Applications of Theta Functions to Arithmetic

Author(s): G. D. Nichols
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 45, No. 6 (Jun. - Jul., 1938), pp. 363-368
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2304027
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1938] APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC 363

APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO, ARITHMETIC

ofArkansas
G. D. NICHOLS, University
This paper deals with the application of the Jacobi theta functionsto arith-
metic. The firstapplications were made by Jacobi himselfand since then by a
long list of contributors.Furtherreferenceto these is made in the sequel.
The followingdiscussion is writtenfroman elementarypoint of view, since
it is felt that the fielddeserves a wider acquaintance on the part of those pos-
sessing a mathematical background equivalent to the average undergraduate
major. Either the resultsthemselvesor the proofsof old resultsare believed to
be new.
The fourJacobi theta functions [1] are definedas follows:
00 00

0o(x)= 1 + 2 , (- 1)nqn cos2nx= E (- 1)nqn2e2nix

n=1 n=-oo
00 00

Al(x) = 2 E (_ 1)nq(2n+1)2 /4 sin(2n + l)x = - i E (- 1)nq(2n+1)2/4e(2n+1)ix

n=O n=-oo
00 00

02(X) = 2E q(2n+1) 2/4 cos (2n + 1)x = E q(2n+l)2/4e(2n+l)ix

n=1 n=-oo
00 00

03(X) = 1+ 2 , qn cos 2nx = E qn2e2nix,

n=1 n=-oo

whereq = eriT, the imaginarypart of r being positiveso as to insureconvergence.

These functionsbelong to a class named by Hermite [2] doubly periodicof the
thirdkind, but we shall not be concernedhere with theirdetailed properties.
There are in the literaturea great many infiniteseries expansions forvari-
ous products and quotients of the Jacobi theta functionstogetherwith their
derivatives. These expansions proceed in powers of q and the coefficientsare
functionsof the divisorsof the exponentof q or, moregenerally,functionsof the
variables in some formrepresentingthe exponentof q. Arithmeticalresultsare
then obtained by equating like powersof q in an identityconnectingsuch theta
products and quotients.
We start with a simple illustrativeexample. The arithmetizedexpansion for
follows [3]:
Oo'2 (X)/0o2(X), where the primeindicates differentiation,

(1) 002(X)/0o2(X) = 4E qn(E 6) + 8Z qn'[ (T - t) cos 2tx].

The outer summation in the firstterm on the rightis an infiniteone extending
over all positive, even integralvalues of n. The innersummation occurringas
part of the coefficient powers of q is finiteand extends over all posi-
of different
tive, even integraldivisors, 5, of n; thus the coefficientof q6 in the firstterm
is 4(2 +6) = 32. In the second term the n' summation is infiniteand is over all
positive,integralvalues; while the innersum is finiteand extends over all posi-
tive, integralconjugate divisorst, r of n', (n'=ttr), r being restrictedto odd val-

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364 APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC [June-July,

ues only. Thus the coefficientof q6 is 8 [(1-6) cos 12x+(3-2) cos 4x], which
reduces to -40 cos 12x+ 8 cos 4x.
From the definitionof 0O(x)it is evident that 0' (0) = 0. Placing x = 0 in (1)
we obtain
(2) q-(Y,(
Ef) + 2 5 qn [E(T - t) ]=0.

Since this is an identityin the q's, the coefficientsof the differentpowers of q

must be separately zero. Consideringonly even values of n' so that n =n', we
see that for any even number a5+ 2Z (Tr-t) =0, which may be written
Z(Q+Tr)+-r =2Z,t. This result may be interpretedas follows:
For any even number,the sum of all the divisorsplus the sum of the odd di-
visors is equal to twice the sum of those divisorswhose conjugates are odd.
We shall now give an example of the application of theta functionsto the
problemof the determinationof the numberof representationsof any integeras
a sum of squares. An extensive treatmenthas been given by Glaisher [4], and
many other writershave writtenon the problem fromvarious angles [5].
The distinctionsbetween a representation,a composition,and a partition
of a numberas a sum of squares can perhaps best be made clear by an example.
There are fourrepresentationsof4 as a sum of 2 squares, namely: 22+02, 02+ 22,
(-2)2+02, and 02+(2 2)2. If positive numbers only had been used, the ways
of expressing4 as a sum of squares would be called compositions and there
would be two of them. If the orderis also neglectedtherewould be but one way
and it would be called a partition.If two or moreof the numbersto be squared
are alike, both in magnitudeand sign, a different representationis not obtained
by interchangingthe positions of the two like numbers. Although the number
of partitionsor compositionswould seem to be the moresignificantconcept, the
resultscan ordinarilybe obtained moredirectlyin termsof representationsand
are usually so given.
We start fromthe theta constant identity [6]:
(3) 024 = -00 /00-03" /03,

where 02 = 02(0), etc. If we take the exponential definitionof 02(x) above, place
x=0, and 2n+1 =m, an odd number,we have 02=qM2/i4. Raising this equation
to the fourthpower gives
(4) 2 =E E E E q

and if we write this expressionfor 024 as a single summation by collectingthe

of like powers of q, thus
coefficients
(5) 024 = E A.q
it can be seen that An is the numberof representationsof n as a sum of fourodd
squares.
The expansions needed forthe rightside of (3) are [3]:

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1938] APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC 365

Gd"(x)/Oo(x) = 4 qn(E 6) + 8Z qn'(E r cos 2tx),

03 (X)/03(X) = 4Z qn(E 6) + 8Z qn'[Y (- 1)tr cos 2tx],

where the nature of the summationsand values of n, n',y5, t, and r are the same
as in (1) above.
Putting x = 0 in these expansions and substitutingthe resultsalong with (5)
in (3) gives
(6) E Anqnl4 = 8 qn[T(1 - (_ l)t)].
Note that if we are to equate like powersof q on the two sides of this equation,
the n on the left must be taken equal to fourtimes the value of the n on the
right.Keeping this in mind and consideringodd values of n only,so that n, t, r,
are all odd in n=t-r on the right,we may deduce from(6) a classical theorem
of Jacobi [7]:
"The numberof representationsof the quadruple of any odd number,n, as
a sum of fourodd squares is equal to 16 times the sum of the divisors of n."
If n had been taken equal to an even numberin (6), we could have concluded
that there are no representationsof the quadruple of any even number as the
sum of 4 odd squares, a result which is otherwisefairlyobvious.
If we now raise both sides of (6) to the mth power and rearrangeby collect-
ing the coefficientsof like powers of q, there results
E B(4m,n)q-/4 = 8mE qNE T1T2 ... Tm[Il- (-I) tl ] [I - (-I) t2]***[-l)t.

As can perhaps best be seen by referringto (4) and (5), B(4m, n) is the num-
ber of representationsof n as a sum of 4m odd squares. The inner summation
on the rightis the product of the original m finitesummationsand is over all
combinations of t's and r's which satisfy,for any particular N, the equation
N = nl + n2 + *** + nm = t17r1+ t2T2+ ** + tmTm.

Equating like powersof q, and rememberingthat n = 4N, we get

B(4m,4N) = 8Z 712 * Tm[I - (- 1)tl] [1 - (- i)] *. [1 - (- I)tm]

If eitherN or m is odd while the other is even, B(4m, 4N) is zero. This can be
seen since the r's are odd by assumptionand all the t's must be odd in orderfor
B(4m, 4N) to be different fromzero. When m and N are eitherboth odd or even,
however,thereresults
(7) B(4m, 4N) = 16mE T1T2r.* Tm,

where in
N= t1r1+ t2T2+ + tmTm
all t's and r's are odd.
It is possible by means of certain other theta functionidentitiesto deduce
from (7) the classical theoremon the representationof the quadruple of any
even numberas the sum of eight odd squares [8], and certain other resultsfor

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366 APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC [June-July,

12 and 16 odd squares, but we shall not take space here to develop this line of
inquiryfurther.
Instead we shall take up the method of paraphrase [9] which adds a great
deal to the generalityof any resultsobtained. The functionsof the divisorsof n
occurringas coefficientsof qnlin the arithmetizedseries developments usually
contain sine or cosine termsas in the above examples. Thus theoremsconcerning
trigonometricfunctionsare obtained by equating like powers of q. But, as is
well knownfromthe theoryof Fourierseries,the majorityof analytic functions
are, within certain limitations,representableby trigonometricseries. Hence it
is frequentlypossible by giving suitable particular values to the variables in
these theoremsand thensummingup, to extenda theoremestablished fortrigo-
nometricfunctionsto all functionswhichare representableby convergentseries
of the trigonometricfunctionforwhichthe theoremwas firstestablished.Thus,
under certain conditions,a result concerningcosine termscan be extended to
even functions,and a theoremconcerningsine termsto odd functions.
An example will make these statementsmore definite.In a list of arithme-
tized expansions given by Bell [10] occurs
(8) 00'(x)/0o(x) = 4E qn(E sin 2tx),
wherein n = tr,t is an arbitrarypositive integer,and r is an odd positiveinteger.
Throughoutthe sequel, r will always representa positive odd integer,and d, a, t
arbitrarypositive integersunless otherwiseindicated. We shall not point out
where the latter are necessarilyrestricted,e.g., t when n is odd in n = tr.
It is obvious that if we square (8) it may be equated to (1) above, thus ob-
taining
4Z qn(I 6) + 81 q n'5 (T - t) cos 2tx = 16Z, qN(E sin 2tixsin 2t2x),
where N=n1+n2=tlil+t272. From trigonometrythe rightside can be written
89qN[ cos 2(tl-t2)x-cos 2(ti+t2)x]. Equating like powersof q, thereresults
(9) , a + 2 E (r' - t') cos 2t'x = 2 E [cos 2(t, - t2)x - cos 2(t, + t2)x],
n n' N

where,to sum up, n=da, n'=t'r', N=t1ir1+t2r2,and a is given.

Letf(y) be an even analytic function,well definedand finiteeverywherebe-
tween the limits -h and h. Then f(y) can be expanded in a Fourier series as
follows:
(10) f(y) = A0/2+ A1 cos 7ry/h + *
+ A2 cos 2iry/lh . + Amcosm7ry/Ih
+ .

Next put y=O, 2t', 2(t1-12), 2(tl+t2) successivelyin (10), and in (9) put x suc-
cessively equal to ir/h,2r/h, * . . , m7/h, * -- . Now multiply both sides of (9)
by A1 forx=w/h, by A2 forx=2wr/h, and in general by Amforx=mwm/h. If we
add the resultingequalities and take into considerationthe results of the sub-
stitutionin (10), we have
(11) Saf(O) + 2, (r' - t')f(2t') = 2 f(2t, - 2t2) - f(2t1 + 2t2).
n n&' z*N

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1938] APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC 367

(11) is called the paraphrase of (9) and is a much moregeneralrelationship.For

a cosine series the paraphrase substitutionis
(12) E (ai + bi cos ciy) = E aif(O) + bif(ci).
For an identitycontainingsine termsonly it can be shown that the proper
substitutionis
(13) E (ai sin biy) = E ajF(bi),
where F(y) is an odd function.
If we place f(y) equal to a constant in (11) we get the same result that was
obtained from(2). If we place f(y) =y2, we obtain
Ei
n'
(t - T')t'2 = 4Z tt2,
N

a resultconnectingthe divisorsof n' with two of the fourvariables in the form

N=trTl+t2T2. A checkofthisresultforN= n'= 4 gives48 = 48.
The even and odd functionsconsideredabove do not have to be continuous.
It can be shown that it is only necessaryforthem to have definite,finitevalues
forthe integralvalues of the independentvariable under consideration.For ex-
ample, if in (11) we place f(0) = 1,f(y) =0 forall other integralvalues of y, we
may conclude that the sum of the even divisors of any number,n, is equal to
twice the numberof times in which tl = t2in the compositionsof n by means of
tl-rl+ t2-2
We give one furtherexample forwhich we need the followingexpansion ob-
tained by Basoco [i1]:
(X + y)_20(y
O 12Oo02
(14) Go2()6~~(y)
. csc 2y + 4E qn(E sin 2(tx + -ry))j
(14) ?? (x) 12(Y) -
St(Y)
- 8E qnE t cos 2(tx + ry).
In the list of expansions given by Bell [5] occur:
(15) 0120o2/0o2(X)012(X) = CSC2 x - 8 qni[E di cos 2(d1-61)x],
(16) 0 (y)/01(y)= cos y + 4Z qn'(E sin 2d'y),
where 5' is even in (16) in n'=d'%'.
If we set y= -x in (14) it is evident that it is identicallyequal to (15) and
the two right-handmembersmay be equated. Terms freeof q must be equal in
such an identity. If we drop these termsout, multiplythroughby sin 2x, use
trigonometricformulas,and paraphrase by means of (13), there results after
considerabledetailed labor
E 2F(2d') - E {2F(2t - 2r) + F(2t - 2r + 2) + F(2t - 2r -2)
+ tF(2t - 2r + 2) tF(2t - 2r - 2)}
+ E {d1F(2d1- 2a1+ 2) - d1F(2di - 2a1- 2)} =R,
nl

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368 APPLICATIONS OF THETA FUNCTIONS TO ARITHMETIC [June-July,

where
R = 2Z {F(2t - 2r - 2d' + 2) - F(2t - 2r - 2d' - 2)
- F(2t - 2r + 2d' + 2) + F(2t - 2r + 2d' -2)

and wheren' =d'8', 5' even, n=tr, ni=dbi,.N=t-r+d'3'.

If we set F(y) =y, we obtain
j d' - 1? (3t - 2r) + E d = 0,
n' n n

a resultwhich may be interpretedas follows:

For any even number,thesum of thedivisorswhoseconjugatesare evenplus
thesum ofall divisorsis equal to threetimesthesum ofall divisorswhoseconjugates
are odd minus twicethesum oftheodd divisors,
These examples deal only with a fewof the moreelementaryapplications to
numbertheory.Furtherapplications may be found,among other places, in the
works of Hermite, Jacobi, Legendre, Kronecker, Liouville, Humbert, and
Glaisher. Particular attentionis called to numerousapplications made by E. T,
Bell in papers occurringin many journals duringthe past twentyyears,and to a
book on the subject by Nazimoff [12].
References
1. Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis, Ch. XXI; Hancock, Theory of Elliptic Func-
tions, Ch. X; Jacobi, Werke,vol. 1, p. 501.
2. Hermite,Oeuvres, vol. 3, p. 329 (footnote); Appell, Memorial des Sciences Mathematiques,
no. 36, 1929.
3. G. D. Nichols, Tohoku Mathematical Journal,vol. 40, part 1, 1934, p. 257.
4. Glaisher, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. 36, pp. 305-359, vol. 37, pp. 36-49,
vol. 38, pp. 1-63, 178-237, 289-352.
5. E. T. Bell, American Journal of Mathematics, vol. 42, 1920, pp. 168-188; Dickson, His-
tory of the Theory of Numbers, Chs. VI, VII, VIII, and IX.
6. J. D. Elder, Annals of Mathematics, vol. 31, 1930, p. 650.
7. Jacobi, Werke,vol. 1, p. 247.
8. H. J. S. Smith, Collected Mathematical Papers, vol. 1, p. 307.
9. An extensive and generalized account of the method is given by Bell (Transactions, vol.
22, 1921, pp. 1-30,198-219). It is probable that Liouville was the firstto use the method of para-
phrase in obtaining certain results contained in a series of 18 memoirsappearing in the Journalde
Math6matiques Pures et Appliqu6es, vols. 3,4,5,9, and 10, although he did not give a proofor de-
tails as to how his results were obtained. In this connection see Hermite, Oeuvres, vol. II, pp.
109-124, also p. 220, and remarksby Bell in the Transactions article cited above.
10. E. T. Bell, Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 53, 1924, p. 166.
11. M. A. Basoco, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 38, 1932, pp. 560-68.
12. Nazimoff,Applications of the Theory of Elliptic Functions to the Theory of Numbers.
There is now an English translation of the original which was published in Moscow in 1884. Re-
sume in Annales Scientifiquede l'cole Normale Superieure,thirdseries,vol. 5, 1888, p. 36.

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