Chapter I: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY

Is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.

 Human anatomy deals with body structures like heart, muscles and the brain and the relationships
between these body structures.

 The word anatomy comes from the Greek word “ANATOMIA” where “ANA” means to separate or
apart from and “TEMNEIN” meaning to cut up or to cut open.

 It is also rooted in another Greek word “ANATOME” meaning apart for “ANA” and to cut for “TOME”.

PHYSIOLOGY (Human Physiology)

 Is concerned with the functions of the body parts. Generally, functions is determined by the
structures.

 This means that it is equally important for any anatomy and physiology students to have fair
knowledge of the different body structures that comprise the human body in order to fully
comprehend or understand how the human body functions as a whole.

Divisions of Anatomy and Physiology

Gross Anatomy – Is the study of structures observed with the naked eye, without using any instruments or
gadgets to aid in observation.

Microscopic Anatomy – is the study of structures observed with the aid of microscope or other similar devices
and/or equipments that aids to magnify very small things which the naked eyes may not see.

Cytology – is the study of cell and the different cellular organelles inside a single cell.

Histology – is the study of tissues that make up the different organs of the human body.

Developmental Anatomy – is the study of structural changes from conception in the mother’s womb to birth.

Pathological Anatomy– is the study of structural changes caused by diseases and other illness states.

Cellular Physiology – Is the study of interactions or relationships of cell parts and components and the specific
function of the cellular organelles and the cell in general.

Developmental Physiology – Is the study of the changes in function that occurs an organism develops. Ex. Of
this will be our ability to walk, run and jump.

Pathological Physiology – Is the study of the changes in function that happen as organs grow old or become
sick or ill. Observe when we get a fever, our body tends to function a little bit different than normal. We feel
hotter than usual and we breathe a lot faster. This changes happen because there is a disease process going on
inside our body.

As student of health care profession it is equally important to study anatomy and physiology because all other
interventional courses will be anchored to the fundamental understanding of how a normal human body
works and interacts with its environment, both internal and external.

STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

Human beings are arguably the most complex organisms on this planet. Imagine a billions of microscopic parts,
each with its own identity, working together in an organized manner for the benefit of the total being. To
better appreciate man in its place in the world we know, let us review the biological concept of taxonomy
wherein we can readily see that H. Sapiens is the only existing hominid, making us man, very unique in our
world.
Taxonomy – is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and
giving names to those groups. Organisms are grouped together into taxa (singular: taxon) and given
a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super group of higher rank and thus
create a taxonomic hierarchy.

Hominid – any of a family (Hominidae) of erect bipedal primate mammals that includes recent humans
together with extinct ancestral and related forms and in some recent classifications the gorilla, chimpanzee,
and orangutan.

1. Kingdom Animalia – which includes all living things with cells having a visible nucleus but lacking
walls, plastids and pigments for photosynthesis.

2. Phylum Chordata – includes all notochord or animals with dorsal hollow nerve cord and pharyngeal
pouches.

3. Subphylum Vertebrata – includes all animals with cartilaginous or bony endoskeleton and a vertebral
column.

4. Class Mammalia – includes animals with hair, mammary glands, three auditory assicles, attached
placenta and a muscular diapgragm.

5. Order Primates – includes all animals with prehensile hands with digits or fingers modified for
grasping or holding and with large brains.

6. Family Hominidae, Genus Homo, and Species Sapien – include all living organism with large and well-
developed cerebrum,flattened face, bipedal posture and movement, well-developed vocal structures
and opposable thumb.

Understanding further man will involve a closer look at how man is organized as a whole, as much as man is
organized within the animal kingdom. The chemical and cellular levels of organization are fundamentally the
basic anatomic and physiologic level.

The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical composition.
This level of organization involves the unique interactions among atom and how they combine to form
molecules. The individual cells in our body are basically composed of atoms like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen
sulphur and others. Combining these atoms to form molecules and compounds will help to build body
structures that will again form a larger structure.
Cells have long been recognized as the simplest units of living matter that can maintain life and reproduce
themselves. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly fertilized cell.

A tissue is a collection of similar cells bound by supporting matrix that performs a specific function. Similar
cells are uniformly spaced and bound together as tissue by non-living matrix, which the cell secretes.

• Epithelial Tissues – covers body and organ surfaces, lines body cavities and lumina (hollow portion of
body tubes), forms various glands and are involved with protection, absorption, excretion and
secretion.

• Connective Tissues – binds, support and protect body parts.

• Muscle Tissues – contract to produce movement of body parts and allow locomotion.

• Nervous Tissues – initiate and transmit nerve impulses that coordinate body activities.

An organ is composed of several tissue types that are integrated to perform a particular function. Example of
vital organs are the heart that pump blood, the kidney that filters blood, the liver that process food and break
down worn blood cells, etc.

A system is an organization of two or more organs and its associated structures working as a whole to perform
a common function or a set of function.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Is the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as loss of water or abrasion
from outside. The system comprises the skin and its appendage. The integumentary system has a variety of
functions; it may serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, and
regulate temperature, and is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and
temperature. In most terrestrial vertebrates with significant exposure to sunlight, the integumentary system
also provides for vitamin D synthesis.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of 270 bones at birth – this total
decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. The human skeleton serves six
major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of ions and endocrine
regulation.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits

movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system
in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle)
can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which
is responsible for movement of the human body.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into

the circulatory system to be carried towards a distant target organ. The major endocrine glands include
the pinea gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus,
gastrointestinal tract and adrenal glands. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which
secretes its hormones using ducts. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous
system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system (or ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of

specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is
involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ system that

permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the body to nourish it and help to fight diseases,
stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain homeostasis.

URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of the two kidneys, ureters,
the bladder, and the urethra. Each kidney consists of millions of functional units called nephrons. The purpose
of the renal system is to eliminate wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and pressure, control levels of
electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller components that can be more easily
absorbed and assimilated by the body. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through
the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two
processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical
digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently
be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules
the body can use.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within

an organism which work together for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as
fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system.

 Man, “Homo Sapiens” to the scientific community, is a biological organism that has qualities or
characteristics common or shared by all living animals.

 Man is essentially an animal. We breath, we eat and digest food, excrete body wastes, move,
reproduce our own kind in our own likeness as do other animals like.

 Man is composed of organic materials such that man decomposes in death as other animals like.

 Different processes by which our bodies produce, store and utilize energy are similar to those used by
living organisms.

 The genetic code that regulates or controls our development is found throughout mother nature.

 The basic and fundamental patterns of development seen in many animals are also observed in the
formation and development of human embryo.

ORGANIZATION

At all level of organization scheme there is a division of labor. Each component has its own job to
perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it loses its integrity or organization will die.

METABOLISM

Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body. One phase
of metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are broken down into simpler building blocks and
energy is released.

RESPONSIVENESS

Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or external

environment and reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing the stimulus and responding to it.

MOVEMENT

There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level, molecules move from one
place to another. The diaphragm moves with every breath. The ability of muscle fiber to shorten and thus to
produce movement is called contractillity.

REPRODUCTION

For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person (organism). In this way, life is
transmitted from one generation to the next through reproduction of the organism. Reproduction is essential
to the survival of human race.
GROWTH

Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through an
increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at a
faster rate than catabolic processes.

DEVELOPMENT

Development or differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells change into

specialize cells with distinctive structural and functional characteristics. Through differentiation, cells develop
into tissues and organs.

RESPIRATION

Respiration refers to all processes involve in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
cells and the external environment. It includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the
transport of gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cells utilization of oxygen and release of
carbon dioxide in its metabolism.

DIGESTION

Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested food into simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood and utilized by the body.

EXCRETION

Is the process that removes the waste product of digestion and metabolism from the body. It gets rid
of by-product that the body is unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life.

Remember:

However, the ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the
individual. In addition to these processes, life depends on certain physical factors from the environment.

HOMEOSTASIS

• The body is constantly striving to maintain a dynamic, steady state of internal balance called
homeostasis.

• Every cell in the body is involved in maintaining homeostasis both on the cellular level and as part of
an organism.

• Homeostasis is the process by which a nearly stable internal environment is maintained in the body
so that cellular metabolic functions can go on at maximum efficiency.

• These are controlled by muscles or glands (effectors) which are regulated by sensory information
from the internal environment.

• Any changes or damage at the cellular level can affect the entire body. When an external stressor
disrupts homeostasis, illness may occur.

• Ex: Injury, lack of nutriens, invasion by parasites or other organism.

BRAIN STRUCTURES RESPONSIBLE IN MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS

1. MEDULLA OBLONGATA – is the part of the brain that is associated with vital life function like
respiration and circulation.

2. PITUITARY GLAND – regulates the function of other glands and thereby a persons growth, maturation
and reproduction.
 3. RETICULAR FORMATION – group of nerve cells or nuclei that form a large network of connected
tissues, it also controls vital reflexes like cardiovascular and respiration.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

 Homeostasis is maintained by self regulating feedback mechanism. These mechanism has three
distinct components (Seeley, 2005):

1. SENSORY MECHANISM – that senses disruptions in homeostasis.

2. CONTROL CENTER - that regulates the body’s response to disruption in homeostasis.

3. EFFECTOR MECHANISM – that acts to restore homeostasis.

Ex: An endocrine gland usually controls the sensor mechanism. A signal is sent to the control center (CNS)
which in turn initiates the effector mechanism.

There are two types of feedback mechanisms..

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

 A negative feedback mechanism works to restore homeostasis by correcting the deficit within the
system.

 Essentially all control systems of the body are regulated by negative feedback.

 Ex: If the blood glucose level is increase, the brain stimulates the pancreas to secret insulin so that
more cell will use the excess glucose in the blood. This in turn lowers the level of blood glucose to its
normal level. Once the glucose level reaches its normal level, the brain again instruct the pancreas to
stop secreting insulin.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

 Occurs when hormone secretions triggers additional hormone secretion which indicates a trend away
from homeostasis. This mechanism can be simplified by the dictum “A produces more of B which in
turn produces more of A”

 The positive feedback mechanism is far from positive. It takes the original response and exaggerates
it. It is said to be positive because the change that occurs proceeds in the same direction as the initial
disturbance, causing further deviation from homeostasis.

 A positive feedback mechanism is responsible in intensifying labor contraction during childbirth.

BODY PLANES AND TERMINOLOGY

ANATOMICAL POSITION

 To essentially and adequately describe a body part, the anatomical position provides a standard
reference framework for the body.

 A person is in the anatomical position when his body is erect, feet are parallel and flat on the floor,
eyes are looking in front and the arms are at the side of his body with the palms of his hands turned
forward and the fingers pointing downward.

 DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Descriptive and directional terms are often used to communicate position of structures, surfaces and
regions of the body with respect to the anatomical position. These includes the following.
 SUPERIOR- Means toward the top or toward the head. It is also called”CRANIAL/CEPHALO”. Ex: The
eyes are superior to the mouth.

INFERIOR- Means away from the head or towards the bottom. It is also called “CAUDAL”. Ex: The feet
is inferior to the thights.

ANTERIOR- Means towards the front. The other term is “VENTRAL”. Ex: The breast is on the anterior
side of the body.

POSTERIOR- Means towards the back. The other term is “DORSAL”. Ex: The kidneys are posterior to
the intestines.

MEDIAL- Means towards the midline of the body. Ex: The heart is medial to the lungs.

LATERAL- Means towards the side of the body. Ex: The ears are lateral to the head.

INTERNAL- Also known as “DEEP”, means away from the surface of the body. Ex: The lungs are
internal to the thoracic cage.

EXTERNAL- Also known as “SUPERFICIAL”, means towards the surface of the body. Ex: The skin is
external to the muscle.

PROXIMAL- Means towards the main mass of the body. Ex: The hip is proximal to the foot.

DISTAL- Means away from the main mass of the body. Ex: The foot is distal to the knee.
VICERAL- Relates to internal organs. Ex: The heart is covered by a thin membrane called the visceral
pericardium.

PARIETAL- Relates to the body walls. Ex: The parietal peritoneum is the inside lining of the abdominal cavity.

BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

The planes of reference are used to locate and describe structures within the human body. A set of three
planes (imaginary flat and dividing surfaces) passing through the body is frequently used to depict structural
arrangement

MIDSAGITTAL PLANE- Is the plane of symmetry of the body, dividing the body into right and left halves.

SAGITTAL PLANE- Also known as “PARASAGITTAL PALANE”. Runs parallel to the mid-sagittal plane and they
divide the body into unequal right and left portions.
CORONAL PLANE

Also known as “FRONTAL PLANE”. Divides the body into front and back portions. The coronal planes is also
called “HORIZONTAL PLANE” or “CROSS-SECTIONAL PLANE”

TRANSVERSE PLANE

The plane that divides the body into superior (upper) or inferior (lower) portions.

BODY REGIONS

The principal body regions are the head, neck trunk, upper extremities and lower extremities. The trunk or
torso is further divided into the thorax (upper portion) and the abdomen (lower portion).
BODY CAVITIES

 The different vital internal organs of the body are protected inside the body by a unique cavity called
body cavity. Body cavities are enclosed space in which organs are protected, separated and supported
by associated membranes.

 Body cavities function to separate organs and systems by function. Visceral organs or viscera are
those that are located within the anterior body cavity.

TWO MAJOR CAVITIES

 ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) CAVITY – is made up of the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities and
encloses body organ like the heart, lungs stomach, intestines, bladder and kidneys.

 POSTERIOR (DORSAL) CAVITY – includes the cranial and vertebral cavities which encloses the brain
and the spinal cord.

BODY CAVITIES

 THORACIC CAVITY – Contains the heart and the lungs.

– Pericardial Cavity – Contains the heart.

– Pleural Cavity – Houses the lungs.

 ABDOMINAL CAVITY – Contains the stomach, small and large intestines, spleen, liver and gallbladder.

 PELVIC CAVITY – House the bladder and organ of the reproductive system.

 CRANIAL CAVITY – Also known as the cranium (house of the brain).

 SPINAL CAVITY – Contains the spinal cord.

BODY MEMBRANES

 Covering the vital organs inside the body are thin sheets of tissue called body membranes.

 Body membranes are composed of thin layers of connective and epithelial tissues that serve to
protect, cover, lubricate, separate and support viceral organs or to line the different body cavities.

There are two major types of body membranes:

1. SEROUS MEMBRANES
2. MUCOUS MEMBRANES

MUCOUS MEMBRANES

 Secretes a thick and viscous fluid known as “mucus” to lubricate and protect the body organs where it
is secreted.

 The inside walls of all organs are lined with mucous membranes, its function is considered the first
line of defence in areas such as the nasal, oral, intestinal and uterine cavity.

SEROUS MEMBRANES

 Serous membranes lines the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavitiesand functions as a cover for visceral
organs.

 These membranes are made up of thin sheets of epithelial tissues which lubricates, supports and
compartmentalizes visceral organs and secrete what is termed serous fluid.

SEROUS MEMBRANES

 Two Sides:

o Visceral Serous Membrane – membrane touching or facing the visceral organ.

o Parietal Serous Membrane – membrane that touches or is facing the body cavity.

Viceral Pleura – adheres to the outer surface of the lungs.

Parietal Pleura – lines the thoracic walls and the surface of the diaphragm.

Viceral Pericardium – covers the outer surface of the heart.

Parietal Pericardium – functions as a strong covering sorrounding the heart.

Viceral Peritoneum- Located in the abdomino-pelvic cavity covers the organs of the abdomen like the
stomach and intestines.

Parietal Peritoneum- Lines the abdominal wall.

Mesenteries- Are double layered membranes that support the abdomino-pelvic viscera in a
pendentfashion so that the intestinal peristalsis will not be impeded, it also supports the blood vessels and
nerve that serve the viscera.