwards.
delicate materials require negative angles of attack. A jig-saw, for example, is a reciprocating saw.
• TPI: The number of teeth per inch on the blade (which This sawing gives a fine cut and can be used for deli-
determines whether the cut is rough or fine). cate contouring, e.g. cutting out the centre of a piece.
• Set: The slope angle of each tooth, which is respon Wood marquetry is done in this way.
sible for the removal of sawdust and limits the possibil • Circular saw: This cutting tool is a toothed disc. Its
ity of overheating. efficiency can be altered by adding sintered tungsten

• Cutting tool: The matter the tool is made from can carbide or diamond to the teeth of the blade. As a re-
be varied according to the hardness of the material sult the tool can be adapted to the hardness of the
261
material to be cut. Circular saws cut precisely, and the matter does not get at all wet during cutting. All ma-
cut will need very few amendments, but they only cut terials, including soft materials, can be water-jet cut.
straight lines: contouring is not an option with a circu- The water is either pure, or contains abrasives. Only
lar saw. Two techniques are possible: either the saw toughened glass cannot withstand this type of cutting.
moves (panel saws, swinging crosscut saw) for large Jets of pure water are particularly useful in the agri-
workpieces, or the workpiece itself is moved manually food industries, where they are useful to cut foodstuffs,
and with automatic carriers (classic circular saw). since this does not contaminate the product. This is a
delicate procedure, which requires high levels of in-
vestment.
CUTTING BY ABRASION On the same principles, some materials can be cut with
a jet of sand. Hard stones, which cannot be sawn, are
Some hard materials like concrete, metal, or glass, can cut using this method. Cutting routes are more controlled
be cut by abrasion, by repeated friction removing the and sophisticated than those of mechanical sawing.
matter. This is also called grinding. The tool is often
made of diamond or corundum grains, or other very
hard and abrasive materials. Examples of abrasion ULTRASOUND CUTTING
cutting machines include chain saws and grinders.
This procedure has the major disadvantage of causing This cutting technique is mainly used for fibrous mate-
overheating and deformations in the material to be cut. rials, thermoplastic textiles, etc. The ultrasound causes
mechanical vibration, friction, followed by overheating.
This causes local fusion. Cutting and welding occur
FLAME CUTTING simultaneously. This avoids the fibres unravelling af-
ter cutting. This cutting procedure is also used in the
The action of a jet of pure oxygen on metal prompts agri-food industries, where it competes with water-jet
localised combustion, resulting in the fusion and cut- cutting. It is cheaper and doesn’t involve humidity. Ul-
ting of the matter. Steels of up to almost 1-metre thick trasound is not totally harmless however, and it is nec
can be cut in this way! This is a ‘safe breaker’s’ tool, a essary to provide specific protection for operators of
demolition worker’s tool. The cut marks are crude and this type of machinery.
must be amended. This procedure also causes distor-
tion and structural modifications in metals, at both a
local and an overall geometrical level. HOT WIRE CUTTING
A metallic wire, under the effects of an electrical resist

LASER CUTTING ance, heats up and cuts the matter by local fusion.
This procedure is well-suited to cutting soft materials in
Lasers, concentrated beams of coherent light (energy) large volumes, such as thermoplastics like expanded
can be used to cut many materials. Cutting is precise, polystyrene. Previously regarded as a hand-worked or
neat, and fast, and does not generally require amend- craft technique, it can now be used on an industrial
ments. Cut marks are so thin, they are almost invisible. scale for very complex and large cuts, where the route
Nowadays lasers can provide solutions which trad of the hot wire is guided by a computer. The curves
itional techniques cannot offer (due to the dimension produced in this way cannot, however, propagate in all
or strength of a matter, for example). In the domain three dimensions.
of medicine, lasers are able to intervene at very small
scales which were not previously possible. A futuristic
technology, which is influencing all domains, particu- GUILLOTINE / SHEARS / NIBBLING
larly for very fine and fragile pieces. Laser cutters are
always digitally operated. This is the action of one or more blades which sepa-
rate the matter, like scissors, in a combined descend
ing and traversing movement. The cuts are relatively
WATER JET CUTTING precise but shearing often causes material to distort,
e.g. with metal (flattened borders and edges at the
Cutting is operated by a concentrated jet of water, ap- cut, warping of the workpiece). Paper is often cut by
proximately one tenth of a millimetre in diameter, which guillotine, either by hand or automatically. These pro-
is propelled at high pressure (approximately 5,000 to cedures are economical, do not cause overheating,
6,000 bars) and great speed (600 to 1,000 m / s). The and only give straight cuts. The term ‘nibbling’ refers
262
to a cut made by the successive removal of small bits SCORING / DIAMOND CUTTING
of matter. This type of cutting can be used to make
curved shapes. With a tungsten or diamond tool or rod, a small inci-
sion in the matter can be made, which then causes
an initial break. The matter then breaks under the ac-
PUNCHING / PIERCING tion of a sharp shock according to the axis of rupture
created. This procedure is commonly used for cutting
A band of steel is made to the shape of the desired cut glass. This can be used to cut straight lines or circles
(a bit like a pastry cutter) and applied in a manual or (with the help of a compass equipped with a diamond
hydraulic press to the matter to be cut. This procedure point). Other hard materials like laminates (whose cut-
gives complex cutting forms, on materials which are ting must then be amended − re-levelled − ) can also
quite thin (a few millimetres thick) and malleable. Paper, be cut with a tungsten point.
cardboard, some soft alloys, and sheet plastics can be
very well suited to punching.
For harder materials, piercing is an option. The band of
steel is replaced with a solid die punch which does the
cutting. These procedures are economical but limited to
one series as they need specific tools for each different
cut. Punching and piercing are fast. However, for some
materials, the cut will not be perfectly neat: a slight flat-
tening at the lip of the cut material can appear.
Paper and cardboard
(except tempered)
Leather and skin
Concrete
Ceramic
Plastics
Textile
Stone
Wood
Glass
Metal
BAND-SAW
soft stones
CIRCULAR SAW
with knife diamond saw
HACKSAW
with knife
BY ABRASION
WATER-JET
SAND-JET
OXY-CUTTING
LASER-CUTTING
ULTRASOUND-CUTTING
HOT-WIRE
GUILLOTINE /
SHEARING / NIBBLING
GRIPPER /
DIAMOND SCRIBE
HOLLOW PUNCH /
PUNCHING
CUTTING METHODS APPROPRIATE TO THE PRINCIPLE MATERIALS
263
sheet
Vee die
punch or counter Vee

COLD-BENDING OF METAL SHEET / PLATE (HYDRAULIC BENDING PRESS)
Folding,
bend-
ing
Paper & cardboard, plastics, textiles, metal, glass, wood. The ancient art of folding paper, Ori-
gami, demonstrates that a flat material can be used to create a variety of three dimensional forms.
Folding gives structure to matter, with the current aspirations of architects and designers highlight-
ing the physical and aesthetic assets of these folding methods. Designing a folded object offers an
elegant and economical solution which avoids the use of joints (welds, bonds or mechanical joints).
At hot temperatures, thermoplastics and even glass can be folded. Folding, at cold temperatures, is
mostly used on metal. This is a permanent distortion of a flat sheet, called a body blank. Folding is
reserved for workable surfaces and is done with the help of powerful folding presses.
METAL BENDING: HOW IT WORKS strip (fine sheet) is placed between the rotating roll
ers of a forming machine and undergoes successive
The body blank is bent between a die punch and a ma- transformations which lead to the final desired form.
trix. Various profiles (U-shape, V-shape) are possible. Road-side crash barriers, curtain rails, door and win-
However the lengths of folds and bends are limited by dow frames, and angle irons are all made in this way.
the size of the machines and sharp ridges are never an Cold forming can be performed on many types of steel
option. Generally, the interior curvature (R) obeys the (rolled at hot or cold temperatures, galvanised, pre-
following rules: t < R < 3 t where t is the thickness of painted, stainless steel), aluminium and copper alloys.
the body blank. It is important to distinguish between aluminium struc-
tural sections made by forming, and those made by
Mastering the elasticity of matter can prove very com- extrusion. Extruded structural sections can have sharp
plex. The deformation exerted is a plastic deformation ridges and non-consistant sections; this is not the
and often results in the matter trying to return to its origi- case for structural sections obtained through forming
nal position after folding occurs, this is known as spring- (but the latter are more economical).
back (approximately 3°).
Two bending techniques are commonly used:
• Bending ‘in the air’: The bend is simple, and spring- THERMOPLASTIC BENDING: HOW IT WORKS
back is expected. The matrix and the die have larger
angles than those ultimately desired. All thermoplastics are bendable but generally PMMA
• ‘Hammer’ bending: A greater force is used to mini and polycarbonates are the most widely used for
mise the effects of spring-back. To compensate for this, bending. The process is normally done with sheets.
the thickness of the sheet is slightly reduced at the bend. A sheet or a plate is clamped between two heated,
non-stick rules which often employ Teflon. The mat-
ter is softened at certain points and then bent to the
COLD FORMING: HOW IT WORKS desired angle. Mastering the precision of bending is
more difficult than with metals and making gauge or
Cold forming (continuous bending) creates pieces test pieces is often necessary. Thermoplastic bending
(structural sections) with unlimited lengths. A flat steel also leads to the formation of bulges of matter, called
265
snags, along the line of the fold and at the extremities. cost. They are often found in ring binder coverings
These must be removed for good quality finishing or if or document wallets, etc. They can be opened and
edge gluing is to occur. closed thousands of times before they break.
OTHER TYPES OF BENDING FOLDING TEXTILES
To obtain tubes, rods, curved metallic structural sec- Textiles can be made and pleated to design. Mounted
tions, or sheets of metal closed up into cylinders, other on folded cardboard matrices − which act as patterns
bending techniques are required. This is very highly − the textile is placed between heated rollers. Fold
thought of by professions such as plumbing, because memory is thus strongly inscribed into the textile. Issey
it can ensure a better fluid flow by avoiding right-angle Miyake’s creations are very emblematic of this textile
bonded or welded joins and limiting the number of po- genre.
tential leak spots.
Bending in this way does not cause any damage to the

metal, unlike the fold-type bending described earlier;
in theory, the section of the pieces to be bent does not
undergo any deformation. To bend tubes, machines
such as roller bending machines may be used which
spread the mechanical effort over a greater portion of
the matter. For sheets, a rolling device can be used.
This method of bending can take one or more goes
through the machine and can be done either hot or
cold. Another term frequently used in this area is crimp
ing when the bending of a sheet is achieved through
successive folds.
Bending can be applied to metal, wood (the famous
curved wood of Monsieur Thonet!) and, to some ex-
tent, so can plastic.
To bend wood, the matter (ash or beech, which have

the best plasticity) is incubated (humidified and heated)
and then inserted and held in a cooling block. Once
cooled and dried, the wood retains the desired curve.
There are also methods for bending metallic and plas-

tic tubes. The tube is filled, with sand (for metals) or a Advantages of metal folding and bending: tools are cheap,
metallic spring (for plastics), blocked at both ends and the procedure can be done at cold temperatures, and the system
heated. Allowing its shape to be manipulated with limited is simple.
damage. The insert (sand or spring) ensures a constant Disadvantages of metal folding and bending: it is limited to
diameter throughout the piece and is removed once the the dimensions and geometrics of the machine, no sharp ridges.
desired curved is obtained. Advantages of cold forming: unlimited lengths, fast procedure
(up to 100 m / min).
Disadvantages of cold forming: must be a large production
PAPER FOLDING run, only simple profiles are possible, no sharp ridges.
Advantages of thermoplastic bending: tools are cheap, sys-
As the papermaking, bookbinding, and packaging in- tem is simple.
dustries all know, paper and cardboard are more or less Disadvantages of thermoplastic bending: it is limited to the
well-suited to folding (according to their composition dimensions and geometrics of the machine, no sharp ridges.
and their mass per unit area). The process of folding Advantages of round-style bending: continuity of matter (avoids
and scoring (to mark the paper, before folding, giving a joins and leaks), aesthetically pleasing.
neater fold) are now often automated. Disadvantages of round-style bending: maintaining the
Folding some polymers, such as polypropylene or geometry of the piece remains theoretical, the thickness of the
POM, can create a long lasting hinge effect, at low piece is modified nonetheless, some ‘memory’ effect is inevitable.
266
1
BENDING
1 bending around rollers (pipe) 2 bending around roller (sheet)
1
chuck motor
column
work clamp
2 3
DRILLING
1 hole-cutting (large holes) 2 twist-drill bit 3 drill stand
x 3 y
MILLING
1 tool (milling-cutter) 2 part held by clamps 3 clamp 4 part to be machined 5 slab-milling 6 cut-down milling 7 straddle milling
Ma-
chining
All materials. Machining refers to materials worked as solid objects, by the removal of matter.
The procedures of machining are precise and their execution is now highly mechanised. Sharp
ridges, flat surfaces, low dimensional tolerances are all obtained in this way. Moulded pieces are
often either totally or partially amended by machining to respond to the extreme requirements of a
specification.
The procedures of machining currently dominate the landscape but are beginning to experience
competition from the arrival of technologies which add matter but are also capable of high precision,
such as stereo lithography and powder sintering.
DRILLING MILLING
Drilling consists of rotation and vertical translation of a Milling, like drilling, is machining that removes matter.
sharp, spiral tool. It is only sharp vertically and the spi- The cutting tool, called an endmill, rotates and moves
ral removes the waste material. In some cases, as well horizontally. At the same time, the piece it is working
as a translatory movement, a hammering action is also on is also moved. Milling machines can, schematically,
used (as with concrete) to aid penetration. The angle work in all directions, unlike a drill. They can be shaped
of entry varies depending on the material to be drilled, according to requirements. Various types exist and
the drill bit (treated steel, tungsten carbide), and the some are very sophisticated. Milling machines are now
speed of rotation. As a general rule, the harder the mostly digitally controlled, and the acronym CAM now
material to be drilled, the slower the drill must turn. Into also applies to milling (Computer-Aided Manufacture)
some cases, a lubricant is required during the process Automated machines, combining several machining
of drilling, to avoid overheating and matter distortions processes, are being constantly developed. This al-
as well as waste removal. lows the production of very complex 3D forms.
Almost all materials can be drilled, with the right tool. Milling possibilities are numerous: precise grooves,
There are different drill bits for wood, glass, metal, and profiles, surface finishes, patterns can all be produced.
concrete. To drill large diameter holes boring drill bits Engraving can also be seen as very fine milling.
and hole saws are used. In metal works, after milling, the pieces are often amend
Drilling can either be done manually, using a hand ed, or corrected by abrasion with grinders.
drill, or with a fixed system: e.g. column drill, where
the piece to be drilled is fixed down securely. To make
shallow holes, a punch or die punch may also be used Turning
(see Cutting p.268).
The piece to be turned is rotated, whilst the tool cuts
Drilled holes are usually cylindrical, they can go all the and shaves bits off just by moving horizontally, creat
way through a piece or stop part of the way through. ing the desired profile. Turning can create all kinds of
Once drilled, a hole can be threaded to receive a cylindrical, conical, and tapered shapes, grooves and
screw. When the diameter of a hole must be abso flanges can be cut in this way. Turned pieces may be of
lutely precise, it may be counterbored (in other words various dimensions, ranging from a few millimetres to
the diameter can be refined) with the help of a special several metres in diameter with very small or very large
tool: a borer. lengths. The machines are either vertical shaft, or hori-
269
zontal shaft. They may be quite simple, where the move- sand projected under high pressure (sandblasting). The
ments are made manually – ‘on-the-fly’ – or motorised, process of abrasion can be manual or mechanised, it
semi-automatic, and even totally automatic. Potters use can be continued right up to polishing. A mirror effect
similar equipment with their wheels. can be obtained by gradually reducing the size of the
abrasive materials. Abrasive materials are very hard
In the case of large scale production of one piece, cop (diamond, corundum, emery, silica carbide, etc.). In ad-
iers can be used which respond to the basic profile of dition to materials like wood, plastics and glass, metallic
a template to reproduce a corresponding movement on materials and even tempered steel can be abraded.
the lathe. Alternatively, the whole process can be digi-
tally controlled.
SPARK EROSION
The lathe or turning machine is also capable of other
machining processes (for cylindrical objects): thread This is a very precise and specific amendment proce-
ing, reaming. dure for metallic work pieces. It is also known as EDM
(Electrical Discharge Machining). The piece is sub
merged in a non conductive bath, an electrode (an ex-
ROUTING tra piece of the metal to be machined) or a wire, sinks
toward the piece creating electrical discharges and re-
Routing is a linear manufacturing process, which is sim moving matter. There is no direct contact between the
ilar to forming. It is reserved for wood work, to make tool and the piece. Spark erosion is often used to cor-
grooves, rebates, and mouldings. A rotating arm, with rect the inside of injection moulds.
changeable tools and heads, moves along the planed
wood (or wood derivative) to create the desired profile
by removing matter.
In addition, the router can also be used for planing. Sim-
ilarly, a truck can be attached which creates the tenons
(for the famous ‘mortise and tenon’ joints).
TRUING
Truing, a woodworking term, describes the process

of ‘squaring up’. It includes two stages: surfacing and
planing. A warped piece is a piece which has under-
gone ‘propeller’ type distortion. Surfacing can create
an initial right angle, and further planing ensures the
sides are parallel. One or two machines are necessary:
a four-sided saw mill or a truing machine combined with
a planing machine.
In metal working, truing refers to coldworking. The term

describes the process of amendments by rolling or
forming which can be done on matter at a cool tem-
peratures.
ABRASION
This procedure is still a removal of matter, even if the

particles removed are tiny. Abrasion is the most widely
used process in finishing. It is a precise procedure,
which can correct down to just a few microns. To abrade,
grindstones or abrasive bands (sheets or paper) are
generally used, but particles in suspension can also be
used in a liquid (polishing paste, for example) or even
270
4
2
1
sphere
undercut
cone
throat
cut
cylinder
TURNING
1 tool 2 spindle 3 revolving part 4 tailstock 5 movable carriage
1 5
WOOD ROUTING
1 tool (milling cutter or bar) 2 table 3 guide 4 part 5 groove 6 rabbet 7 moulding
WOOD JOINTS
various edge-to-edge joints, e.g. tongue and groove
WOOD JOINTS
various end-to-end or scarf joints
WOOD JOINTS
various joints with tabs or dowels
WOOD JOINTS
various joints for framework, e.g. roof
Assem-
bly
All Materials. Ways of using matter have always come under one of two philosophies, forming
the background of modern history: matter is either removed to reveal an object, or it is added to
establish an object. Working from a solid piece is a mark of abundance. It involves using large
quantities of matter and produces leftovers, off-cuts, and waste whose volume may sometimes
exceed that of the pieces produced. Contrastingly, working by building something up corresponds
to a strategy of economy where the quantity of matter to be used is calculated as precisely as
possible. It is this method of addition and stacking which leads to the gradual sophistication of
assembly methods, an essential component of technological know-how. It could be assumed,
that due to matter becoming scarcer and scarcer production methods based on whittling down a
solid piece of material would disappear. However, in reality, technology combines the two meth-
ods to fit necessity. Both the removal of matter and its aggregation continue to cohabit, even in
cutting-edge technologies.
ASSEMBLY / MAIN PRINCIPLES working life (delaminating, tearing, twisting) must be

analysed and reflected in the design.
To understand assembly we first need to make a few dis- It is customary when assembling two pieces, to give
tinctions in order to identify several of the methods used: the largest possible surface of contact. Optimising
• Mechanical assembly: These joints can be either fixed these surfaces can mean a considerable gain in the
or mobile (a ball-and-socket joint, for example); perma- strength of the joint.
nent or non-permanent (with openings and closings).
• Bonded assembly: This assembly may be permanent The craft industry has long favoured mechanical as-
or temporary (as with packaging). sembly. This is because the glues available (of animal
• Welding/soldering: Assembly by welding or soldering or vegetable origin before the end of the 19th century)
can be done with or without adding material. were considered unreliable and, above all, not very
durable. Assembly therefore consisted of tangling,
It is also helpful to distinguish between the assembly crossing, and stacking the various pieces. This inter-
of two pieces of the same material, compared to the locking gave support against the forces. A mechani-
assembly of two different materials. The main problem cal assembly could then be wedged, nailed, screwed,
in the case of the latter is to manage the different shrink pegged, sewn, or stuck together.
age rates of the components. If badly controlled, this Some materials have localised weaknesses (wood,
parameter can lead to splits or to a lack of durability in glass, ceramic). In order to compensate for these
the joint, regardless of the nature of the materials used. structural weaknesses, these materials were frequently
In the case of soldering, welding, and bonding, ques- paired with complementary metallic elements (inserts,
tions of chemical compatibility and the intrinsic sticking rings, brackets, etc.).
power of the various materials must be taken into ac-
count. Spectacular developments in chemistry, launched by
the industrial revolution, have meant that assembly
Whatever the matter or technology used, assembly design can be completely reconsidered thanks to an
always needs careful configuration. The main forces increasingly fine mastery of welding, and the advent of
which will be exerted on the finished product during its synthetic glues.
273
WOOD CROSSPIECE ASSEMBLY
various joints for assembling wood at 90°
WOOD JOINTS
mortice and tenon variants
WOOD PANEL JOINTS
including dovetail and dowel types
1 2 3
WOOD FRAMING JOINTS
METAL FRAMEWORK CONNECTOR
BEAMS OF VARIOUS TYPES
4
3
1 2 3
COLD RIVETING HOT RIVETING

1 introduction of rivet 2 traction on shank using special gripper, 1 punch 2 rivet 3 head 4 frappe blow (manual, pneumatic,
followed by squashing action 3 shank snap-off mechanical)
1 2 3
SHEET METALWORK
1 joint 2 simple rolled edge 3 edge rolled and pushed back
1 2 3
5 6
7 8
METAL – VARIOUS ASSEMBLY METHODS

1 fork 2 riveted fishplate 3 angle with gusset 4 with riveted angle steel 5 welded cross with slot 6 cross with riveted plate 7 joint made
by gusset 8 necked tube end
1 2
3 4
NORMAL LOADS EXERTED ON A BOND

1 traction loads 2 shear loads 3 compression loads
4 peeling loads
cohesive forces
adhesive molecules
adhesive forces
substrate
FORCES COMING INTO PLAY AT MICROSCOPIC LEVEL
EXAMPLES OF GLUED ASSEMBLIES RESISTANT TO SHEAR (FROM LEAST TO MOST RESISTANT)
Bonding
All Materials. The previously bad reputation of glues has now come unstuck. Made under optimal
conditions, glue bonds are now able to give us resistance and qualities which are equal to, if not bet-
ter than, the materials they join together. These adhesive behaviours are increasingly coupled with the
extra properties of insulation, water-tightness, and anti-vibratory action. All of which are major boons to
productivity and have brought about a strong progression in bonded assembly for numerous sectors
such as the automotive, construction, electronics, packaging, and aeronautical industries.
Whereas the general public are offered universal glues which stick ‘anything’, the industrial tendency
is to form specific glues, to optimise implementation and performance on a case-by-case basis.
BONDING: HOW IT WORKS and during polymerisation – during clamping) are the
determining factors in the success of the bond.
Glue is generally composed of a polymer, laid between • Capillary action: The two materials are put in very
two substrates in the form of a liquid joint, ensuring a close contact and the glue, introduced in the plane of
bond by polymerisation. Adhesion is the bond force the joint, disperses over the surfaces in contact.
exerted on the surface of the materials. This force of • Contact bonding: The glue is deposited on the two
attraction, which is often due to van der Waals bonds, pieces to be joined. When the glue is in the final stages
will be more efficient the deeper the bonding pene of polymerisation (a semi-solid state), they are placed
trates into the materials to be joined. The term wet- together and pressed briefly with a roll or a cloth. The
tability (porosity) is used to describe the capacity of two surfaces are united very quickly.
the substrate to accept bonding. Before bonding, the • Steam room: In some cases (acrylic, for example),
surfaces to be joined must be meticulously prepared: bonds are heated in a steam room to complete the
grease must be removed using a solvent (at either hot polymerisation process.
or cold temperatures) and an abrasive may be used to
‘key’ the surface. Sanding or drying, and the Corona ef- Some bonding reactions are anaerobic; polymer
fect (passing the piece before a flame) are also methods isation is quick as long as not in contact with oxygen
used to eliminate impurities and grease, and to obtain in the air (bolted mechanical assembly, for example).
the roughness necessary for the adhesive to penetrate Other bonding systems react to the presence of light
the substrate. (UV lamp) or humidity (cyanocrylate), others to heat
In the case of materials which are very hard to bond (epoxy), by the evaporation of solvents or the pres-
(polyethylene, for example), a pre-treatment is some ence of a catalyst (bi-component).

times used such as a ‘keying primer’, which chemically
prepares the surface for strong adhesion. The adhe- Bonds have average optical properties. For transpar
sives, either liquid or viscous, can be made of one or ent materials like glass or polymers, certain types of
two components. They go from liquid to solid state via cyanocrylates can be used for small areas; specially
multiple reactions of polymerisation, specially adapted formed epoxy bonds; acrylic bonds for PMMA, or UV
to the conditions and materials present. bonds (often used in the assembly of glass) may be
Whether it is by simple deposition, by brush applica- used to obtain near-perfect optical qualities.
tion, by spray-gun, or by rollers, there are many ways
to effect bonding once the glue has been applied:
• Clamping: Once the glue is laid on the substrate, the
joint is held together by pressure, either manually or

mechanically (press, clamp, or hydraulic jacks for large Advantages: economy, can be cold worked, no distortion.
surface areas). The level of pressure, and the time for Disadvantages: can break without warning, process often takes
which it is maintained (both at the time of application a long time.
279
1
2 3 4
5 6
MODES OF GLUE APPLICATION

1 scraper 2 application by brush 3 hot-melt glue gun 4 manual adhesive applicator 5 roller application (production of adhesive strip)
6 machine for automatic application of adhesive 7 application of adhesive by automated gun
Wood
Wood 1 2
Cardboard
3 4
5 6
Paper
7 10
11
Concrete
Paper 1 2 2 3
Cardboard 3 4 4 15
10 11
Fabric
Concrete 4 7 3 4 7 9
10 11 11 15 10 12
Leather
Fabric 3 4 2 3 11 15 2 4
11 15 4 15 15
Leather 2 3 2 3 3 11 1 2 1 2
4 11 4 11 4 11 4 11
Metal
15 15
Glass
Metal 7 10 4 11 7 9 4 11 4 11 7 8
11 15 11 15 12
Ceramic
Glass 7 9 1 4 7 9 15 7 7 9 7 9
Polyolefins
12 14 15 12 14 12 14
(PP, PEHD)
Ceramic 7 10 4 15 7 10 4 15 4 11 7 9 7 12 4 7
12 14 9 12
PMMA
Polyolefins 4 11 4 11 4 4 15 4 15 4 4 4 4
(PP, PEHD) 15
PMMA 4 7 4 15 7 12 15 4 15 7 8 7 12 4 7 4 12 13
natural & synthetic
PVC
12 12 14 12 14 14
Silicone
PVC 4 7 4 15 10 4 15 4 15 7 11 4 7 7 4 4 7 4 7
11 14 14 13
Rubber,
Silicone 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
(PS, PSE, ABS)
Styrenes
Rubber, 4 11 11 7 9 4 11 4 11 7 8 7 9 9 11 4 8 8 11
natural 15 15 11
itself
with
& synthetic
Styrenes 4 7 3 15 4 7 4 15 4 15 7 8 7 8 4 7 4 7 8 4 7 9 4 7 4 7
(PS, PSE, ABS) 8 12 12 8 12 12 13 8 10 8 10 10 12
15 13
1 animal 2 vegetable 3 vinyl 4 thermofusibles 5 aminoplasts and phenoplasts 6 polyester 7 epoxydes 8 cynaoacrylates 9 silicone 10
polyurethane 11 polychloropropene 12 acrylic 13 Solvent adhesive 14 UV adhesive 15 spray adhesive
Table showing use of adhesives
281
Specific details
for use
Origin
Form
Natural Animal (nerve, bone, skin, Solid: granules or flakes Diluted in a container of hot water using
fish, albumin) the ‘bain marie’ method
Animal (milk casein) White powder Used cold or very slightly heated.
Diluted in water
Vegetable (rice, soya, Dry extracts Soluble in water or preparation by

cellulose, vegetable resin) (powders or gums) cooking
Thermoplastic Vinyl Mono-component as white Ready for use, application by roller, brush
liquid emulsion or spray gun. Used cold or hot
Thermofusible or hot-melt Solid: Heating device required (about 200°C):

sticks, films or blocks glue gun or heating press
Thermosetting Aminoplasts (urea formalin Syrups & powders Bi-component or mixed with water (if pow-
& melamine formalin) der) Melamines are used hot (about 170°C)
Phenoplasts (phenol for- Bi-component viscous Hot or cold

malin & resorcine formalin) liquids
Polyester Bi-component liquids or Precise mixtures and controlled humidity

bi-component mastics level. Setting accelerators sometimes
used
Epoxydes Liquid or paste Hot or cold
Cyanoacrylate Mono-component liquid Used by capillary action or simple

or gel application. Device required for
controlled application
Elastomers Silicone Mono-component viscous Bonding primer sometimes required.

liquid or paste Hot or cold.

Often packed in form of cartridge
Polyurethane Solvent-type Cold

mono-component viscous
liquid or bi-component
Polychloroprene (neoprene Mono-component paste Contact adhesive: the two surfaces with
or contact adhesive) adhesive applied, using spatula or gun, are
brought together after adhesive has dried
Major families of adhesives
282
Fields of application
Disadvantages
Advantages
Furniture, cabinet-making, restoration, Adhesion with adjustment possibility Long preparation, odour, low resistance to
veneers and marquetry. Good adhesion moisture, presence of water in application
The old binder for cork was albumin Thin joint
Relatively short setting time
Packaging, labelling (wood, paper, Easy to use, no odour, flexible joint, less Limited adhesion
cardboard) & certain glued laminates affected by moisture than other animal Stains wood if tannins present
adhesives
Stationery (paper, cardboard, wood), Does not stain Limited adhesion

packing-case manufacture, boxes. Subject to bacterial attack
Binders for use in food
Standard use for wood assembly Economical, easy to use, does not stain, Not weatherproof, requires precise
(furniture-making, cabinet-making) does not damage tools assembly followed by clamping, quite
long setting time
Packaging, (paper, cardboard, plastics), Fast setting, no solvents, allow fabrication Limited adhesion, joints sometimes thick,
general DIY, edge trims in furniture of pre-glued materials average heat resistance
making
Carpentry, manufacture of plywood & Quite good resistance to moisture, does Very hard adhesives, aggressive for tools,
chipboard panels and, for building lami- not stain, adhesion with thin joint possible long setting time, expensive
nates
Wood (marine plywood), naval Very strong adhesion, very good resistance Brown to black colouring limits use in
construction, carpentry, weatherproof to water, fast setting when hot, can be aesthetic terms, expensive
adhesives used with various materials (glass,
cement, wood, etc.)
Adhesives for laminates or composite Good adhesion, suitable for many Significant shrinkage, toxic in use
materials materials, economical in use, fast setting
if accelerator & heat present
These are among the most effective Excellent adhesion to almost all Significant setting time, expensive,
adhesives, found in all so-called ‘high- substrates, good mechanical strength in toxic in use
performance’ applications: aeronautics hot and damp conditions, almost no
industry, composites, honeycombs, shrinkage, ‘hard’ adhesion
used as adhesives for metals & alloys,
ceramics and electronic components
A large range, allowing adaptation to all Very fast setting (few seconds), strong Setting sometimes too fast, brittle joint,
types of materials. adhesion, large range of viscosities high price limits these adhesives to
Frequently found in electronics and the selective, small-surface applications,
assembly of polymers high toxicity in use
Building, plumbing, sealing Flexible adhesion, good resistance to Long setting time, thick joints , high cost
stresses caused by substrate expansion,
good resistance to extension, good
chemical and heat resistance (up to about
200°C), seals against gases and liquids,
can be used with glass
Building (adhesive for coatings), Flexible adhesion, strong adhesion, Thick joints, long setting time,
furniture-making, shoe-sole adhesive adhesion with heterogeneous materials, allergic risks
good chemical and abrasion resistance,
medium price, joints can be painted
Used for laminates in furnishing, floor & Flexible adhesion, immediate hold, Thick joint, staining, toxic solvent vapours
wall coverings. Also used in building suitable for large areas, good adhesion,
even on non-porous materials, possibility
for manual use (wall coverings)
283
1
2
1
2
3 4
3
5
TIN OR SILVER SOLDERING

ARC WELDING 1 filler metal (tin or silver) 2 blowlamp or soldering iron 3 metal
1 welding rod (enclosed electrode) 2 electric arc / puddle of being welded 4 fusion at temperature below melting point of the
molten metal 3 filler metal 4 metal being welded 5 weld bead metal being soldered
Heat
sealing
Plastics, metal, textiles, glass. Heat sealing is one of the most common assembly methods used
for metal (welding and soldering), but is also used on thermoplastics. It is an irreversible procedure,
done using heat and sometimes combined with pressure, with or without the addition of matter.
Where no additional filler matter is used, the join is called an autogenous weld. Where a filler (flux) is
used, which may be different from the two metals to be welded, the join is known as a heterogeneous
weld. Two main techniques can be distinguished: soldering and welding.
SOLDERING cal procedure is generally reserved for hand and on

site welding: ship building, steel works, car produc-
Soldering is similar to glue-based bonding, it involves tion. This procedure involves large dispersions of heat
the addition of a molten metal at a temperature lower throughout the pieces to be welded, which can cause
than the melting point of the parts to be stuck together, immediate or gradual deformations and sometimes
ensuring cohesion between the pieces. It is a heterog even breakages.
enous procedure. Terms such as silver soldering, tin
soldering are used. According to the melting point of
the solder alloy (< 450°C or > 450°C) terms such as GAS METAL ARC WELDING
soft soldering, hard soldering or braze welding dis-
tinguish the process. Easy to implement, cheap, few Gas metal arc welding (MIG: Metal Inert Gas, TIG: Tung
deformations of the pieces to be soldered; almost all sten Inert Gas and MAG: Metal Active Gas) are evolu-
metals and alloys can be soldered. The mechanical tions of arc welding where the electrode is replaced by
strength of the solder, however, remains low. This pro- an inert gas (e.g. Argon).
cedure can be used to join metals of different natures This type of welding is becoming very quick thanks to
and is widely used in plumbing, jewellery, and the pro- the automatic feed of a variable diameter filler wire.
duction of small items. High precision and strong thicknesses are possible,
and it is highly automatable. However, substantial in-
vestment is required.
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Oxy-acetylene welding is a weld where the energy RESISTANCE WELDING

required comes from the combustion of oxygen and
acetylene. It can be used for soldering, braze welding, The work pieces are placed together. A low voltage,
and autogenous welds. high intensity current is then passed through them,
causing very localised fusion which creates the weld.
The two types of weld most often used are spot weld
ARC WELDING ing and seam welding. Welds without additional metal
are easily automated (e.g. the manufacture of welded
Arc welding consists of an electrical arc between an tubes).They limit the possibility of distortion but need
electrode (the filler rod) and the pieces to be welded, efficient clamping systems and careful cleaning of
which creates a rise in temperature (2,400 to 3,200°C) the faying surfaces to be welded. These are the most
and local fusion of the metal (of the rod and the piec- widely used welds for fine metals sheets, car manufac-
es), giving a long-lasting join. This fast and economi- ture, and mechanics.
285
FRICTION WELDING
The work pieces are joined by the heat generated from

friction. One of the work pieces is rotated and repeat
edly heated by friction causing fusion. The abrupt
interruption of the rotation and a constant pressure
guarantee the weld. This is a clean procedure, which
is easy to implement, cheap, and can be used to as-
semble pieces with different profiles.
LASER WELDING
A laser beam initiates localised fusion of matter. This

high-end procedure could well become automated. It
can weld in awkward places, and causes very few de-
formations. It is possible to machine the pieces before
welding. Galvanised steel, gold, zinc, and silver are
difficult to laser weld.
286
electrode
ELECTRIC SPOT-WELDING
electricity generator
LASER WELDING
drive roller
CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC PIPE-WELDING
knot stitch
running stitch
2
4
single-thread
overlock
7
zigzag stitch 8
10
STITCHES (left), LEATHERWORK (right)

1 assembly with cut edge 2 glued-back 3 shaped-edge 4 mixed assembly 5 reversed-edge 6 covered-edge 7 turned-in edge
8 turned with strip or band 9 angle-cut 10 joined
Sewing
Leather and skins, paper and cardboard, plastics, textiles, . Sewing is one of the main me-
chanical assembly methods for flexible materials, particularly textiles and leathers. An ancient pro-
cedure, which is done manually, sewing has always been present on a domestic scale, but is now
mechanised in most applications. From Grandma’s sewing machine, right through to huge industrial
machines, the main principles of sewing remain the same: only the rate of production and the solidity
of the join varies. It is said that one ‘sews’ by hand and ‘machines’ when using a sewing machine.
Sewn pieces, textile or leather, can take on three dimensional forms due to sewing, sometimes
forming shapes that are totally unexpected. Its tendency to distort and twist is exploited to create
‘architectural’ clothing − which can be used to defy gravity; or indestructible structured luggage;
and skilful furniture coverings.
There are several classic textile sewing stitches: (threads such as coated polyester thread, silk thread,
• Running or Straight Stitch: This is the basic stitch, linen thread, satin thread, and sometimes thread which
simple and classic, fast but not very strong. Smaller and has been treated to give water-tightness to the seam)
closer together stitches give a stronger and neater line will pass much more easily through holes which have
of sewing. been previously made. The sewing is also neater and
• Basting Stitch: A running stitch where small and large more regular when prepared in this way. It is sometimes
stitches alternate, quite spaced-out, for a fast but rela used to reinforce a glued bond (in shoes, for example).
tively weak join. It is often used to prepare seams which There is a real art to assembling leatherwork and leather
are then re-sewn by machine. goods. Some examples are shown in the accompany
• Slip Stitch: Two stitches on the front followed by one ing diagrams.
stitch on the back, this machine stitch is very solid and
difficult to unpick.
• Back Stitch: A hand sewing stitch which gives very
solid sewing. The thread moves in the opposite direc-

tion to that of sewing during each stitch.
• Zigzag Stitch: A machine stitch used on borders and
edges to avoid unravelling.

• Overlock Stitch: A stitch used to prevent unravelling
at the borders and edges of fabric. Hems are often over-

sewn in this way.
Numerous variations are, of course, possible. Aesthet

ic qualities, but also solidity of the join, and difficulty in
unpicking all affect the choice of the right sewing stitch.
The threads available for use also have variable char
acteristics and must be chosen carefully.
In leatherwork and the production of leather goods,

much of the work is still done manually, especially for
luxury items, such as those produced by Hermès, for
example. The stitches used are quite similar to those
for textiles. A needle − called an awl − is used to
pierce the leather before sewing. The thread to be sewn
289
8
1 top-ram blank stamping mould blank-holder 2

3 4
METAL STAMPING
1 hydraulic press 2 clamping the blank 3 press closure 4 press opening
Stamp-
ing
Paper & cardboard, metal, textiles, leathers & skins. Stamping is a piece-by-piece deformation
process, done at cold temperatures, using flat sheets of metal (called blanks) which take a three
dimensional shape. This process is widely used in the automobile, domestic appliance, and pack
aging industries.
METAL STAMPING: HOW IT WORKS
Stamping is done by stamping presses, which are very

powerful machines. The sheet is held in a blank-holder
(to avoid folding) above a fixed matrix. The moveable
press tool, comes down with force to push the metal
into the shape of the matrix. The hollow matrix has the
final form of the piece’s exterior. The press tool has the
final form of the piece’s interior (taking the thickness
of the sheet into consideration). The process can be
done with one or more strokes (in the case of multiple
strokes, intermediate size matrices may be used, to
gradually bring the matter to its final state).
The maximum heights and depths of metal stamping
are fixed by the plasticity of the metallic matter. In the
case of deep stamping, the metal is also heated to
avoid defects associated with cold hammering.
The most common stamped shapes are conical or
cylindrical, with large angles of curvature (gener-
ally greater than 5 times the thickness of the sheet).
Stamped metal must respect the rules of draft angles.
Today, the fine mastery of stamping procedures and

the quality of finishes, mean that stamping can be
done directly onto sheets of pre-coated metal. The
economical benefit of this is unquestionable.
VARIATIONS
Metal may also be stamped by hydro forming, where

the press tool is substituted with a fluid under high pres-
sure (or an explosion), which pushes the sheet onto the
matrix in a similar way. These complex techniques have Advantages: mass-production, this is a fast procedure.
the advantage of being able to remove the constraints of Disadvantages: high initial investment for tools, pieces of con-
draft angles from matrix design as matrices can even be stant thickness (beyond the phenomena of drawing), and not all
made to open out into several parts. metals can be worked in this way.
291
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
SAND MOULDING
1 / 2 making imprint of master pattern in sand 3 taking master pattern out of mould 4 positioning inserts 5 pouring metal 6 extraction of
part / removal of inserts 7 finishing part (deburring, etc.)
1 2 3
4 5 6 7
LOST-WAX MOULDING
1 machining the mould 2 making the fusible core 3 coating the core with refractory material and baking 4 melting of core 5 pouring the
metal 6 destruction of mould to obtain the part 7 finishing the part
Found-
ing
Metal. Based on fairly rudimentary principles, founding is a wide-spread industrial procedure which
produces moulds and cast pieces made of metal or liquid alloys, like cast iron, aluminium or bronze.
This technique can minimise the need for forming and machining. Founding gives greater freedom in
the three dimensional design of products. Complex and hollow designs can be achieved, for example
cast iron radiators, crankcases for motors, etc. This manufacturing procedure involves specific rules
of design: a respect for draft angles (pieces must be able to be lifted out of their moulds), anticipa-
tion of phenomena such as dimensional shrinkage, even distribution of mass to avoid defects like
cracks (tears) or blowholes (cavities due to the contraction of solid particles during solidification of
the metal).
The two main moulds which coexist are: permanent takes the place of the wax model by destroying it. This
and non-permanent moulds. procedure avoids planes of stress at joints and angles
since the model and mould are both destroyed during
the process. The process also works with expanded
NON-PERMANENT MOULDS: HOW THEY WORK polystyrene in place of the wax.
The mould is only used once and is destroyed in order

to remove the piece. There are two main procedures: PERMANENT MOULDS: HOW THEY WORK
• Sand casting: This is a widely used procedure.
Around a model, which can be removed, sand is com- In this case, the mould is reusable, and the process
pacted to make a mould, either manually or mechani- is also known as die casting, done either by gravity
cally, within a frame. The frame has two or more parts or under pressure. This procedure is similar to that of
and it is these which determine the planes of the joint. injection. It is suited to multiple production of pieces
The sand used is either green (moist) sand (where clay within each run. The die casting moulds are made of
is used to make it moist), or sand mixed with resin. special steel or cast iron. They allow low-cost casting,
Once the sand is firmly packed, the two (or more) parts of aluminium alloys such as zamac, for hardware and
of the frame are opened and the model is removed. decoration.
The mould is then ready to receive the molten metal,
via a pouring channel which has been included for this
purpose. This is gravity casting. Once the metal has
solidified and cooled, the mould is destroyed to extract
the piece. The sand can be recycled to create new
moulds.
To make hollow features, a sand negative of the desired
hollow part is included in the pattern. These may be
made separately and added to the mould before cast Advantages: complex forms, large pieces, flexibility of produc-
ing, to be destroyed along with the mould. tion (unique pieces or large runs).
• Lost wax casting: The principle is the same as with Disadvantages: difficult to obtain thin sections, amendments
sand casting, the only difference being, that the basic necessary after removal from the mould (de-burring etc.), high ini-
model is made of wax and will be lost. The molten metal tial outlay for permanent moulds.
293
upper die
rough
bur ?
bur
blank
pattern
meeting face
lower die
DROP-FORGING
hammer
anvil
BLACKSMITH’S FORGE 2
Forging
Metal. Forging is a piece-by-piece production procedure which refers to the plastic deformation of
a block of metal at high temperatures (between 800 and 1,200°C) or at cold temperatures, by the
action of a strong pressure or shock.
Forging can be done by hand: this is known as free forging, according to the old techniques of the
blacksmith, using a hammer and anvil. It is suited to small production runs, even single pieces as
the tools are simple and the implementation can be quick. On an industrial scale, a power hammer
is used for a mechanised version of free forging or a hydraulic press for drop forging and stamping.
The following can be forged: normal steel, brass, and aluminium alloys, for instance. Within these
families certain types have greater or lesser ability to be forged.
DROP FORGING AND STAMPING:

HOW IT WORKS
Metal, in the form of a workpiece (calibrated block) is

heated, and placed between two matrices which have
the shape of the final piece. Under high pressure or
shock, the matrices close and the matter takes the de
sired form. The pieces are often treated as preforms
which are then machine corrected to obtain the final
piece.
It is desirable to maintain the simplest and straight
est joint plane between the two matrices and to avoid
drastic changes to the sections or direction. The shape
of a drop-forged or stamped piece must allow free
flow of the cast matter. The best shapes are round, or
generously curved, and obey the rules of draft angles.
The procedure retains, and can even reinforce, the fibre

direction of the matter. Forged metal has great anisot
ropy and preferential orientations of grains, the pieces

obtained therefore have better mechanical properties.
The forging procedure for metallic pieces can be used
to make strong tools (keys, spanners, knives) or me-
chanical pieces which will be subjected to heavy loads
during their work lives. It offers a flexible means of pro-
duction: diversity of shapes and weights (from a few
grams to a few tonnes) for forged pieces.
Forge machines are characterised by the force they

are able to deliver (from 500 to several tens of thou- Advantages: forged pieces have greater mechanical strength
sands of tonnes for very powerful hydraulic presses), compared to machined or moulded pieces, large shape altera-
their velocity of penetration, and stroke frequency. tions are possible, increased production rates.
Disadvantages: large energy requirements, mediocre precision,
pieces must be corrected.
295
1
DIAGRAM SHOWING PRINCIPLE OF SINTERING

1 assembly of grains 2 compaction 3 heating
Sinter-
ing
Plastics, metals, ceramics. Sintering is a piece-by-piece manufacturing procedure, using com-
pressed powders which are heated to below their melting point. It primarily concerns ceramics and
metals. In the case of ceramics, the process involves sintering with a binder, in the case of metals the
process does not generally require a binder.
SINTERING WITHOUT A BINDER / SINTERING WITH A BINDER: HOW IT WORKS

POWDER METALLURGY: HOW IT WORKS
Not all situations allow powders to be compressed.
For metallic sintering, the powder is first highly com- So to obtain a preform which holds its shape in such
pressed into a matrix (under considerable pressure) to cases, a binder must be used. In the case of clay and
obtain a preform. ceramics, water is the most common binder. It creates
This will then be heated in a vacuum or under a con a paste called slip which helps to make a preform be-
trolled atmosphere, to a temperature lower than the fore it is heated. Preforms are either created by hand,
melting point of the principle constituents of the powder. moulded, or extruded. The water evaporates from the
This heating phase is known as the sintering phase. The slip during firing.
grains of matter become joined together. Some binders disappear during the sintering phase,
After sintering, the preform will shrink. The preform must like water and some polymers: they evaporate or are
therefore be designed to shrink to the dimensions of the burnt off. Others remain and partly ensure cohesion in
desired final piece. the finished product. This is the case for tools tipped
Once the compensation factor for this issue is perfect with tungsten carbide where the binder, cobalt, is me-
ed, the sintered pieces are generally precise, and can tallic. It reinforces the solidity of the piece and reduces
be used directly. its porosity.
Sintered pieces are porous, the gaps between the
grains are irregular and can constitute up to 30% of the
volume of the piece! This defect, can, in some cases, LASER SINTERING
prove invaluable for parts which must be intrinsically
porous, like filtration components. By impregnating the Today, laser ‘sintering’ has become a buzzword. The
pieces with lubricants, the components may also be- term can lead to confusion, however, and the technolo-
come self-lubricating. gies it describes are grouped, in this book, under the
Sintering is also a round-about way of perfecting pseu- heading of ‘Digital Processes’ p.316.
do-alloys. By mixing metal powders together, alloy-type
pieces can be created from metals which would other-
wise be incompatible by classic fusion (due too diverse
melting points for example), the metal with the lowest
melting point imprisons the grains of metal with the
higher melting point.
The procedure of metallic sintering is mostly used for Advantages: no need to amend pieces, economic procedure if
locks, domestic appliances, permanent magnets (iron, used on large production runs, controlled density, hard products,
nickel and cobalt, titanium and aluminium), brake pads isotropic products.
(glass, graphite, iron, and bronze), and light bulb fila- Disadvantages: large production runs, fragile pieces, porous
ments (tungsten). pieces, a complex procedure.
297
slip
mould
1 2
3
SLIP CASTING
1 filling the mould 2 mixing or vibrating 3 adhesion of a fine layer of slip (barbotine) 4 emptying the mould 5 draining / drying the product
6 opening the mould
Cast-
mould-
ing
Metal, ceramic, thermosetting plastics, glass, concrete, plaster. Gravity cast moulding is a
piece-by-piece moulding procedure using liquid matter. Small ornaments, sculptures, and small bits
of hardware are the products of this type of moulding. There are two types: open mould or closed
mould.
OPEN MOULD CASTING: HOW IT WORKS VARIATION: SLIPCASTING
An indentation is made from a piece called the model, For casting ceramics in liquid form, as slip, the term slip
master model, or master which produces the inverse casting is used. The mould, often made of plaster, is
of the product’s shape (contreform). The mould pro filled with slip. Upon contact with the walls, the matter
duced will be made of a refractory material when cast hardens and a crust forms, which is almost solid, but
ing metal or metallic alloys, plaster for casting plaster still moist. The surplus is emptied out. Drying causes
or resin, steel for casting glass, and thermoset resin shrinkage which aids the removal of the piece from
reinforced with fibres for casting resin and plaster. A the mould. Drying is completed in the open air. Many
new generation of silicone moulds is now being devel terracotta pots are made in this way.
oped which bypass the need for back-tapering (draft
angles) and release agents. Apart from silicone, all
moulds need release agents, which prevent the pieces
sticking to the mould. Liquid matter can be cast very
easily using just the force of gravity. One side of the
piece is exposed to air.
In the case of thermoset resin, the use of a catalyst
solidifies the piece.

For other materials, hardening occurs due to evapora-
tion or cooling.
CLOSED MOULD CASTING: HOW IT WORKS
By the same procedure, casting can be done into

moulds made up of two halves (or more parts). Matter
is introduced via a casting hole and the air within the
mould escapes through vent holes.
Generally, the mould is opened before the matter Advantages: very simple procedure, economical, can be done
(plaster, for example) is fully solidified. This finishes on a non-industrial scale.
off the drying process, or polymerisation for thermoset Disadvantages: very low production rates, filling difficulties, thin
plastics. pieces impossible, matter is not highly compressed in the mould.
299
brush or roller
gel coat
resin
fibres (mat or cloth)

mould
CONTACT MOULDING (WET METHOD)
Resin
mould-
ing
Plastics, wood, composites. These procedures are reserved for thermoset resins. These tech
niques add fibres (often glass fibres, or carbon fibres, for example) to plastic matter (epoxy resin or
polyester) to reinforce the structure of shapes. They are known as stratification techniques. Materi-
als made in this way are non-recyclable.
CONTACT MOULDING / are roughly oriented and pre-impregnated with resin

‘WET’ MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS (also known as pre-preg). The results have very good
mechanical properties, and the strength/weight ratio is
Shapes are created from a negative mould. So work excellent. However, production rates are still low and
must be done ‘back to front’ as it were; starting with the shapes possible are limited (draft angles, no sharp
the mould, by applying the final layer, which determines angles).
the surface state of the object. This first layer is called
the gelcoat. This is then followed by layers of glass fi-
bre, carbon, Kevlar®, etc textile, or non woven fibres, VACUUM OR BAG MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS
impregnated with resin − called mats. Between each
layer, care is taken to remove bubbles from the piece to This procedure, mostly craft-based, can be used to cre-
ensure good cohesion. This can be done using rollers ate layers (thermoset resin and glass fibre or paper rein-
or a vacuum. The resin can be applied quite easily with forcements), giving a quality which is sometimes greater
a brush or spray gun (this is known as simultaneous than that of contact moulding. This is also how moulded
spraying). Once the resin has polymerised, at cold or plywoods are made. It needs little initial investment. A
hot temperatures in an incubator, the whole thing ac- positive mould and the matter to be moulded are intro-
quires marvellous mechanical properties. Boat hulls, duced into a plastic bag which is hermetically sealed.
car bodywork parts, furniture or architectural decora- Depression by vacuum pushes the matter against the
tion, bicycle frames, and surf boards are all made in mould and removes all the air bubbles (which ensures
this way. good homogenisation of the composite). Production
rates are low (one piece at a time) but the possible
shapes are numerous and more importantly, large prod
‘DRY’ COMPRESSION MOULDING: ucts are possible.
HOW IT WORKS
More and more procedures are appearing to industri

alise these techniques, particularly in the domain of car
bodywork and structural elements. Resin/fibre com
posites are pressed into shape. SMC (Sheet Moulding Advantages: low initial outlay, great mechanical strength, flexibility
Compound) or BMC (Bulk Moulding Compound) are of production (from unique pieces to small runs, to make small or
often used for this procedure. The procedure involves large pieces).
strong compression, at hot temperatures, between a Disadvantages: the procedure does not lend itself to high pro-
mould and a counter-mould, of a matrix of fibres which ductivity, badly-controlled thickness.
301
1
5
PLASTIC CALENDERING
1 agitator, mixer 2 z-calendering 3 engraving roller 4 cooling roller 5 winder
Calend-
ering
Paper, cardboard, plastics, metal, textiles, leather, skins, glass, ceramics. Calendering, lam
inating, and drawing all aim to produce, by plastic deformation, plates and sheets, but they can
also be used to make some structural shapes. Thermoplastics and paper are calendered, while
glass and metals are rolled and drawn. These continuous procedures are either used alone or
alongside other techniques such as extrusion. Their principle is no more complicated than that of
a rolling pin. Hot or cold, under high pressure, they involve flattening matter between successive
cylinders. The main aim of these processes is to end up with a material of constant and precise
thickness; often very thin. During the process, rollers can also be used to ‘print’ patterns onto the
matter. This is how we get grooved, embossed, and larmé effects. This type of procedure may be
applied to all materials which are capable of plasticity and is very widely used: products can be
made by the kilometre. At the end of the machine, the matter is either spooled into reels or cut. The
lengths, widths, and thicknesses of ready-to-sell products that we find in catalogues are determined
during this stage of the manufacturing process. This is also where dimensional standardisation of
semi-finished products takes place.
Once calendered, rolled, or drawn, the matter will be strongly oriented, in other words it will not have
the same mechanical properties in all directions. This may be an advantage or a disadvantage,
depending on the final application.
PLASTIC CALENDERING: HOW IT WORKS GLASS DRAWING: HOW IT WORKS
The plastic is heated and rolled between two or more The principle of drawn glass was perfected at the be-
rollers until it forms a continuous sheet. ginning of the 20th century. This is the main mode of
In terms of production, calendering is viable from industrial production for flat glass. A sheet of glass is
1,000,000-m upwards. continuously and vertically drawn, after being passed
through a hole in a refractory piece called a débiteuse,

Calendering has a number of variations, according to which is submerged in a bath of molten glass. (see
the materials used and the desired result. This tech drawing 2 p.57)
nique will eventually include the effects gained by die- There is also a process of drawing for polymers. Poly-
stamping (artificial leather effect, for example), printing, ethylene is drawn at hot temperatures and fixed to ac-
coatings of metallic films, etc. quire the property of ‘thermo-retractability’. Often used
in electrical components (thermo-retractable sheaths)
or in packaging, when it is reheated, the product re-
METAL ROLLING: HOW IT WORKS tracts (the molecular structure relaxes and returns to its
initial position).
Based on the same principles, metals can undergo pro-
cesses of rolling at hot or cold temperatures. At cold
temperatures, mechanical properties (hardness, for ex- Advantages: high productivity, can be applied to multilayered
ample) will be modified by the subsequent deformation products, continuous thicknesses.
in a phenomenon similar to strain-hardening. Disadvantages: matter becomes orientated.
303
1 softening heater injection
ram feed hopper ram bands nozzle mould
2
plastic injection
1 softening 2 injection 3 opening mould / ejection of part
Injec-
tion
Plastics, metal, ceramic. Injection moulding is a fast, piece-by-piece manufacturing procedure
which is widely used because it gives high quality moulded objects, often without any finishing pro-
cess required; even for complicated shapes and extreme dimensional tolerances.
Injection is considered the sole territory of plastic matter however, metals and metallic alloys such as
zamac (zinc-based) or brass, and ceramics may also be injected at low temperatures.
The dimensions of injected plastic pieces can vary from a few millimetres to several metres (some car
bodywork and garden furniture are injection moulded). With regards to metal, only the more modest
parts are injection moulded (cases for gear boxes, small bits of hardware).
PLASTIC INJECTION MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS The position of the joint planes is aesthetically crucial.
Always visible, they occur at each junction of the var
Plastic granules are melted by the heat and friction ious parts of the mould. It is therefore best to study
in an injection screw and injected at high pressure their position carefully during the mould design proc
(between 500 and 1,500 bars) and temperature into ess, before the procedure begins. Finally, the channels
a mould which is then closed by a system of hydrau- through which the plastic flows towards the chamber
lics or motors. The mould will have a clamping force (the runners) will also solidify so their position, and that
of several hundred tonnes and include a cooling sys- of any extractors pins or plates, must also be carefully
tem which is carefully thought out so that the matter planned so that they leave only minimal traces on the
solidifies evenly. The piece is removed after the mould final piece (little ‘bumps’ are left by supply channels
is opened. This procedure is used for thermoplastics, and ‘circular marks’ are left by extractor pins). These
sometimes reinforced with short fibres and for some marks really identify an injected piece.
thermoset plastics or elastomers when used with an Pieces must be carefully thought out to ensure even
adapted machine. thickness of the walls. This will avoid common defects
The design of injection moulds (an important task, often such as shrink marks (shrinkages and deformations
verified by specialised design offices or mouldmakers) caused by uneven cooling).
depends on the geometry of the piece to be injected. In terms of production, injection moulding remains
Moulds are usually made of special, highly resistant viable from 100,000 up to 1,000,000 pieces (or more,
steels and are precision-machined (and therefore ex- if the moulds are well looked after.) Nowadays possibi-
pensive!). Moulds are mostly made in two parts (one lities of injection moulding on a small scale are being
fixed, the other mobile) which are hollowed out to give developed, mostly to make prototypes. The cycle −
a cavity which is the inverse of the product’s shape. production time for one single piece, ending with its
They can also have one or more cores to form hollow removal ready for the next piece − varies from a few
areas inside the piece and pins and slides to create seconds to sev eral tens of minutes, depending, of
openings in the walls of the object. Inserts may also course, on the size of the pieces.
be placed into the mould which will stay in the injected
piece, or decoration may be added which will be firmly
fixed to the surface (‘in-mould’ procedures). In order
to be removed from the mould (which will be reused Advantages: high work rates, productivity, complex forms, and
several times), the shape of injected pieces must not precision.
lock the piece into the mould; it must have a draft angle Disadvantages: large initial investment for the machines and
(minimum 2%) to aid the removal of injected pieces. moulds, currently reserved for mass-production.
305
CO-INJECTION MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS VARIATION: CERAMIC INJECTION
Two different, yet miscible, mattters are injected to- Nowadays, procedures for ceramic injection moulding
gether to obtain a skin and a body, each having spe- are being developed. This method can be used to pro-
cific properties. This can greatly reduce costs (using a duce crockery (for non revolutionary shapes). Simplified
‘cheaper’ fill for the non-visible core, made of recycled injection presses, similar to injection presses for ther-
plastic, for example!) moplastics, are used. Ceramic matter is injected as slip
at low pressure (approximately 40 bars) and low clamp-
ing forces (approximately 75 tonnes).
AIR MOULD / GAS INJECTION MOULDING:
HOW IT WORKS
Gas is injected along with the matter. This gives hollow

pieces. Savings in terms of matter, weight, strength, etc.
MULTI-MATTER INJECTION MOULDING /

BI-INJECTION MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS
Several matters are injected almost simultaneously, to

obtain pieces with different areas, joined together. The
demarcation between the various matters appears as
a clean line.
INJECTION BLOW-MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS
Injection blow-moulding is used to make fizzy drink

bottles where the lid must be airtight.
A preform or parison which has been created by previ-
ous injection, is reheated and placed between the two
halves of a new mould. It already has the shape of the
cap and this part will be protected so it is not distorted.
A rod or pipe is introduced into the preform and air is
blown in. Under pressure, the preform swells to fill the
walls of the mould cavity which are cooled, thus form-
ing a hollow body. By comparison to extrusion blow-
moulding, injection blow-moulding gives better control
of the thickness and better air tightness at the lid is
achieved. However, the manufacture of the preform is
an extra process (injection, storage, then blowing) com-

pared to extrusion blow-moulding (which is a continu-
ous process).
VARIATION: INJECTION MOULDING OF

THERMOSET PLASTICS
Thermoset plastics can be injection moulded. This is

done using either machines in which the necessary
com ponents for polymerisation are brought together
or with low-pressure RIM (Reaction Injection Moulding)
procedures (mostly used for polyurethanes), or RRIM
(Reinforced RIM, where the thermoset plastics are
linked to fibre reinforcements).
306
moulded part
sprue
ejector
die cavity
movable side
of mould
guide post
injection temperature regulation

nozzle channels
thermoplastic polymer fixed side of mould
INJECTION MOULD
1
3 5 6
2
4
7
Extrusion
1 granules of material 2 endless screw 3 heater band 4 extrusion die 5 cooling device 6 marking 7 cutting
1
EXTRUSION BLOW-MOULDING
1 extrusion of the parison 2 blow-moulding 3 cooling / opening the mould
Extru-
sion
Plastics, metals, glass and ceramics. Production on a kilometric scale! Extrusion is a continuous
manufacturing procedure used, not only to obtain granules of thermoplastics (which will then be
injected or re-extruded), but also, and more importantly, to create semi-finished products such as
structural sections, piping, panels, and sheets. Extrusion forms the basic production technique for
thermoplastics – in fact it is the procedure which transforms the most matter in this domain – but
other matter which can also be extruded includes metallic alloys, glass and ceramics (production
of hollow bricks, for example).
PLASTIC EXTRUSION: HOW IT WORKS CO-EXTRUSION: HOW IT WORKS
Thermoplastic granules are poured into the hopper Two or more materials are simultaneously extruded
(a sort of funnel) to a heated cylinder. An Archime- and joined together as they pass through the die. Vari-
des screw then pushes the mass to be extruded for- ous colours of one matter; various states of one matter
wards, compressing it, plastifying it (softening it) and (foamed and compacted, or a layer of recycled mate-
homogenising it. In front of the cylinder, a die gives rial between two layers of compacted, for example);
the plastified mass its desired cross-sectional shape various compatible materials can be obtained this way.
or profile (to make a pipe, rod, or flat sheet). There This procedure is often used in the extrusion of wires,
are very diverse forms of die. Flat dies give plates, films, and panels. The co-extrusion of films can play on
sheets, and films which are often rolled after extrusion. various layers of materials, giving increased resistance
An extruder works a bit like a meat-mincer or a spa- to gas, acids, UV, or water vapour.
ghetti machine! As it leaves the machine, the product
must be cooled. This is usually achieved by pulling it Sheathed electrical wire is made by a special type of
through a bath of water. extrusion. Effectively, the thermoplastic sheath is ex-
For some complex shapes, during the final phases of truded directly around the wire, usually made of cop-
setting, the product goes into a cooling block which per. The wire is pulled whilst the sheathing coats it.
helps the piece hold its shape. Cooled and tested (for insulation and centricity), it is
Cutting – to standardised lengths – done with a cir- then wound onto reels.
cular saw, completes the extrusion process. Markings
(for validity of gas tubing, product mark, various indi-
cations, decoration) can also be added to the product BLOWN FILM EXTRUSION: HOW IT WORKS
during this last stage.
The plastic matter is extruded through a ring-shaped
Extrusion has a tendency to orientate the molecular die to create a tubular sheath which is then quickly
chain within the matter; the matter becomes ‘strand- inflated and drawn over several metres. The die may
ed’, it is orientated and constrained. This can be seen be called a ‘bracket head’ through which air is forced
as either an advantage or a disadvantage, depend- into the plastic bubble vertically. Once cooled, the
ing on the use of the product. For example, a plate of bubble is then flattened into a film and wound onto
extruded PMMA (acrylic glass) will not give the same reels. Instead of winding, it can be cut and heat sealed
thermoforming or machining results as a cast plate. to make plastic carrier bags, for example. It is mostly
In terms of production, extrusion is viable for very large PEHD, PEBD, and PP which are extruded like this to
quantities; from 100,000-m upwards. make films and bags.
309
EXTRUSION BLOW-MOULDING: HOW IT WORKS
After extrusion, the matter (glass or thermoplastics) in

rough tubular form (parison) or as a malleable lump is
placed into a mould. A blow-pipe is placed in the pari-
son and air is blown in, inflating the matter (which is kept
hot) and pushing it into the walls of the mould. Hollow
pieces are made using this method, e.g. glass or plas-
tic bottles. Extruded plastic bottles are recognisable by
the ‘scar’ left when the matter is pinched as the mould
closes. Contours are less precise than those of injection
blow-moulded bottles, their aesthetics and their thick-
ness tolerance is less controllable. The water-tightness
of lids on extrusion blow-moulded bottles is also du-
bious. This procedure can be applied to multi-layer
products, and allows the manufacture of large-volume
containers (up to a few hundred litres).
METAL EXTRUSION: HOW IT WORKS
Used on metals and alloys (generally of aluminium),

metal extrusion is similar to the extrusion process de
scribed earlier: a press pushes a billet or slug of the
matter through a die to make various profile shapes
(solid, hollow, or semi-hollow). When extrusion is done
at hot temperatures (for aluminium, the temperature
nears 500°C), the product undergoes various thermal
treatments afterwards to ensure strength and hardness.
The product may also be drawn to guarantee straight-
ness and may be subjected to finishing process like cut-
ting, drilling, milling.
Cold extrusion is more like rolling (see Calendering p.302).
Advantages of plastic extrusion: economic production tech-

nique, continuous productivity, extrusion of many types of ther-
moplastics (flexible, rigid, expanded).
Disadvantages of plastic extrusion: not viable for thermoset
plastics, not suited to small-scale production, mediocre dimen-
sional tolerances after direct extrusion, the matter becomes ori-
entated.
310
4
2
INFLATION EXTRUSION
1 blower 2 angular extruder head 3 blowing a bubble 4 cooling 5 winding / cutting
1
2 3
ROTATIONAL MOULDING THERMOPLASTICS

1 polymer powder put into mould 2 set in rotation (movement about two-axes) / heating (oven) 3 cooling 4 mould opened, part
extracted
Rota-
tional
mould-
ing
Plastics. Rotational moulding is a piece-by-piece manufacturing procedure reserved for thermoplas-
tics, which can be used to make a hollow body without welding or bonding. The cost of manufacturing
the moulds is relatively low, with the simplicity of implementation making the creation of large pieces
possible. Balls, kids’ toys, tanks, road blocks, septic tanks, and port-a-loos are all made this way.
THERMOPLASTIC ROTATIONAL MOULDING: VARIATION / CENTRIFUGATION THERMOSET

HOW IT WORKS PLASTIC: HOW IT WORKS
The matter, in the form of fine powder or liquid, is mea- A similar procedure can be used with thermoset resin
sured and then poured into a mould − normally steel (often polyester). Reinforcements in the form of short
or aluminium − and generally made up of two parts fibres are placed with the resin into a mould which turns
which are welded together. This mould is then mechani- at very high speed. The resin and reinforcements mix
cally rotated around two perpendicular axes. The mat- closely together under strong centrifugal action, with
ter spreads out uniformly over the inner surface of the the polymerisation of the resin accelerated by adding
mould under the effect of rotation. The whole thing is heat. Hollow bodies can be made in this way, e.g. tanks
then placed in an oven and heated until the matter joins and tubes. This technique competes with filament wind-
together, once the matter has solidified by cooling, the ing (see Composites p.72).
piece can be removed from the mould.
While all thermoplastics can be rotational-moulded, some

are more suitable than others, like polyethylene, rigid or
flexible PVC, ABS, polyamides and polyurethanes.
Hollow pieces, either open or closed, are made in this

way. If necessary, multilayered walls and inserts can
be created. Rotational-moulded pieces generally have
inferior mechanical properties compared to injected or
blow-moulded pieces. Thicknesses are difficult to con-
trol and according to the distribution of the matter when
rotation begins, weaknesses (or conversely accumu- Advantages: large pieces, hollow bodies, and strong thickness-
lations) of matter may appear. This difference can be es are possible, small production runs are viable, the procedure
compensated for by increasing the thickness, but this is economical.
can cause greater dimensional shrinkage and general Disadvantages: thicknesses of pieces cannot be guaranteed,
geometrical defects. the inside surface is often poor, slow production.
313
blank-holder blank mould
1 2
3 4
THERMOFORMING OF THERMOPLASTICS
1 heating the blank 2 raising the mould 3 application of vacuum 4 cooling 5 cutting (removal of part)
Ther-
moform-
ing
Plastics, glass. Thermoforming is a piece-by-piece manufacturing process, used for the most part
on thermoplastics, to make limited quality products. Many packaging materials are made in this way
(yoghurt pots, biscuit trays) as well as fridge interiors, for example. The dimensions of thermoformed
pieces can vary from a few centimetres to more than a metre. This simple technique, which consists
of transforming a sheet of matter by distorting it against a contreform, involves variations of thickness
which can damage the final strength of the object. In addition, as only one side of the object is in
contact with the mould, precision − both mechanical and aesthetic − cannot be guaranteed on the
other side. This is why thermoforming is reserved for packaging or the manufacture of bottom-of-the-
range objects.
The interest of the procedure lies in the fact that it may be used to create moulds out of wood, com-
posites, or aluminium with low initial investment.
PLASTIC THERMOFORMING: HOW IT WORKS VARIATION
The sheet of thermoplastic is clamped into a frame Thermoforming is also used as a technique for shap-
(blank holder) then heated until sufficiently soft. It is ing glass − but gives less pronounced shapes than
pushed and deformed over a model by suction and in the case of thermoplastics. The variations of form
then cooled. After removal, a process of trimming (by obtained are often two dimensional (curved glass, for
sawing or punch cutting for thin films) is necessary to example). In this case, the sheet of matter is placed
get rid of the edges. on a refractory model while cold and then heated in
an oven or kiln. Once softened, it is able to take on
The shape of thermoformed products is subject to the the shape of the mould. The deformation is permanent
rules of draft angles. after cooling.

Thermoforming moulds can be convex or concave, ac-
cording to the side of the piece which requires the best
precision and surface state.
While, in theory, all thermoplastics should be able to

be thermoformed, some are better suited than others.
Cast PMMA or polyethylene, for example are not terribly
well-suited to thermoforming. By contrast, the following
materials are readily thermoformed: high-impact poly
styrene, ABS, extruded PMMA, PET-G, PVC.
Advantages: economical production techniques, adaptable to
In terms of production, thermoforming is viable for 1,000 small production runs, low initial investment, complex shapes.
to 10,000 pieces or more. Generally, it is actually trim- Disadvantages: large losses of matter, a constant thickness is
ming which is the most costly part of the process. not guaranteed.
315
3
2
6
1
STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
1 CAD – CAD-CAM workstation 2 laser beam 3 mirror 4 point-by-point solidification 5 photosensitive polymer resin tank 6 movable
plate 7 plate descent
Digital
proces-
ses
All materials. Perfecting digital technologies and developing software capable of controlling tools
has lead to the coupling of information technology with machinery. The first machines equipped with
digital controls were conventional: metal milling machines, mechanical lathes, routers (wood indus-
try), etc. This pushed for an optimisation of tooling processes and a mastery of the geometry of very
complex pieces (curved forms which deploy into space). These first generation techniques, which
operated by removing matter, for the most part quickly found their place in industrial production. Now
a new generation of processes is making an appearance. Still limited to prototype production rather
than mass production, they are characterised by the fact that they work by adding matter. A large
number of these processes employ digital technology, laser technology, and the distinctive properties
of resin polymers.
These technologies are expanding and evolving so fast that we can only describe them in terms of
the main principles or the most representative systems.
STEREOLITHOGRAPHY FUSED MATERIAL DEPOSITION (FMD)
Developed in the middle of the 1980s, this procedure This procedure is not very widely used. Thanks to the
is now certainly the most widely used. The machine is movement of an articulated arm on three axes, an ex-
made of a laser which projects its beam onto the sur- truded thread of molten thermoplastic polymer (poly-
face of a tank filled with photosensitive resin (epoxy- amide, polypropylene, or ABS) − which instantly solidi-
acrylate). The movement of the beam is controlled by fies − makes the contours of the desired form, section
a moveable mirror, piloted by a computer. Following a by section.
path defined by a programmed section of the object,
upon contact with the resin, the laser beam causes local Faster and cheaper than stereolithography, this proce
polymerisation of the resin. Once the section has so- dure is less precise and only works with thermoplastics.
lidified, it moves down by a thickness (of approximately
0.07-mm) into a tray and the laser begins the whole pro-
cess again on the next upper section. LOM LAMINATION (LAMINATED OBJECT
MANUFACTURING)
Constructed layer by layer, this process can be used
on complex geometric pieces, three dimensional work, The desired form is made a section at a time from a
both inside and out of a closed object. stack of paper sheets covered in polypropylene. Each
sheet added is cut with the help of a laser, and then
This highly spectacular and innovative technique still stuck to the others by strong compression and heat.
remains slow, however, and is reserved mostly for pro- This economical procedure is often used to make mas-
totype production (a few small runs of objects have ter casts for founding. The pieces manufactured by
been made). It is relatively expensive and only used to LOM look like bakelised wood pieces. Closed pieces
produce modestly sized polymer objects. are not possible.
317
Stratoconception® is a variation of this kind of lamina-
tion, designed for manufacturing large pieces. Panels,
either laser-cut, water-jet cut, or milled, are then joined
together by bonding and compression.
LASER SINTERING
From polymer powders (which can be loaded with

aluminium, bronze), unusual shaped objects can be
produced (but never completely closed objects as the
residual powder must be removed). Just like the proce-
dures described earlier, each layer is worked separately,
with powders added to each new section, agglomer-
ated by the laser where necessary.
3D PRINTING
Various procedures are being developed: 3D photo

copying, where an existing object can be felt and repro-
duced by production techniques which work layer by
layer, alternating between powder and glue.
Some machines, called 3D printers, like the ink jet print-

er on your desk, are capable of depositing powdered
matter layer by layer (approximately 0.1-mm each)
thus creating three dimensional objects in a few hours.
These machines will remain expensive for the time be-
ing, but the procedure is in the process of being made
more widely available. Thanks to this type of printer, in
tomorrow’s world, the control of object files created by
designers may be done over the Internet, allowing each
piece to be made in several copies at home. Faster and
more economical (once the investment for the machine
is made) than other rapid prototype production tech-
nologies, the quality of the pieces is, however, inferior
(grainy texture etc.). Colour models are also possible.
Advantages: freedom of form; easily creates a prototype or an

object without having to go through a mould manufacture process,
for example; personalisation of each piece in a run is possible.
Disadvantages: creation time is probably just as lengthy; price,
surfaces need to be retouched; limited choice of materials.
318
2
1 1
FUSED MATERIAL DEPOSITION (FMD)

1 CAD – CAD-CAM workstation 2 extruded plastic 3 heating
nozzle, melted filament 4 layer-by-layer depositione
3
Stratoconception ®
1 CAD – CAD-CAM workstation 2 laser cutting beam 3 paper layers + resin 4 movable plate 5 extraction of part
type character
6 5
2
3
7 7
1 2
TYPOGRAPHY (top), SILKSCREEN PRINTING (bottom)

1 screen 2 ink 3 scraper 4 printed material 5 obscured mesh 6 open mesh 7 frame
Print-
ing
All materials. Here are just a few of the main printing procedures. The choice of procedure de-
pends on the type of printing substrate, the number of copies required, the quality desired, and
the budget.
TYPOGRAPHY PAD PRINTING
Certainly the oldest printing procedure, typography With the help of a silicone or rubber pad, a coloured pat-
was already being used in China, well before Johannes tern can be deposited onto the piece to be decorated.
G. Gutenberg perfected the Western printing press in To make a four-coloured pattern, four pads are neces-
1450. The principle revolves around the assembly of in- sary. Pad printing can also be done on curved shapes
dependent characters ‘in mirror image’ (made first from and all types of matter. This is the method used to mark
wood, then lead, or copper) to create texts or drawings. CDs, for example.
Typographical characters are arranged into families (ro-
man, serif, etc.), into fonts (Arial, Times, Helvetica, etc.),
and into font style and size (bold, italic, size 12, etc.) FLEXOGRAPHIC PRINTING
The size is measured in ‘points’. These same param-
eters are used in modern word processing interfaces. This printing procedure uses elastomer shapes placed
Similarly, typographical codes, created around the con- on a rotating cylinder − the plate − which, once inked,
straints of the old printing procedures, are still used puts the desired patterns onto the printing substrate.
today, for example, the rules of punctuation within this The inks are liquid and contain very volatile solvents.
book. Flexographic printing can be used on paper or card-
Typography is still used for small print runs, in artistic board, in the manufacture of sacks or packaging, and
publication, or for business cards, for example. Raised also on plastics or metal.
print can also be created.
GRAVURE PRINTING
OFFSET PRINTING
Based on engraving, gravure printing uses a cylinder

This printing procedure plays on the opposition of water which is carved out with tiny holes where the image to
and ink (an oily body). A photosensitive plate is fixed be printed is supposed to be (which is where the ink
to a rotating cylinder (the relief created by the image is held). Paper is pressed very hard against the cylin-
is almost non-existent). The ink is fixed but the water is der, absorbing the ink held in the engraved holes. Each
pushed away from the areas to be printed. The ink im- colour must be printed separately. Gravure printing is
age, in negative, is transferred onto an intermediary cyl- widely used for long, high-quality print runs such as
inder − the blanket − which then prints onto the printing magazines, catalogues, packaging, etc.
substrate in positive. Computer-aided offset is one of
the main printing procedures for paper. The relationship
between quality and cost is highly viable. Magazines, SILKSCREEN PRINTING
books, telephone directories, and posters are all printed
this way but it can also be used to print polymers and This printing procedure uses a screen (first made of silk
metals. The production rate is very high: up to 60,000 − where the procedure gets its name. Now polyester,
copies per hour! polyamide, or even metal mesh screen are used) whose
321
fabric is masked or blocked by gum Arabic everywhere
outside of the pattern to be printed. It works on the
same principle as stencilling. The screen is held taut in
a frame. The ink is applied with the help of a scraper and
passes through the fabric, but only where the gum is not
present. Silkscreen printing is suitable for numerous
printing substrates, paper glass, ceramic, wood, tex-
tiles, or plastics. Some silkscreen printing can be done
on surfaces which are already in their final form.
INK JET PRINTING
This is a digital printing technique, where a line of noz

zles project ink droplets of various colours, either as a
continuous jet, or in pulses. This technique is increas-
ingly used in all kinds of sectors (on all materials), allow-
ing the creation of large formats, and has developed the
domain of 3D graphics by offering ink jet printing onto
surfaces which are already in their final form.
LASER PRINTING
Laser printing is similar to the photocopying family of

processes (the photocopiers we use nowadays are
increasingly just laser printers coupled with a scanner
and disguised as photocopiers!). In laser printing, toner
is used along with finely powdered inks. The image to
be printed is digitally converted and projected onto a
drum which has an electrostatic charge. The laser beam
on the drum creates an inversion of the charge and an
image (known as the latent image) of the pattern to be
printed is formed. Within the toner, the particles of ink
are attracted to the drum where the laser has revealed
this latent image. Ink is then deposited onto the paper
when it is pressed against the drum. Laser printing
gives higher resolution, lower cost (per page), and is
much quicker than ink jet printing.
322
5
1
Offset
1 pressure roller 2 printed material 3 offset blanket roller 4 plate roller 5 ink
1 2 3
PAINT FINISHES
1 matt surface 2 satin surface 3 gloss surface
2
SOME CHARACTERISTIC PAINT FINISH DEFECTS

1 tight 2 ‘orange-peel’ effect 3 shrinkage cavities 4 holes 5 craters
Fin-
ishes
All materials. The term ‘finishes’ brings to mind both the question of protection, and the notion of
decoration. Nowadays, finishes are expected to extend their traditional functions: tactile effects (soft-
feeling); supply functions; electrical conductivity, or insulation can even be obtained. Some materials
(wood, metal) have trouble withstanding thermal and chemical attacks, humidity, mould, rust, UV rays.
Other, more modern materials, like stainless steel and plastics, for example, integrate their finishes
(their protective capacity and their colour, for example) into their actual constitution. Industry has a
tendency, however, to choose materials predominantly based on their economic properties: effec-
tively, finishing processes are often long and expensive.
The surface to be treated must be carefully prepared to ensure the adherence and durability of the
finish or decoration. They may need de-greasing with a solvent, sanding, sandblasting, shot-blasting,
flaming (passing the surface over a flame) or covering with a layer of primer.
Putting a finish or decoration onto a surface has proven, above all else, to be a problem of chemical
compatibility. Polyethylene, for example, does not do well with many decorative products; teak and
other oily woods do not varnish very well.
Finishes and decoration consist of either impregnating the matter with oily substances; leaving a
layer of polymer film which acts as a protective screen (paint, varnish); covering with metal (zinc or
chrome); or sticking down a related material (bonding of skins, of textiles, and stickers.)
There is a wide variety of ways to apply finishes, from hand application (with a cloth, paint brush,
large brush, roller, spray gun, or dip-coating) to industrial procedures (electrolysis, in-mould deposits,
spraying, powdering, spreading and calendering).
Nowadays, the finish and decoration of an object poses a major problem: that of recycling. Indeed as
the resistance of the surface treatment depends on the degree of intimacy between heterogeneous
materials, recycling often proves extremely difficult. Separating elements joined in such a way is not
always easily done. It is therefore necessary to consider this question during as many stages of the
design process as possible.
PAINT pigments) or organic origin. Pigments can be distin-

guished: some are coloured particles in suspension
Paint is a mixture of various constituents: within the mixture, and some are colorants which mix
• Binder: 10 to 40% of the composition. The binder is more fully, and as a result create the effect of transpar-
often a polymer resin which ensures the cohesion and ency and depth of colour. There are also now pigments
final resistant properties of the painted film. When we known as ‘effect’ pigments, which are used to create
watch paint drying, we are actually witnessing a poly- paints with coloured sheens which change according
merisation of the resin binder which begins when the to the angle of vision (bluebottle effect and pearlescent
solvent evaporates. Some paints need to be mixed with pigments) or according to the light (phosphorescent
a catalyst. pigments and fluorescent pigments,etc.)
• Pigments: 5 to 40% of the composition. These give • Additives: 0 to 70% of the composition. Silica, chalk,
the paint its colour and are either of mineral (metallic kaolin, talc, and carbon additives give greater cover-
325
age, limit shrinkage during the drying process, and stained pieces can be quickly and lightly sanded before
mattify the mixture. Additives, always in small quantities recoating, while varnished pieces need stripping before
(less than 5%) are various chemical agents: thixiotropi- re-varnishing.
fiers (control viscosity), anti-streaking agents, wetting Varnishes, often associated with wood, can also be
agents, anti-rust agents, UV absorbers, insecticides, used on metals, leathers, paper, cardboard, plastics,
fungicides, flame retarders. paint, and of course our nails!
• Solvents: 15 to 35%. These can be volatile, water-
based (aqueous solution), white-spirit-based, or others

substances which make the binder workable and give ENAMELS AND GLAZES
it the correct viscosity. They can also be used to clean
the tools. Their end-role, to disappear by evaporation Enamels and glazes are vitrifiable products − often in
(drying process), is the subject of increased attention the form of a powder − applied by fusion (minimum
due to ecological issues. Continuing to evaporate long temperature of 500°C up to 1,500°C); they are the same
after the drying process, they can be toxic. family as glass. Enamelling (a vitrification process), of a
mineral-based substance, gives a strongly scratch-re-
According to the mixture (viscosity), the speed, and the sistant, temperature-resistant, and chemically resistant
distance of application, a taut surface can be achieved, finish but is not always shock-resistant. Enamels and
but defects (bubbling, specks, orange-skin effects, for glazes are generally applied to ceramics and metals
example) are known to occur. (steel and cast iron, for example). Enamelling vocabu-
It is common to apply different layers of paint, each offer- lary includes:
ing a different function: a keying layer, an anti-rust layer, • Glossification: The point when a layer of transparent
a visible layer and even, to finish, a layer of varnish. glass appears during the firing of stoneware and porce-
The majority of paints come ready-mixed in their solvent: lain.
cellulose paint, glycerol-phtalic paint, poly urethane, • Glaze: A layer of transparent glass which is put on to
and epoxy. For environmental reasons, there is a ten- earthenware, for example, then fired.
dency to limit the number of solvents in use. A propor- • Enamels: Coloured or opacified glass put onto ce
tion of dry extract in paint is preferred (sometimes up to ramics or metals then fired.
80%), this can cause problems for implementation and • Varnish: A very thin layer put onto ordinary pottery
appearance. Some paints are available as ‘powders’, when fired.

and do not contain any solvent. These paints − poly-
amide, PVC, polyester, epoxy, acrylic − are laid as one
single layer and undergo firing at quite high tempera- ELECTROCHROMING
tures, which limits their use to only metallic workpieces.
This economises on matter; implementation is simpli- Electrolysis consists of chemical decomposition due
fied, but the mastery of surface effects is not always as to the effects of an electric current. An anode and a
good as with classic paints. cathode are placed in a tank filled with a solution, and
linked to a continuous current generator. The anode is
the positive terminal, and the cathode, negative. The
VARNISH anode undergoes reactions of oxidation, and will loose
electrons, whereas the cathode undergoes reactions of
Varnishes are like transparent paints. It is necessary reduction and gains electrons.
therefore to distinguish between varnishes and stains By electrolysis, pieces of plastic can be coated in
in the treatment of wood. Varnishes aim to make a pro- chrome, nickel, and even gold. The metal is deposited
tective envelope and make the wood water-tight. The in the solution and the plastic pieces need to be made
slightest impact can cause a ‘breach’ and jeopardise conductive (ABS, polypropylene, polyamide, polycar-
the efficiency of the protection. Stains work by impreg- bonate, for example). The pieces, submerged in the
nating the wood, often with alkyd resins, which are ab- bath, act as the cathode and will be covered in the metal
sorbed by the wood and do not form a continuous film on all surfaces. It is possible to make quite large pieces
on the surface. They ensure a permanent exchange (for cars, for example).
between the matter and its surroundings: the wood
continues to ‘breathe’. However, stains are less efficient
and much less durable than classic varnish (as a rough FLOCKING
guide, they last for about one year outside). Stains, like
varnishes, can be coloured to create a ‘transparent’ Particles of textiles are propelled onto a glue covered
tint to the wood. In terms of maintenance and upkeep, surface, creating the appearance of velour. The fibres
326
can vary in length, be oriented after spraying, and dyed, and resistant to actions such as abrasion. The mate-
etc offering numerous variations in visual and tactile ef- rial is grey or black. Lighter anodising (layers of a few
fects: velvety peach skin, fluff, faux suede. Flocking can microns up to tens of microns) protects aluminium but
be done on all sorts of materials (paper, cardboard, can also, with the use of colorants, give varied coloured
wood, metal, plastics), with one of its main areas of ap- effects. Anodising is an extremely common protective
plication in packaging. and finishing technique.
LAMINATING VACUUM SUBLIMATION
A certain type of laminating concerns plastics. A dec- A flexible or rigid film, printed with the desired decora-
orative printed sheet is thermo-glued onto a panel of tion, envelops the workpiece. The whole piece is then
compatible polymer (ABS, polystyrene or PMMA) then put in an oven (at approximately 200°C) where the inks
the whole thing is thermoformed, folded, or bent into sublimate and transfer onto the matter wherever there
shape. Plastic laminating is widely used in packaging is contact. Plastic pieces whose composition can with-
and for bottom-of-the-range products. stand a few minutes of relatively high temper atures
(polyamide, polycarbonate, POM, for example) can be
VACUUM COATING decorated using this technique.
Vacuum coating is a procedure where plastic is coated

with metal without the need for heat. A fine sheet of met HOT MARKING
al (often aluminium) is sublimated (turned from solid to
gas) in a vacuum and the metallic particles are attracted A plastic film with metallic deposits is inserted between
to the surface of an electronegative substrate such as a heated die punch and the piece to be decorated. The
ABS, PMMA, or polystyrene which has been varnished. pattern, machined in relief on the die, is transferred by
This procedure is used to metallise the inside of cars pressure and heat onto the piece (which may be plastic,
headlights or foil survival blankets. for example). This procedure is fast, simple, and eco-
nomical. Hot marking is often used to obtain ‘gold’ and
‘silver’ logos on cosmetic cases or flocked packaging.
ELECTROPLATING Gilding (with gold leaf) when done on luxury leather ob-
jects is similar to this technique.
Electrolysis, can also be used to cover metallic pieces.
Electroplating protects against corrosion and gives
beautiful metallic finishes (gold, nickel, tin, lead). This IN-MOULD PROCESSES
procedure is often used on jewellery, plumbing, and in
the automotive industry. Printed tickets and labels can be deposited at the bot-
Electrolytic deposits can also be used to cover steel tom of an injection mould. The label’s matter must be
with zinc (this is known as galvanising) to make the compatible with the polymer to be injected.
metal rust resistant. Steel is placed at the negative ter- This technique is very reliable, and is used on the keys
minal (cathode), and zinc is used as the anode. Zinc of computer keyboards, for example. The close bond
‘transports’ itself to the surface of its steel companion. ing of the materials ensures good resistance to wear
Alternatively, the galvanisation of steel can also be done and tear.
by dip-coating finished items at hot temperatures.
COATING
ANODISING
Coating is mostly used in the textiles industry. The
Electrolysis in acid increases the natural layer of alumina surface of textiles can be covered − by calendering,
at the surface of aluminium which protects it from cor- scraping, immersion, or spraying − with a plastic film
rosion (this is known as passivation). In anodising, no which makes it water-proof, stain-resistant, shiny, etc.
external matter is added but oxidation of the substrate This is a textiles finishing process. For other printing
occurs. Various types of anodising can be distinguished substrates (plastic, paper, glass), the word ‘coating’
according to the thickness of the layer of alumina creat- is used to describe the covering of a flat surface with
ed. A ‘hard’ anodising thickness (approximately 100 mi- a substance which is often liquid or paste-like during
crons) makes the surface of the aluminium very strong application.
327
DIP TRANSFER
The procedure of dip-transfer printing consists mainly

of printing a decoration onto a film which is soluble in
water. The piece to be decorated (plastic) is introduced
into a bath of tepid water, with the printed film depos
ited at the surface. Once the film has dissolved, the
inks stay in suspension and deposit themselves on the
workpiece which is mounted at the surface. Workpieces
can be quite complex and three dimensional. The ana-
morphosis effects created by the specific geometry of
the workpiece can be calculated beforehand, and as a
result compensated for in the distortion of the decora-
tion. Once out of the bath, the workpiece is dried and
varnished.
SANDBLASTING / SHOT-BLASTING
A spray gun, inside a closed cabin, propels abrasive

particles at high pressure: metallic shot – for shot-
blasting – or ceramics and sand – for sandblasting
– broken peach or olive stones can even be used to
obtain a roughened effect on glass, textured surfaces
on metal, and a ‘drift wood’ appearance on wood. The
process of sand-blasting or shot-blasting can precede
some finishes (to prepare a surface to receive paint, for
example) or constitute a specific surface state in itself.
328
3
1 2
ELECTROLYTIC PRINCIPLE
1 anode 2 cathode 3 electrons 4 electrolyte 5 deposition of material from anode
RECYCLING
A classic example: PET bottles are disposed and sorted to be recycled in the fleece sweatshirt production.
Re-
cycling
All materials. Recycling can’t be called a production process, as it’s really a set of techniques for
processing materials at the end of the life they were intended for, with the aim of re-using all or part of
them. In the context of exhaustion of certain raw materials and the ever increasing volumes of waste
materials, recycling becomes ever more important.
It is evermore considered as a transformation process in its own right and there is even a trend for
some designers choosing to work only with materials in their ‘second-life’. The art of economising
in material by re-using it in manufacturing, ‘new from old’ one might say, is far from being a recent
idea. Throughout history, mankind has had to manage resources, perhaps even more intuitively and
effectively than today.
Waste treatment strategy may be described by three main principles:
• Reduce: Minimise waste in production, for example by reducing packaging.
• Reuse: This is where the concept of a ‘second life’ for products comes in, giving them the pos-
sibility of continuing in their original function (by repairing them for example and putting them up for
sale again) or finding new uses for them in another role. In the second case, the term ‘up-cycling’ is
sometimes used. Old plastic bags become mats, clothing becomes chairs, bike inner tubes become
wallets, etc.
• Recycle: By collecting, sorting and treating waste to be able to reintroduce materials into an existing
manufacturing cycle. An example is the manufacture of glass bottles using recycled bottles. Another
is the collection of water or other soft-drink bottles made from PET (polyethylene terephthalate), al-
lowing this plastics material to be used in other fabrication processes such as polar fleece garments
(commonly referred to simply as fleece).
Various recyclable materials (thermoplastics, aluminium, etc.) are now marked with a logo represent-
ing a Möbius band. The proportion of recycled material in the makeup of some products is sometimes
shown. Some pictograms can evoke the recycling principle (such as the European Green Dot) but
don’t have any precise indication of a material’s recyclability, so it is necessary to remain vigilant.
RECYCLING IN PRACTICE Before going through one of these transformations,

wastes have to be collected and sorted selectively.
Three major types of materials recycling can be dis- Even if consumers or industries are invited to separate
tinguished: their wastes before collection, it is usually necessary to
• Chemical recycling: Wastes are chemically treated organise secondary, more precise, sorting (mechani-
in order to separate the various constituents. cally and manually) before proceeding with recycling.
• Mechanical recycling: Wastes are treated mechani- Certain materials even go around the recycling loop
cally by machines which may beat, pulp, grind or crush several times. The quality of products using recycled
them. materials is generally conserved but may, in some
• Organic recycling: Suitable wastes are composted to cases be lower than that of the original. It may even
produce fertiliser compost or fuel (biogas for example). be improved when recycling operations also open the
331
door to chemical mixtures which improve the proper-
ties of the recycled materials.
All recycling methods are not in place in all countries.
Some wastes will therefore be stored while waiting for
conversion or incinerated (with energy recovery from
combustion) but the release of dioxins in this process
must be monitored with particular care.
Wastes that are dangerous for human health or the
environment, existing in large quantities in industries
and elsewhere, call for specific techniques.
Recycling of a material sometimes proves to be simple
and cheap, but sometimes very complex and expen-
sive. It is therefore not always profitable (separation of
various constituents may be labour-intensive, danger-
ous, etc.). It’s also necessary to be careful and check
that the recycling technique used is not more energy-
intensive than transforming the raw material: for ex-
ample, in the bleaching of recycled paper this aspect
should not be ignored.
Strong points: waste reduction, preservation of natural resources,

alternative source of supply.
Weak points: logistics (collection, sorting, etc.), profitability has
to be assessed.
332

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03PROCESSES

Copyright © 2013. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. All rights reserved.

Leather and skin

Paper and cardboard

Choice of fabrication procedure as a function of the material used

Choice of fabrication process as a function of the quantity of parts to be produced

Choice of fabrication process as a function of the geometry of the part to be produced

DIFFERENT CUTTING METHODS

turns in a continuous circle. Band saws are used to

ity of overheating. efficiency can be altered by adding sintered tungsten

A metallic wire, under the effects of an electrical resist­

CUTTING METHODS APPROPRIATE TO THE PRINCIPLE MATERIALS

punch or counter Vee

COLD-BENDING OF METAL SHEET / PLATE (HYDRAULIC BENDING PRESS)

OTHER TYPES OF BENDING FOLDING TEXTILES

Bending in this way does not cause any damage to the

To bend wood, the matter (ash or beech, which have

There are also methods for bending metallic and plas-

Truing, a woodworking term, describes the process

In metal working, truing refers to coldworking. The term

This procedure is still a removal of matter, even if the

ASSEMBLY / MAIN PRINCIPLES working life (delaminating, tearing, twisting) must be

WOOD FRAMING JOINTS

BEAMS OF VARIOUS TYPES

COLD RIVETING HOT RIVETING

METAL – VARIOUS ASSEMBLY METHODS

NORMAL LOADS EXERTED ON A BOND

FORCES COMING INTO PLAY AT MICROSCOPIC LEVEL

EXAMPLES OF GLUED ASSEMBLIES RESISTANT TO SHEAR (FROM LEAST TO MOST RESISTANT)

(polyethylene, for example), a pre-treatment is some­ ence of a catalyst (bi-component).

joint is held together by pressure, either manually or

MODES OF GLUE APPLICATION

Table showing use of adhesives

Vegetable (rice, soya, Dry extracts Soluble in water or preparation by

Thermofusible or hot-melt Solid: Heating device required (about 200°C):

Phenoplasts (phenol for- Bi-component viscous Hot or cold

Polyester Bi-component liquids or Precise mixtures and controlled humidity

Epoxydes Liquid or paste Hot or cold

Cyanoacrylate Mono-component liquid Used by capillary action or simple

Elastomers Silicone Mono-component viscous Bonding primer sometimes required.

liquid or paste Hot or cold.

Polyurethane Solvent-type Cold

Major families of adhesives

Stationery (paper, cardboard, wood), Does not stain Limited adhesion

TIN OR SILVER SOLDERING

SOLDERING cal procedure is generally reserved for hand and on

Oxy-acetylene welding is a weld where the energy RESISTANCE WELDING

The work pieces are joined by the heat generated from

A laser beam initiates localised fusion of matter. This

CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC PIPE-WELDING

STITCHES (left), LEATHERWORK (right)

solid sewing. The thread moves in the opposite direc-

edges to avoid unravelling.

at the borders and edges of fabric. Hems are often over-

Numerous variations are, of course, possible. Aesthet­

In leatherwork and the production of leather goods,

1 top-ram blank stamping mould blank-holder 2

METAL STAMPING: HOW IT WORKS

A metallic wire, under the effects of an electrical resist

(polyethylene, for example), a pre-treatment is some ence of a catalyst (bi-component).

Numerous variations are, of course, possible. Aesthet

More and more procedures are appearing to industri

Various procedures are being developed: 3D photo

This is a digital printing technique, where a line of noz