General Physics III

Part A: Electricity

Electric Potential

1
 Electric Potential Energy

Potential
One goal of physics is to identify basic forces in our world,
such as the electric force as studied in the previous lectures.
Experimentally, we discovered that the electric force is
conservative and thus has associated electric potential
energy.

Therefore, we can apply the principle of the conservation of

mechanical energy for the case of the electric force. This
extremely powerful principle allows us to solve problems for
which calculations based on the force alone would be very
difficult.
2.1. Electric Potential and Electric Potential Difference:
2.1.1. Electric Potential Energy:
Key issue: Newton’s law (for the gravitational force) and
Coulomb’s law (for the electrostatic force) are mathematically
identical. Therefore, the general features for the gravitational
force is applicable for the electrostatic force, e.g. the
properties of a conservative force

● We can assign an electric potential energy U:

U = U f − U i = −W
W: work done by the electrostatic force on the particles
W = −Wapplied
● The reference configuration (U = 0) of a system of charged
particles: all particles are infinitely separated from each other

Thus, the potential energy of the system:

W: work done by the electrostatic force
U = −W
during the move in from infinity
Checkpoint 1: A proton moves from
point i to f in a uniform electric
field directed as shown: (a) does E
do the positive or negative work on

the proton? (b) does the electric d 
potential energy of the proton
increase or decrease?
F
(a) Work done by the electric field E:
  
W = F .d = qEd = qEd cos = −qEd  0
(b) U = −W  0
➔ U increases
Checkpoint 1’:

(a) does E do the positive or negative work on the electron?

(b) does the electric potential energy of the proton
increase or decrease?
2.1.2. Electric Potential and Electric Potential Difference:
● U depends on q: U ~ q
U
V= (unit : J/C)
q
● V is the potential energy per unit charge and it is
characteristic only of the electric field, called the electric
potential
● Electric potential difference V between two points:
Uf U i U
V = V f − Vi = − =
q q q
W
V = V f − Vi = −
q
● The potential difference between two points is the negative of
the work done by the electrostatic force to move a unit charge
from one point to other
● We set Ui = 0 at infinity:
W
V =−
q
● We introduce a new unit for V:

1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb

● We adopt a new conventional unit for E:

 N  1V.C  1J 
1 N/C = 1    = 1V/m
 C  1J  1N.m 
● We also define one electron volt that is the energy equal to
the work required to move 1 e- through a potential difference
of exactly one volt:
−19
1eV = 1.60  10 J
Work done by an applied force:
Suppose we move a particle of charge q from point i to f in an
electric field by applying a force to it:
The work-kinetic energy theorem gives:

K = K f − Ki = Wapplied + W

(or you can use: K + U = Wapplied )

If K = 0 (the particle is stationary before and after the

move):
Wapplied = −W
U = U f − U i = Wapplied
Wapplied = qV
2.1.3. Equipotential Surfaces:
Concept: Adjacent points with
the same electric potential
form an equipotential surface.

No net work is done on a charged

particle by an electric field
between two points on the same
equipotential surface.

Those surfaces
 are always perpendicular to electric field lines
(i.e., to E ).
2.1.4. Finding the Potential from the Field:
Problem: Calculate the potential
difference between two points i
and f  
dW = F .ds

dW = q0 E.ds
f 

W = q0  E.ds
i f 
W 
We have: V f − Vi = − = −  E.ds
q0
i
f
 
If we choose Vi = 0:
V = −  E.ds
i
 
Checkpoint 3 (page 633): E
The figure shows a set
of parallel equipotential
surfaces and 5 paths
along which we shall
move an electron.
(a) the direction of E
(b) for each path,
the work we do positive,
negative or zero?
(c) Rank the paths according to the work we do, greatest
first.
2.2. Potential Difference in a Uniform Electric Field:
Problem: Find the potential
difference between two points
Vf-Vi:
f 
W 
V f − Vi = − = −  E.ds
q0
i
The test charge q0 moves along
the path parallel to the field
lines, so:

V f − Vi = − Ed
Electric field lines always point in the direction of decreasing
electric potential
Potential difference between two points does not depend on
the path connecting them (electrostatic force is a conservative
force) d
0
Check: move q0 following icf: V f − Vi = − E (cos 45 ) = − Ed
0
sin 45
Calculating the Potential from the Field

14
2.3. Electric Potential and Potential Energy Due to Point
Charges: f 

Key equation:

V f − Vi = − E.ds
i
2.3.1. Potential Due to a Point Charge:
➢ Choose the zero potential at infinity
➢ Move q0 along a field line extending radially
from point P to infinity, so  = 00

V − VP = −  Edr
 R
1 q
VP = kq  dr = k
2 R
R r
In a general case: q
V =k
r
A positively charged particle produces a positive electric
potential, a negatively charged particle produces a negative
electric potential
Potentials V(r) at points
in the xy plane due to a
positive point charge at O
2.3.2. Potential Due to A Group of Point Charges:
➢ Using the superposition principle:

n n
qi (an algebraic sum,
V =  Vi = k  not a vector sum)
i =1
r
i =1 i
Checkpoint 4: The figure shows three arrangements of two
protons. Rank the arrangements according to the net electric
potential produced at point P by the protons, greatest first.

Use of the formula above gives the same rank

2.3.3. Potential Due to an Electric Dipole:
Problem: Calculate V at point P
2  q − q 
V = Vi = V( + ) + V( −) = k  + 
 r( + ) r( −) 
i =1  
r( −) − r( + )
= kq
r( −) r( + )
If r >> d:

r(−) − r(+)  d cos and r(−) r(+)  r 2

p cos
V =k ; p = qd
2
r
Induced Dipole Moment: Charged electrons
+ No external electric field: in some
molecules, the centers of the positive
and negative charges coincide, thus
no dipole moment is set up positive nucleus
+ Presence of an external E:
the field distorts the electron orbits and
hence separates the centers of positive
and negative charge, the electrons tend
to be shifted in a direction opposite the
field. This shift sets up a dipole moment,
the so-called induced dipole moment. The
atom or molecule is called to be polarized
by the field.
2.3.4. Calculating the Field from the Potential:
Problem: q0 moves through a displacement

ds from one equipotential surface to the
adjacent surface:

W = −q0dV = q0 E (cos )ds

dV
E cos = −
ds
dV
: the gradient of the electric
ds 
potential in the ds direction

Es = Ecos is the component of E in the

direction of ds : V
Es = − (partial derivative )
s
In Cartesian coordinates:
V V V
Ex = − ; Ey = − ; Ez = −
x y z

 E = −V
 or  : gradient
 : Nabla symbol

 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
= i + j+ k
x y z
 Potential Gradient
(Determining Electric Field from Potential)

Electric field vector points from + to -, this means from higher to

lower potentials.
b
Remember: Vb − Va = −  E  d .
a

E
Inverse operation:

V
E=−
r

E is perpendicular to
the equipotentials
For spherically symmetric charge distribution:
dV
Er = −
dr
In one dimension:
dV
Ex = −
dx

In three dimensions:
V V V
Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = − .
x y z

V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ
or E = − i − j − k = − V
x y z
Example: In a region of space, the electric potential is V(x,y,z)
= Axy2 + Bx2 + Cx, where A = 50 V/m3, B = 100 V/m2, and C =
-400 V/m are constants. Find the electric field at the origin
 Two Dimensional Field and Potential

A uniformly charged rod

V(x,y)

Equipotential curves
A dipole

V(x,y)

http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch10/ch10.html
2.3.5. Electric Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges:
U = U f − U i = −W = Wapplied
Problem: Calculate the electric potential energy of a system of
charges due to the electric field produced by those same charges
Consider a simple case: two point
charges held a fixed distance r

We define: The electric potential energy of a system of fixed

point charges is equal to the work that must be done by an
external agent to assemble the system, bringing each charge in
from an infinite distance
The work by an applied force to bring q2 in from infinity:

Wapplied = q2 V = q2 (V f − V )

q1q2
Wapplied = U system = q2V = k
r
If the system consists of three charges, we calculate U for each
pair of charges and sum the terms algebraically:
q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3
U = U12 + U13 + U 23 = k ( + + )
r12 r13 r23

2.4. Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions

Method: We calculate the potential dV at point P due to a
differential element dq, then integrate over the entire
charge distribution
dq
dV = k
r
dq

V = dV =k
r 
Example: a 1 C point charge is located at the origin and a -4
C point charge 4 meters along the +x axis. Calculate the
electric potential at a point P, 3 meters along the +y axis.
n n
q
V =  Vi = k  i
i =1
r
i =1 i

Example: how much work is required to bring a +3 C point

charge from infinity to point P?

Wapplied = qx V

Example: find the total potential energy of the system of three

charges.
q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3
U = U12 + U13 + U 23 = k ( + + )
r12 r13 r23
2.4.1. Line of Charge:
dq = dx
dq dx
dV = k =k
r 2(
x +d 2 1/ 2
)
L
dx
V= k 
0 (2
x +d 2 1/ 2
)
(see Appendix E, integral 17, page A-11)

V = k ln

 (2
L+ L +d 2 1/ 2 
 )
 d 
 
2.4.2. Charged Disk:

dq =  (2R' )(dR' )
dq  (2R' )(dR' )
dV = k =k
r z 2 + R '2
R
1  (2R' )(dR' )
V=
4 0 
0 z 2 + R '2

  2 2 
V=  z + R − z
2 0  
Example 5: calculate the potential at a point outside a very long
insulating cylinder of radius R and positive uniform linear charge
density .
2.5. Electric Potential of a Charged Isolated Conductor:
Using Gauss’ law, we prove the following
conclusion:
An excess charge placed on an isolated
conductor will distribute itself on the surface
of that conductor so that all points of the
conductor (on the surface or inside) have the
f
same potential.  

V f − Vi = − Eds
i
Electric field at the surface is perpendicular
to the surface and it is zero inside the
conductor, so:
V f = Vi
Eletrostatics of conductors

Electric field inside a conductor is zero.

Any net charge on the conductor lies on the outer

surface.
Potential on the surface of a conductor, and everywhere
inside, is the same.
Electric field just outside a conductor must be
perpendicular to the surface.

Equipotential surfaces just outside the conductor must

be parallel to the conductor’s surface.
A large spark jupms to a car’s body and then exists by moving across
the insulating left front tire, leaving the person inside unharmed

Homework: 1, 6, 8, 11, 14, 18, 24, 28, 29, 35, 43, 59, 60, 64
(page 648-653)