Variable DC Supply

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this internship report is written by NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY
focusing on VARIABLE DC POWER SUPPLY to meet the partial requirements and
regulations governing the award of the higher national diploma (HND) in the field of
electrical power system with option electricity at the institute universitaire de la cote in the
year 2022.
PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISOR ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR

MR. DERICK
M. FONKOU LESTER
Laboratory Technician CONFIANCE
Lecturer
DATE……………………………… DATE……………………………
Signature…………………………… Signature…………………………
WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

i
DEDICATION
TO MY BELOVED
FAMILY

ii
APPRECIATION
I address my sincere gratitude and acknowledgement to all those who supported me from
the beginning to end of my internship especially to the following:
• GOD ALMIGHTY for his infinite goodness, protection, inspiration and strength
throughout this period
• MR PAUL GUIMEZAP: the director of the University Institute of the Coast who
created a link for me to access an academic internship in a manufacturing company.
• MR HONORE: the director of H-ELECT SARL who gave me the privilege to be one
of his interns and who assured the progress of my training.
• Mme CLODETTE: the secretary or her seldom advices.
• MR DERICK : the project manager for his availability and kindness
• MR KWATE HONORE. The manager of the factory for his prompt coordination
• MR FONKOU LESTER CONFIANCE for his good orientation
• To my beloved family for her love, financial support, and attention.
• My fellow interns for their lovable interaction.
 To my beloved parents Mr Ful Ngong Charles and Mme Fuller Nzonkem Nathalie.For
their financial support and attention.

iii
ABSTRACT
H-ELECT SARL is an industry leading Contractor located In DEIDO-DOUALA,

H-ELECT SARL provides high-quality installation services for all electrical lighting
and power systems. Their wealth of experience has allowed them to successfully
partner with clients in the Industrial, Health Care, Commercial, Interiors, Residential
Mixed Use, Higher Education, Senior Living, and Retail & Hospitality markets,
participating in several projects. H-ELECT SARL offered me an internship which lasted
for a period of two months , which i was lucky to aquire some expirience in domestic
installation like piping,fittings and mounting of alliances . Also, the installation of
electric lifters and practiced circuit protection and subdividing Additionally,at the level
of the project, the variable DC power supply with sensitive voltmeter and ammeter with
display is achieved by putting certain circuit blogs in place. Where the voltage is stepped
down by transformer then rectified by diode bridge, then filtered by capacitors then its then
regulated and varied by the use of potentiometers and regulators, with some minor
calculations and circuit put in place the microcontroller can read the value of both the voltage
and the current and then interprete the data and the display through the LCD (liquid crystal
display) and the micro controller continuously reads the circuit and display.

iv
RESUME
H-ELECT SARL est un entrepreneur leader de l'industrie situé à DEIDO-
DOUALA, H-ELECT SARL fournit des services d'installation de haute qualité pour tous les
systèmes d'éclairage et d'alimentation électrique. Leur riche expérience leur a permis de
s'associer avec succès à des clients des marchés de l'industrie, des soins de santé, du
commerce, de l'intérieur, de l'usage mixte résidentiel, de l'enseignement supérieur, des
résidences pour personnes âgées et de la vente au détail et de l'hôtellerie, en participant à
plusieurs projets. H-ELECT SARL m'a proposé un stage d'une durée de deux mois, au cours
duquel j'ai eu la chance d'acquérir une certaine expérience dans l'installation domestique
comme la tuyauterie et le montage d'alliances. Aussi, l'installation d'élévateurs électriques et
pratiqué la protection et la subdivision des circuits De plus, au niveau du projet, l'alimentation
en courant continu variable avec voltmètre sensible et ampèremètre avec affichage est réalisée
en mettant en place certains blogs de circuit. Lorsque la tension est abaissée par un
transformateur puis redressée par un pont de diodes, puis filtrée par des condensateurs, puis
régulée et variée par l'utilisation de potentiomètres et de régulateurs, avec quelques calculs
mineurs et un circuit mis en place, le microcontrôleur peut lire la valeur à la fois du la tension
et le courant, puis interprètent les données et l'affichage via l'écran LCD (affichage à cristaux
liquides) et le microcontrôleur lit en continu le circuit et l'affichage.

v
PREFACE
The Higher National Diploma [HND] is a professional diploma created on the 24th
December 1971 by article number 97/E/SO/MINEDUC delivered by the minister of higher
education. This diploma is usually awarded to a bachelor after two years of training in a
specific field of study accompanied with an internship in an enterprise specialised in his/her
field of study.
This HND was introduced in Cameroon in 2002 by a ministerial order of
02/0069/MIINESUP/DDES and still current.
This internship report as part of the requirements of the HND gives a brief presentation of the
company, activities carried out, personal project, not forgetting difficulties and proposed
solutions.
With the aim of assuming a durable development and to provide competent and competitive
handwork in different domains to companies, the Cameroon government through the Ministry
of Higher Education permitted the opening of private institution of higher education. This
gave the opportunities of private institutions to contribute to the acquisition of academic and
professional training in appropriateness with the professional world. IUC being one of the
private institutions consist of the following five schools and field of studies:
 School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS)
 HND INDUSTRIAL PROGRAMS
• Electrical Power Systems (EPS)
• Industrial Computing and Automation (ICA)
• Telecommunication (TEL)
• Software Engineering (SWE)
• Networks and Security (NWS)
• Chemical Manufacturing (CMA)
• Mechanical Manufacturing (MEM)
• Building Science and Technology (BST)
 HND COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS
• Marketing (MKT)
• Management (MGT)

vi
IDENTIFICATION SLIP
SOCIAL REASON SALE OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND ELECTRICAL

INSTALLATIONS
WAREHOUSE IMMEUBLE H-ELECT DEIDO A COTE DE LA BOULANGERIE
COAF-DOUALA
COMPANY’s HEAD IMMEUBLE H-ELECT DEIDO A COTE DE LA BOULANGERIE
COAF-DOUALA
OFFICE
DATE OF CREATION 2008

LEGAL FORM SARL [Société à Responsabilité limite]
ACTIVITY SALE OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND ELECTRICAL

INSTALLATIONS
CAPITAL 13000000FCFA
GENERAL DIRECTOR MR HONORE
B.P 6883-DOUALA-CAMEROON
TELEPHONE 679-44-85-73

vii
ABREVIATIONS MEANING
HND HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLO MA
LCD LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
ADC ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
MCU MICROCONTROLLER
MINESUP CAMEROON MINISTRY OF HIGHER

EDUCATION
MINEDUC MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
ABREVIATION LIST

viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................................ii
APPRECIATION.......................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................iv
RESUME..................................................................................................................................................v
PREFACE................................................................................................................................................vi
IDENTIFICATION SLIP............................................................................................................................vii
ABREVIATION LIST................................................................................................................................viii
TABLE OF CONTENT...............................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1: PRESENTATION OF H-ELECT AND ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT........................1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
SECTION I: PRESENTATION OF THE COMPANY..................................................................2
SECTION II: GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION..............................................................................2
II.1: ORGANIGRAM AND FUNCTIONS OF PERSONELS.......................................................3
II.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE HEADQUARTERS........................................................................4
II.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE FACTORY.....................................................................................4
CHAPTER 2 : INTERNSHIP PROGESS AND LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................5
SECTION I: ACTIVITIES CARRIEDOUT [AUGUST-SEPTEMBER]...........................................5
OTHER ACTIVITIES....................................................................................................................6
SECTION II: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2: POWER SYSTEMS........................................................................................................8
SECTION I : A LITTLE HISTORY..................................................................................................8
SECTION II: GENERALITIES ON POWER SUPPLY....................................................................9
II.1 INTRODUCING POWER SUPPLIES....................................................................................9
SECTION II: AC-DC CONVERSION BASICS................................................................................9
SECTION IV: POWER SUPPLY COMPARISONS.......................................................................11
SECTION V: UNREGULATED POWER SUPPLY THEORY......................................................13
SECTION VI: REGULATED POWER SUPPLY THEORY...........................................................13
SECTION VII: LINEAR, SWITCHED, OR BATTERY-BASED?.................................................14
VII.1 Switched Power Supply......................................................................................................15
VII.2 Battery-based......................................................................................................................15
VI.3 IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS......................................................................................16

ix
VII.4 NOISE & RIPPLE..............................................................................................................16
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................19
SECTION II: OBJECTIVE...........................................................................................................20
Design Switching DC power supplies have very high power efficency, and good noise and ripple
performance for most of applications...........................................................................................20
II.1 AIM.......................................................................................................................................20
power a wide variety of equipment such as computers, sensitive electronics, battery-operated
devices and other equipment requiring high efficiency................................................................20
SECTION III: WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION........................................................20
III.1 Blog diagram........................................................................................................................20
II.2.1 working principle................................................................................................................21
II.3.1 Transformer: -.....................................................................................................................21
II.3.3 Rectifier..............................................................................................................................23
Working of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:-.........................................................................................23
II.3.4 Smoothing (Filter): -...........................................................................................................24
II.3.5 Voltage Regulation (using IC LM317)..............................................................................25
SECTION II.4 Display system.........................................................................................................28
II.4.1 Blog diagram......................................................................................................................28
II.4.2 VOLTAGE DEVIDER.......................................................................................................28
II.4.4 MICROCONTROLLER Pic16f877A.................................................................................29
II.4.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY ( LCD ).............................................................................32
SETION III CIRCUIT DIAGRAM..................................................................................................33
SECTION I CALCULATIONS.......................................................................................................35
I.1 Maximum output voltage and minimum output voltage..........................................................35
SECTION II. LIST OF MATERIALS AND SOFTWARES............................................................36
II.1 LIST OF MATERIALS.........................................................................................................36
II.2 Software used in the process..................................................................................................37
CHAPTER V. FABRICATION PROCESS.........................................................................................38
V.1 Various Tools & Equipment Needed For Fabrication................................................................38
V.2 SOLDERING............................................................................................................................39
V.2.1 Tips & Tricks..........................................................................................................................39
V.3 RESULTS..................................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER VI: CRITICAL APPROACH............................................................................................40
SECTION I: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING INTERNSHIP..........................................40
SECTION I.2: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED ON THE PROJECT..............................................40
SECTION TWO: RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP AMELIORATE THE PROBLEMS...........41

x
SECTION II: RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP AMELIORATE THE PROBLEMS ON THE
PROJECT.........................................................................................................................................41

xi
CHAPTER 1: PRESENTATION OF H-ELECT
AND ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT
INTRODUCTION
H-ELECT SARL is one of the companies which offers amazing services and benefits
to the society, due to their long existence and stay in the country since 2013 and also in
line with the quality of services they provide. As an industry leading contractor located
In DEIDO-DOUALA H-ELECT SARL provides high-quality installation services
for all electrical lighting and power systems. Their wealth of experience has
allowed them to successfully partner with clients in the Industrial, Health Care,
Commercial, Interiors, Residential Mixed Use, Higher Education, Senior Living,
and Retail & Hospitality markets, participating in several projects. H-ELECT SARL
successfully handles projects of any size and complexity, from small installations
to larger projects in major hospitals, retail and commercial buildings, &
distribution centers. Whether you need their full range of electrical installation
services, from design/build and planning services to low voltage and electrical
wiring installation, or a single service, you can rely on them for unparalleled
professionalism and customer service.

1
SECTION I: PRESENTATION OF THE COMPANY
In the year 2008 this company was an establishment of formation but by its eagerness and
hard work this establishment in 2012 is transformed into a company and adopts the name
H-ELECT limited liability company. H” meaning Honore the first name of the founder,
ELECT” to specify that the company deals in electric field, limited liability company” to
certify that this company is legal.
SECTION II: GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
H-ELECT SARL is located at New Deido opposite CERAD near COCIMECAM

The following are the activities taking place in H-ELECT SARL:
Electric maintenance
Manufacture of electric trunks
Electric installation
-The sale of electrical materials

-The sale of lusters,spot lights,wall lamps etc
All things considered,H-ELECT SARL is a company dissociating itself in the sale of
electric materials,electric installation and maintenance
The functions of personels are presented as follows:

 Mr HONORE:The general manager of H-ELECT SARL
 Mme CLODETTE:Head of the personnel of H-ELECT SARL
 Mr DERRICK:Incharge of electrical maintenance,electrical installations,
ACTIVITIES
1. Electrical maintenance
2. The sale of electrical materials
3. The sale of lusters,wall lamps,spot lights etc

2
II.1: ORGANIGRAM AND FUNCTIONS OF PERSONELS

3
H-ELECT SARL is a registered company [SARL] which is essentially commercial. Like
other private companies, their objective is to produce great profit and provide solution to the
worries of personel, customers, and shareholders but the satisfaction of their clients is their
first objective.
II.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE HEADQUARTERS
It is made up of , the Ceo and director’s office, the project manager’s office, the
secretary’s office… one small hall for meetings and two toilets.
II.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE FACTORY
The factory has a magazine for the stock of working tools and the warehouse to stock
product for sale.
The magazine
Here we have equipments such as:
1. Electric climb.
2. Lusters
3. Different electrical cables
4. Helmets
5. Safety boots
6. The company’s working tools.
The warehouse
Concerning the warehouse, here the company stock their electrical goods where they take
to either sell or expose to the view of clients to buy .

4
CHAPTER 2 : INTERNSHIP PROGESS AND LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter entails the various activities we carried out during the internship on weekly basis
and the literature review.
SECTION I: ACTIVITIES CARRIEDOUT [AUGUST-SEPTEMBER]
Table 3 : activities.

S Date Activity Visual
n
1 27th - 30th -we were taken to two building sites where the
july company h-elect was charged to install
electricity in one and in the other to install an
earthing system. In the first site where the
company was charged to install electricity we
carried out:
-wall chiseling and placing of cups for switches
and sockets.
-electrical piping
2 31th july Realization of a command block for a pool pompe
3 02 of august Installation of lusters at the companies hardware
store.
4 03 -07 august We were taken to the field for electrical
maintenance.
5 09 th -18th Collection of data for the different accessories that
august were to be used for the installation and perfect
functioning of an elevator that was to be installed
by the company at bali(somatel).
6 21th -23th General control of electrical installation at a hotel at
august makepe where the company is charged to be
carrying out electrical maintenance there in case of
any electrical failure or fault.

5
7 24th august We went to bali(somatel) for the cleaning and
preparation of space that was to be used by the
company for the installation of the elevator.
8 25 august Electrical maintenance at logpom .
9 26th august Installation of lusters and wall lamps at the
hardware house.after installation we had to supply
them and see if its functioning.
10 27th august We studied a contactor and its functioning :a
contactor is an electrical device used for the
switching off or on an electrical appliance at a
distance or it is an electrical device used for
distance control mostly in industries.
29 25th september Preparation of work space at Bali at the elevator
site where the company was charged to install an
elevator.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Making discipline and cleanliness as a culture of engineering cleaning and exposure of the
company’s asset is done everyday, Every morning we had as duty to expose the company’s
goods to the view of customers and clients.

6
SECTION II: LITERATURE REVIEW
H-ELECT has as methodology and traditional discipline to handle every project so as to come
out with the best and optimum result. When encountered with a project the analysis is
meticulously done and all ideas are gathered even from interns too, we had the opportunity to
share some of our intellectual fits when any meeting is held.
After proper analysis and a conclusion is imposed but the leader and a strategy is place which
is subdivide specialize and conquer.
Also the inspection of interns EPP / protective equipment’s are often inspected.
Minimum requirement.
1. overall
2. Helmet
3. Safety shoes
4. Minimum tool.
Fig4. Minimum EPP.

7
CHAPTER 2: POWER SYSTEMS.
SECTION I : A LITTLE HISTORY

At the advent of electrical distribution, the standard current in Europe was alternating
current (AC) and in the US was direct current (DC). The main load of electrical usage was
the light bulb, which was designed by Thomas A. Edison to use direct current. The early
competition between which electrical distribution system would dominate the market in
the US was called The War of Currents and was typically personified as a conflict
between inventor Edison (Con Edison/General Electric) and entrepreneur George
Westinghouse (Westinghouse Electric), who invested in the AC technology as a power
distribution method. The conflict was actually much larger, with American and European
companies having a vested interest in the decline of one type or the other.
The drawback of alternating current at the time was that load on the system was affected
when appliances were turned on and off, affecting others using the line. Direct current had
the advantage of using only the current needed and not affecting the rest of the load on the
line.
Unfortunately for the DC proponents, the voltage drop across the wires from source to
output was significant and different voltages could not be sent across the same wires. This
meant that DC generation required generating plants to be located within about a few
miles of their destination and multiple wires strung for each voltage needed, both of which
were prohibitively expensive for rural communities. A further disadvantage was that DC
was really only feasible for small appliances, as the low voltages were too inefficient to be
scaled up for technology that required large voltages.
In contrast, high voltages of alternating current could be transmitted very long distances
on a single line, for hundreds of miles and therefore required fewer generating plants.
Transmission of AC resulted in very little voltage drop, and the voltage could then be
reduced through the use of transformers to the desired amount needed at its destination.
Additionally, with increasing industrialization, the high voltages were desirable for large
loads, such as railways and industrial motors.
Competition remained between AC and DC proponents until a series of events, contract awards, and
field trials proved that AC transmission lines were the most economical, although DC lines remained
in use well into the 20th Century. Since most appliances, developed by Edison, were DC devices, the
need for direct current was strong. Since AC could be stepped down to any DC voltage, DC systems
are still utilized.

8
SECTION II: GENERALITIES ON POWER SUPPLY.
A power supply is a component that supplies power to at least one electric load. Typically,
it converts one type of electrical power to another, but it may also convert a different form
of energy – such as solar, mechanical, or chemical - into electrical energy.A power supply
provides components with electric power. The term usually pertains to devices integrated
within the component being powered. For example, computer power supplies convert AC
current to DC current and are generally located at the rear of the computer case, along
with at least one fan.
II.1 INTRODUCING POWER SUPPLIES
Power is the backbone of any electronic system and the power supply is what feeds the
system. Choosing the right supply can be the critical difference between a device working
at optimum levels and one that may deliver inconsistent results.
In addition to alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) power supplies, DC to DC

converters are also available. If DC is already available in your system, a DC to DC
converter may be the better design choice than AC discussed below.
Direct current power supplies are either unregulated or regulated. Regulated supplies
come in several options including linear, switched and battery-based.
SECTION II: AC-DC CONVERSION BASICS

A power supply takes the AC from the wall outlet, converts it to unregulated DC, and
reduces the voltage using an input power transformer, typically stepping it down to the
voltage required by the load. For safety reasons, the transformer also separates the output
power supply from the mains input.
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7 illustrate the general transformation from AC to DC.

Alternating current takes the form of a sinusoidal wave with the voltage alternating from
positive to negative over time.

9
Figure 5: Alternating Current from Wall Outlet
In the first step of the process, the voltage is rectified using a set of diodes. Rectification
transforms the sinusoidal AC. The rectifier converts the sine waves into a series of
positive peaks.
Figure 6: Full Wave Rectified

Once the voltage has been rectified, there is still fluctuation in the waveform—the time
between the peaks—that needs to be removed. The rectified AC voltage is then filtered or
“smoothed” with a capacitor.
The capacitor is typically quite large and creates a reservoir of energy that is applied to the
load when the rectified voltage drops. The incoming energy is stored in the capacitor on
the rising edge and expended when the voltage falls. This significantly reduces the amount
of voltage droop and smooths out the voltage. Increasing the storage capacity of the
capacitor generally produces a higher quality power supply.
Figure 3 shows the rectified voltage and how the capacitor smooths the droop.

10
Figure 7: Full Wave Rectified + Capacitor
Once the voltage conversion is complete, there is still some variation in output, called
ripple. In a regulated power supply, the voltage is then passed through a regulator to
create a fixed DC output with less ripple.
SECTION IV: POWER SUPPLY COMPARISONS

AC power supplies come in two varieties, unregulated and regulated. Unregulated is the
most basic type of power supply and does not have the ability to supply consistent voltage
to a load, while regulated power supplies do and have many different design options.
Linear converters are the least complex but also create the most heat, while switched
converters are more intricate and cooler but create more noise. Batteries are typically
switched converters. Each has advantages and drawbacks but which to use will be based
mostly on the type of application and the conditions under which it will be run.
Table 4 illustrates how the types of power supplies are categorized and summarizes many
of the pros and cons of each type.

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UNREGULATED REGULATED
Pro: Pro:
Simple circuitry Voltage is consistent
Durable Available in high quality power supplies
Noise filtering
Con:
Adjustable output voltage or current
Precision tuning
Voltage varies with
load current draw Con:
Designed for fixed
output current or Complex
voltage More expensive
LINEAR SWITCHED BATTERY
Pro: Pro: Pro:
Safe and reliable Small size, Portable
Small residual lightweight Doesn’t require on-site
ripple Wide input voltage power
Less noise range
Con:
Good line & load High efficiency
regulation Less expensive
Fixed voltage input
Stable than linear
Short life
Con: Con: Output voltage droops
as energy reserves are
Poor efficiency Complex circuitry used
Large heatsinks Mains pollution
Large size & Higher noise
heavy
Expensive
Table 4: Types of Power Supplies

12
SECTION V: UNREGULATED POWER SUPPLY THEORY
Because unregulated power supplies do not have voltage regulators built into them, they
typically are designed to produce a specific voltage at a specific maximum output load
current. These are typically the block wall chargers that turn AC into a small trickle of DC
and are often used to power devices such as household electronics. They are the most
common power adapters and are nicknamed a “wall wart”.
The DC voltage output is dependent on an internal voltage reduction transformer and

should be matched as closely as possible to the current required by the load. Typically the
output voltage will decrease as the current output to the load increases.
With an unregulated DC power supply, the voltage output varies with the size of the load.
It typically consists of a rectifier and capacitor smoothing, but no regulation to steady the
voltage. It may have safety circuits and would be best for applications that do not require
precision.
Figure 8: Block Diagram — Unregulated Linear Supply

The advantages of unregulated power supplies are that they are durable and can be
inexpensive. They are best used, however, when precision is not a requirement. They have
a residual ripple similar to that shown in Figure 3.
NOTE: Wavelength does not recommend using unregulated power supplies with any of
our products.
SECTION VI: REGULATED POWER SUPPLY THEORY

A regulated DC power supply is essentially an unregulated power supply with the addition
of a voltage regulator. This allows the voltage to stay stable regardless of the amount of
current consumed by the load, provided the predefined limits are not exceeded.

13
Figure 9: Block Diagram — Regulated Supply
In regulated power supplies, a circuit continually samples a portion of the output voltage
and adjusts the system to keep the output voltage at the required value. In many cases,
additional circuitry is included to provide current or voltage limits, noise filtering, and
output adjustments.
SECTION VII: LINEAR, SWITCHED, OR BATTERY-BASED?

There are three subsets of regulated power supplies: linear, switched, and battery-based.
Of the three basic regulated power supply designs, linear is the least complicated system,
but switched and battery power have their advantages.
Linear Power Supply
Linear power supplies are used when precise regulation and the removal of noise is most
important. While they are not the most efficient power source, they provide the best
performance. The name is derived from the fact that they do not use a switch to regulate
the voltage output.
Linear power supplies have been available for years and their use is widespread and
reliable. They are also relatively noise-free and commercially available. The disadvantage
to linear power supplies is that they require larger components, hence are larger and
dissipate more heat than switched power supplies. Compared to switched power supplies
and batteries, they are also less efficient, sometimes exhibiting only 50% efficiency.

14
VII.1 Switched Power Supply
Switched mode power supplies (SMPS) are more complicated to construct but have
greater versatility in polarity and, if designed properly, can have an efficiency of 80% or
more. Although they have more components, they are smaller and less expensive than
linear power supplies.
Figure 9: Block Diagram — Regulated Switching Supply

One of the advantages of switched mode is that there is a smaller loss across the switch.
Because SMPS operate at higher frequencies, they can radiate noise and interfere with
other circuits. Interference suppression measures, such as shielding and following layout
protocols, must be taken.
The advantages of a switched power supply is that they are typically small and
lightweight, have a wide input voltage range and a higher output range, and are much
more efficient than a linear supply. However, a SMPS has complex circuitry, can pollute
the AC mains, is noisier, and operates at high frequencies requiring interference
mitigation.
VII.2 Battery-based
Battery-based power is a third type of power supply and is essentially a mobile energy

15
storage unit. Battery-based power produces negligible noise to interfere with electronics,
but loses capacity and does not provide constant voltage as the batteries drain. In most
applications using laser diodes, batteries are the least efficient method of powering the
equipment. Most batteries are difficult to match the correct voltage to the load. Using a
battery that can exceed the internal power dissipation of the driver or controller can
damage your device
VI.3 IMPORTANT SPECIFICATIONS

While all power supply specifications are valuable, some are more critical than others. A
few specifications of note are:
Output Current: The maximum current that can be supplied to the load.
Load Regulation: The load regulation is how well the regulator can maintain its output
with a load current change, and usually is measured in millivolts (mV) or as a maximum
output voltage.
Noise & Ripple: Noise is any added and unwanted electronic interference, and ripple is
the small variation in voltage when AC is transformed into DC. These are typically
combined into one measurement. In switching power supplies, the measurement is given
in peak-to-peak, showing the extent of the noise spikes that arise from the switching.
Overvoltage Protection: Sometimes output voltages can exceed their nominal values and
can damage the load. Overvoltage protection is a circuit that shuts down the power supply
should the voltage limits be exceeded.
Overload Protection: Overload protection is a safety measure used to prevent damage in
the event of a short circuit or overcurrent event. Much like the circuit breaker in a house,
the overload protection shuts off the power supply so the load will not be damaged.
Efficiency: Efficiency is the ratio of power being pulled from the power grid that is
effectively being converted to DC power. A good SMPS power supply will operate with
at least 80% efficiency and, with a proper system design, can operate at even higher rates.
An efficient system will reduce heat generation and can save energy.
VII.4 NOISE & RIPPLE

Noise and ripple are artifacts of the transformation of AC to DC and are the byproduct of
rectification and switching. During conversion, the alternating sine wave cannot be
completely suppressed. These artifacts are typically combined into one specification,
16
given in peak-to-peak voltage, showing the extent of the noise spikes that arise from
switching, which can negatively affect sensitive instrumentation.
The small voltage variations are called ripple. Many times, the amount of fluctuation
depends on how well the power supply is matched to the load.
Noise is the unwanted additions that occur outside of the normal ripple. It comes from
many other sources, including switching and electronic noise generated outside of the
power supply, such as from nearby electronics. Noise usually occurs in conjunction with
ripple and is much more variable and unpredictable. Switching noise typically occurs at
very high frequencies.
Figure 10 is an example of noise (created by switching) and ripple in a medium quality
power supply.
Figure 10: Ripple & Noise for Regulated, Switched Power, Representative of a Mid-
Quality Supply
Figure 11 illustrates the noise potential in a regulated linear power supply. While much
less than the ripple of a regulated switched supply, it can still be significant enough to
mask data. If the noise and ripple are very high, small signals can be overwhelmed or the
life of the hardware can be significantly shortened. However, with a high quality power
supply it can be virtually eliminated.

17
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN AND CONCEPTION OF A VARIABLE
DC POWER SUPPLY VOLTMETER AND AMMETER WITH
DISLPLAY

18
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION
There are two main designs for variable regulated DC power supplies: Linear DC Power
Supply and Switching DC Power Supply. Linear DC power supplies have exceptionally
low ripple but tend to be heavy and less efficient, while switching DC power supplies
have very high power efficency, and good noise and ripple performance for most of
applications. Currently we only make linear DC power supplies with output below 20A.
Typical applications for linear DC power supplies include studio mixer/audio amplifiers,
lower noise amplifiers, etc.; typical applications for switching DC power supplies include
industrial and scientific research, product manufacturing and testing, electroplating,
electroforming, DC motors, aviation and marine applications, etc.
SECTION II: OBJECTIVE

19
Design Switching DC power supplies have very high power efficency, and good noise and
ripple performance for most of applications.
II.1 AIM
power a wide variety of equipment such as computers, sensitive electronics, battery-

operated devices and other equipment requiring high efficiency.
SECTION III: WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION.

III.1 Blog diagram.
AC power supply
230/220
Transformer
step -down
Rectification
ac-dc
Filter circuit
Regulation
variation
display and
output.
DC OUTPUT
Microcontroller
LCD
II.2.1 working principle
The principle of operation is as follows, to be able to vary the dc supply of a circuit one
need to convert the signal to dc.ac supply of 230v or 220v is stepped down by a

20
transformer then rectified by diodes to get DC then the dc is filtered to remove the ripples
then voltage regulated and varied using a potentiometer then we get an output as desired.
That value of the output is displayed on an LCD screen for better maneuvering of the
system.
To facilitate the use of the product with the help of the LCD display.
The display system is achieved by the use of microcontroller which reads a value
compares the value and converts that value to the display the value.
II.3.1 Transformer: -
A Transformer is an equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage of an

ac supply with a corresponding decrease and increase in current. It essentially
consist of two windings primary and secondary.
N1: no. of
turns in primary
coil N2: no. of
turns in
secondary coil
N1< N2 :- Step-
up transformer
N1> N2 :- Step-
down
transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce
voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the
dangerously high mains voltage (230v) to safer low voltage.
Transformers and their symbol

21
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary.
There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The
two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the
power in.
Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary(input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small
number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
Vp Np power out = power in

Turns ratio = = and
Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vs Ns
Vp = primary (input) voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is =
primary (input) current secondary (output) current
II.3.3 Rectifier
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC.
The bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A
full-wave rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is
used, but this method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be
used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-
wave varying DC.
Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also

22
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a
full-wave rectifier because it uses all the
AC wave (both positive and negative sections)
Working of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:-
The Positive Half-cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and
the current flows through the load as shown below.
Output of Transformer
The Negative Half-cycle During the negative half cycle of the supply,
diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as
they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.
Output of

23
Fig: Resultant wave form
Hence, we can say that the bridge wave rectifier give the pulsating DC voltage which are
not suitable for electronic circuits.
II.3.4 Smoothing (Filter): -

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across
the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the
varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the
unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The
capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as
it supplies current to the output.
Note: - Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to

almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value).
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it
discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10%
of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required
value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less ripple. The
capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC
So, in this we concluded that the pulsating DC voltage is applied to the
smoothing capacitor. This smoothing capacitor reduces the pulsations in the
rectifier DC output voltage.
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronics circuits.

24
II.3.5 Voltage Regulation (using IC LM317)
Output from the full wave bridge rectifier is fed to a LM317 regulator IC LM317
provides varied voltage from 1.2V to 35V. Reference voltage of 1.25 V is
maintained at 220 ohm Resistor.
The LM317 Voltage Regulator is a 3-terminal adjustable voltage regulator which

can supply an output voltage adjustable from 1.2V to 35V. It can supply more
than 1.5A of load current to a load.
LM317 Pinout
The LM317 Voltage Regulator has 3 pins. Below is the pinout:
Looking from the front of the voltage regulator, the first pin (on the left) is the
Adjustable Pin, the middle is Vout, and the last pin(on the right) is VIN.
VIN - VIN is the pin which receives the incoming voltage which is to be regulated down to
a s pecified voltage. For example, the input voltage pin can be fed 12V, which the
regulator will regulate down to 10V. The input pin receives the incoming, unregulated
voltage.
Adjustable - The Adjustable pin (Adj) is the pin which allows for adjustable voltage
output. To adjust output, we swap out resistor R2 value for a different resistance. This
creates adjustable voltages.
VOUT - VOUT is the pin which outputs the regulated voltage. For example, the LM317 may
receive 12V as the input and output a constant 10V as output.
II.3.5.1 LM317 Schematic Diagram

Now that the pins, how do we modify the voltage to that which we want output?
We do this by changing the value of the resistor connected to the Adj pin of the voltage
regulator.

25
Let's see the schematic is set up:
Here we connect two resistors to the voltage regulator. These resistors

determine the voltage that the voltage regulator adjusts.
Variable resistor ( 10 k Ω) resistor 220 Ω
The voltage that the adjustable regulator outputs is determined by the equation below:
Vout = Vref x {1+ (R/R4)}

 Vref = 1.25V
 R4 is 220Ω
 RV = 10KΩ (variable resistor)
 R = RV x R2 / (RV + R2)
Therefore, you can see based on this formula, that the more the value of
resistor R increases, the greater the voltage output.
This is the advantage of adjustable voltage regulators. You can adjust it to any
voltage within the range that the voltage regulator supports.

26
CAPACITORS C2 & C3 :-
The capacitors C2 (0.1 uF) and C3(10 uF) are used to clean up the power line. C2
is optional and it's used to clean up transient response. C3 is needed if the device
is far from any filter capacitors. This capacitors helps smooth out the power
supply line in case of abrupt current spikes.
 C2-0.1uF (Ceramic Capacitor or Mylar Capacitor) reduces noise
Capacitor 470uF
Capacitor 10uFThe C4 - 470uF 25V (electrolytic capacitors) acts like a

miniature battery that supplies power during the spike.
DIODE D6 :-
Diode D6 is used to prevent the 10uF capacitor from discharging into the regulated IC. The
diode D5 and D6 ( both is 1N4007) is the protector from external voltage to reverse to makes
the damage to the

IC.
If you put the D6 polarity incorrect, The VR10K will burn
SECTION II.4 Display system.
II.4.1 Blog diagram.

27
voltage microcontroller liquid crystal
(voltage (pic16f877A) display
devider) ADC LCD
II.4.2 VOLTAGE DEVIDER
A voltage divider referenced to ground is created by connecting two electrical

impedances in series, as shown in Figure 1. The input voltage is applied across the series
impedances Z1 and Z2 and the output is the voltage across Z 2. Z1 and Z2 may be
composed of any combination of elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors.
II.4.4 MICROCONTROLLER Pic16f877A.
The PIC microcontroller PIC16f877a is one of the most renowned microcontrollers in the

industry. This microcontroller is very convenient to use, the coding or programming of this
controller is also easier. One of the main advantages is that it can be write-erase as many
times as possible because it uses FLASH memory technology. It has a total number of 40
pins and there are 33 pins for input and output.

28
II.4.4.1 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS (ADC)
it is one the most used ways to read data from the real world. Almost all the sensors like
temperature sensor, ux sensor, pressure sensor, current sensors, voltage sensors, gyroscopes,
accelerometers, distance sensor, and almost every known sensor or transducer produces an
analog voltage of 0V to 5V based on the sensors reading. A
temperature sensor for instance may give out 2.1V when the temperature is 25C and go upto
4.7 when the
temperature is 60C. In order to know the temperature of the real world, the MCU has to just
read the output
voltage of this temperature sensor and relate it to the real world temperature.
Its i dentified on the microcontrollers pin diagram on data sheet as (AN0---AN7) from pin
zero to pin 7.

29
To read an ADC value the following steps has to be followed.
Table 5. steps to read adc.
S STEPS EXPLANATION CODE

N
1 Initialize the : We have already learnt how void ADC_Initialize()
ADC Module to initialize an ADC so we just {
call this below ADCON0 = 0b01000001;
function to initialize the ADC //ADC ON and Fosc/16 is
The void ADC_Initialize () selected
function is be as follows. ADCON1 = 0b11000000; //
Internal reference voltage is
selected
}
2 Select the analog : Now we have to select which unsigned int

channel channel we are going to use to ADC_Read(unsigned char
read the ADC channel)
value. Lets make a function for {
this, so that it will be easy for //****Selecting the
us to shift between each channel**///
ADCON0 &= 0x11000101;
channel inside the
//Clearing the Channel
while loop.
Selection Bits
Then channel to be selected is ADCON0 |= channel<<3;
received inside the variable //Setting the required Bits
channel. In the line //**Channel selection
complete***///
}
The previous channel selection
ADCON0 &= 0x1100101;
(if any) is cleared. This is done
by using the bitwise and
operator “&”. The bits
ADCON0 |= channel<<3;
3, 4 and 5 are forced to be 0
//Setting the required Bits
while the others are left to be in
their previous values.
Then the desired channel is
selected by left shifting the
channel number thrice and
setting the bits using the
bitwise or operator “|”
3 Start ADC by Once the channel is selected we GO_nDONE = 1; //Initializes
making Go/Done have to start the ADC A/D Conversion
bit high conversion
simply by making the
GO_nDONE bit high:

30
4 Wait for the The GO/DONE bit will stay while(GO_nDONE); //Wait for
Go/DONE bit to high until the ADC conversion A/D Conversion to complete
get low has been
completed, hence we have to
wait till this bit goes low again.
This can be done by using a
while loop.
Note: Placing a semi-colon
next to while will make the
program to be held there till
the condtion of the while
loop is false.
5 Get the ADC When the Go/DONE bit gets return
result from low again it means ((ADRESH<<8)+ADRESL); //
ADRESH and that the ADC conversion is Returns Result
ADRESL register complete. The result of the The complete function which is
ADC will be a 10-bit value. used to select the ADC channel,
Since our MCU is a 8-bit trigger the ADC and return the
MCU the result is split into result is shown
upper 8-bit and the lower 2- here.
bits. The upper 8-bit result is unsigned int
stored in the register ADC_Read(unsigned char
ADRESH and the lower 2-bit is channel)
stored in the register ADRESL. {
Hence we have to add up these ADCON0 &= 0x11000101;
to registers to //Clearing the Channel
get our 10-bit ADC value. This Selection Bits
result is returned by the ADCON0 |= channel<<3;
function //Setting the required Bits
__delay_ms(2); //Acquisition
Now we have a function which
time to charge hold capacitor
will take the channel selection
GO_nDONE = 1; //Initializes
as input and return us the ADC
A/D Conversion
value. Hence we
while(GO_nDONE); //Wait for
can directly call this function
A/D Conversion to complete
inside our while loop, since we
return
are reading the analog voltage
((ADRESH<<8)+ADRESL); //
from channel 4 in
Returns Result
this tutorial, the function call
}
will be as follows.
i = (ADC_Read(4)); //store the
result of adc in “i”

31
II.4.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY ( LCD )
The term LCD stands for liquid crystal display. It is one kind of electronic display module
used in an extensive range of applications like various circuits & devices like mobile phones,
calculators, computers, TV sets, etc. These displays are mainly preferred for multi-
segment light-emitting diodes and seven segments. The main benefits of using this module are
inexpensive; simply programmable, animations, and there are no limitations for displaying
custom characters, special and even animations, etc.
Here I am explaining each function inside our header le below:


void Lcd_Start(): This function should be the rst function that has to be called to start
working with our LCD.
We should call this function only once to avoid lag in the program.
 Lcd_Clear(): This function clears the LCD screen and can be used inside loops to
clear the appearance of
previous data.
 void Lcd_Set_Cursor(x pos, y pos): Once started, our LCD is ready to take
commands, we can instruct the LCD
to set its cursor in you preferred location by using this function. Suppose if, we need
out cursor at 5th
character of 1st row. Then the function will be void Lcd_Set_Cursor(1, 5)
 void Lcd_Print_Char(char data) : Once the cursor is set we can write a character to
its position by simple
calling this function.
 void Lcd_Print_String(char *a): If a group of characters is to be displayed, then the
string function can be used

32
SETION III CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
POWER CIRCITDIAGRAM.

33
34
CHAPTER IV CALCULATION AND LIST OF MATERIALS
SECTION I CALCULATIONS
I.1 Maximum output voltage and minimum output voltage.

35
SECTION II. LIST OF MATERIALS AND SOFTWARES.
II.1 LIST OF MATERIALS
Table 6. list of material.

36
II.2 Software used in the process
Table 7. table of software.

SN NAMES ROLES IMAGE
It is use to design
1 Proteus circuit and do
simulations
Intermediate
development
2 Mplab xide enviroment used for
writing the code for
the microcontrollers
This is a used to
write codes for the
3 Mikro c pro for pic microcontroller and
it has already
available libraries
This is used to
4 Mplab xipe upload the code into
the microcontroller

37
CHAPTER V. FABRICATION PROCESS
Electrical Fabricating, consisting of electrical design i.e. making PCB, soldering, is
making connection correctly etc.
V.1 Various Tools & Equipment Needed For Fabrication
Table 8. table of various tools and equipments.

SN COMPONENTS FUNTION IMAGE
This is used to
1 Soldering iron melt the
soldering wire
This is a wire
which melts in
contact of heat at
2 Soldering wire a high
temperature then
joins to metals
together
Thois is used to
clean the
3 flux
soldering iron
tip
This is use for

measurement of
electrical
4 Multimeter
quamtities
And to check
continuity
This is a
programming
toolused to
5 Pickit 3
upload a code
into a
microcontroller

38
V.2 SOLDERING.
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a
relative low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler
metal, which is below 4000 C (7520F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.
In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joint by capillary
action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the
metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have
adequate strength.
V.2.1 Tips & Tricks

Soldiering is something that needs to be practiced. These tips should help you
began successful so you can stop practicing and get down to some serious building.
1. Keep the iron tip clean. A clean iron tip means better heat conduction and
a better joint. Use a wet sponge to clean the tip between joints.
2. Double check points. It is good idea to check all the soldiers joints with
an Ohm meter after they are cooled. If the joint measures any more than
a few tenths of an ohm, then it may be a good idea to resolder it.
3. Use the proper iron. Remember that bigger joints will take longer to heat
up with an 30W iron than with a 150w Iron.
4. Solder small parts first. Solder resistors , jumper leads, diodes and any
other small parts before you solder larger parts like capacitors and tran-
sistors. This makes assembly much easier.
V.3 RESULTS
We get DC Regulated power supply which can varies through variable resistor
From 1.2 V to 9V.
We get a responsive display which shows the the value of the output voltage
and curreNT

39
CHAPTER VI: CRITICAL APPROACH
This part is made up of two sections; section one which are the problems faced and section
two which are the solutions.
SECTION I: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING INTERNSHIP
Anyone engaged in business activities or training must encounter so many challenges which
might hinder them from attaining their objectives so did we, the interns, encounter the
following problems.
 Weather conditions: since the internship was during the rainy season, we had
difficulties in carrying out prospection and other activities due to weather conditions.
 NO SPECIALIZATION:At H-ELECT SARL there is no specialization,electricians are
at times forced carry out some tasks that those not concern their speciality or field.
 Little space in the store room of the company for the reservation of their goods.
 Lack of transport facilities: this company lack vehicles to take agents to go to the field
for prospection and so, we the interns had to walk long distances in order to achieve
our daily task which was very stressful.
SECTION I.2: PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED ON THE PROJECT.
 Difficulties in finding and selecting the micro controller.

 Difficulties to link the circuit to the microcontroller so as to read the electrical
quantities need.
 Difficulties in manipulation of the LCD.
 Difficulties at the level of uploading the code to the microcontroller.

40
SECTION TWO: RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP AMELIORATE THE PROBLEMS
The following are some solutions to the above problems.

 Technicians should be allow to focus on nothing else than things that concern their
speciality.
 Some technicians should be sent to other well developed companies and even abroad
to improve on their technical knowhow for the benefit of the company.
 The company should make transport facilities available. By so doing, the company’s
technicians will expand their area of prospection and will not be limited to a particular
area.
 The company should try and add space in their hardware store house so as to store
many good as they can to avoid good shortage.
SECTION II: RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP AMELIORATE THE PROBLEMS

ON THE PROJECT.
Search for several mcu and check their datasheet to see it meets the requirement of your
circuit(number of pins, analoge pins, memory) then check from the market if any is available

41
CONCLUSION
An academic internship is a very important aspect in the life of students. It helps us see what
the professional world outside of our classrooms look like. This period helped us to
synchronise academic knowledge with the professional world. From our own personal point
of view, it brought us so much joy and was a very interesting experience, though task full
period.
Firstly, we were given great quality supervision, attention and knowledge as we always had
questions trying to relate what our lecturers had given us. It really helped us demonstrate
theory we had no idea of how things are being performed. Learning how to interpret and
analyse installations, putting laws and theorems we learned made us focus more, therefore we
understood furthermore what we had on paperwork.
From the case study chosen, DESIGN AND CONCEPTIONN OF A VARIABLE DC

POWER SUPPLY VOLMETER AND AMMETER WITH DISPLAY, we understood
the importance of dc power variation (in all aspects of life) and where it could be applied. We
found pleasure in performing our daily tasks everyday with the help of our professional
supervisors and all other personnel in our department as a whole.
Notwithstanding, we thank our school authorities for their keen attention in our academic
growth and the opportunity they gave us for this experience, the H-ELECT SARL entire staff
for permitting us to learn in their premises, providing us all the necessary care, attention,
protection during the realisation of this project. We are and will be forever grateful in this
endless preparation you provide to us for the future.

42
REFERENCES
[1] Book ‘Encyclopedia of Electronic Components’ by Charles Platt

[2] Book ‘Practical Electronics for Inventors’ by Paul Scherz and Simon Monk
[3] Book ‘Circuit Theory and Analysis’ by Abhijit Chakrabarti
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
[5] http://en.wikipedi-
a.org/wiki/Capacitor
[6]http://en.wikipedi-
a.org/wiki/Rectifier
[7] http://www.electronics-hub.com
[8] http://electronics.stackexchange.com
[9] http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_6.html
[10] https://www.eleccircuit.com/lm317-power-supply/
[11] http://www.scribd.com

43

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CERTIFICATION

PROFESSIONAL SUPERVISOR ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

H-ELECT SARL is an industry leading Contractor located In DEIDO-DOUALA,

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

H-ELECT SARL est un entrepreneur leader de l'industrie situé à DEIDO-

systèmes d'éclairage et d'alimentation électrique. Leur riche expérience leur a permis de

commerce, de l'intérieur, de l'usage mixte résidentiel, de l'enseignement supérieur, des

résidences pour personnes âgées et de la vente au détail et de l'hôtellerie, en participant à

comme la tuyauterie et le montage d'alliances. Aussi, l'installation d'élévateurs électriques et

pratiqué la protection et la subdivision des circuits De plus, au niveau du projet, l'alimentation

régulée et variée par l'utilisation de potentiomètres et de régulateurs, avec quelques calculs

liquides) et le microcontrôleur lit en continu le circuit et l'affichage.

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

SOCIAL REASON SALE OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND ELECTRICAL

DATE OF CREATION 2008

ACTIVITY SALE OF ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND ELECTRICAL

GENERAL DIRECTOR MR HONORE

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

HND HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLO MA

LCD LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

ADC ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

MINESUP CAMEROON MINISTRY OF HIGHER

MINEDUC MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

H-ELECT SARL is located at New Deido opposite CERAD near COCIMECAM

-The sale of electrical materials

The functions of personels are presented as follows:

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

II.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE FACTORY

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Table 3 : activities.

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

Fig4. Minimum EPP.

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SECTION I : A LITTLE HISTORY

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In addition to alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) power supplies, DC to DC

SECTION II: AC-DC CONVERSION BASICS

Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7 illustrate the general transformation from AC to DC.

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

Figure 6: Full Wave Rectified

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SECTION IV: POWER SUPPLY COMPARISONS

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

WRITTEN AND PRESENTED BY NJIA ETIENNE SUNDAY

The DC voltage output is dependent on an internal voltage reduction transformer and

Figure 8: Block Diagram — Unregulated Linear Supply