Chapter 2 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

The Chemical Basis of Life

Atomic number: the number of protons in each
atom
Basic Chemistry
Mass number: the number of protons and
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass
neutrons in each atom
(solid, liquid, or gas)
Mass: amount of matter in an object Chemical Bonds
Weight: gravitational force acting on object
Chemical bonds occur when outermost electrons
(valence shell electrons) are transferred or shared
Elements and Atoms
between atoms
Element
Types of chemical bonds
• simplest form of matter
• Ionic
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
Atom • Covalent
• smallest particle of an element • Hydrogen
• contains protons, electrons, and neutrons
Ion and Ionic Bonding
Planetary Models of Atomic Structure Ion: a charged atom formed because of a donation
or gain of an electron(s)
• Example: Na+
Ionic bonding occurs when there is an attraction
between two oppositely charged ions
• Example: NaCl
Ionic Bonding

Subatomic Particles
Proton: positive charged particle located inside the
nucleus
Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside
the nucleus
Electron: negative charged particle located outside
the nucleus
Model of an Atom

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one or
more pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule
Polar covalent bonds form when there is an
unequal sharing of electrons
• Example: water (H2O)
Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical
charge
Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical electrical The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the ionic
charge or covalent bonds
Hydrogen Bonds

Molecules and Compounds

Hydrogen Bonding Molecule
Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end and • 2 or more atoms chemically combine
a negative end
• Example: water (H2O)
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of
one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the Compound
negative end of another polar molecule
• chemical combination of 2 or more different
The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the ionic types of atoms
or covalent bonds
• Example: NaCl
Polar Covalent Bonds
Chemical Reactions
Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water, have
Chemical reactions occur when there is a Chemical
a positive end and a negative end
Reactions
formation or breaking of chemical bonds between
atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds.
Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
Products: substances that result from the reaction
A + B  C + D Reactants Product
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis reaction:
• build a new molecule
• energy-requiring

A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of • Example: ADP + P  ATP
one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the Decomposition reaction:
negative end of another polar molecule
• break down molecule
• energy-releasing ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate
group
• Example: ATP  ADP + P
ATP  ADP + P
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Rate of Chemical Reactions
The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is
influenced by several factors:
• concentration of the reactants
• temperature
• catalyst
Concentration of the reactants: within limits the
higher the concentration of reactants the faster the
rate
Temperature: within limits, the higher the
temperature the faster the rate
Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without
itself being permanently changed or depleted.
Acids and Bases
Acid: a proton H+ donor
• pH below 7
Exchange reaction: • Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Base: a proton H+ acceptor
• combination of synthesis and decomposition • pH above 7
reactions • Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
• Example: AB + CD  AC + BD pH Scale

• Example: HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O

Reversible reactions occur when the reaction can
run in the opposite direction, so that the products
are converted back to the original reactants.
CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation
equals the rate of reactant formation
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Work is the moving of matter.
Kinetic energy is energy in motion
Potential energy is stored energy

Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is a form of potential energy
stored in chemical bonds
Food molecules such as glucose contain potential
energy
An example of a reaction that releases energy is
the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to
 Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances
that do not contain carbon
Organic chemistry is the study of carboncontaining
substances
Exception: some carbon containing compounds are
not organic in that they do not also contain
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Organic Molecules
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other
atoms makes it possible the formation of large,
diverse, complicated molecules for life.
The four major groups of organic molecules
essential to living organisms are carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Characteristics of Lipids
 Contain C, H, O
 Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to
carbon than do carbohydrates
 Insoluble in water
 Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol,
triglycerides, phospholipids
Functions of Lipids
 Long term energy storage
 Insulates against heat loss
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
structure
Types of Lipids
Saturated:

Carbohydrates • single covalent bonds between carbon atoms

Characteristics of Carbohydrates • Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs

• Contain C, H, O Unsaturated:

• H:O is a 2:1 ratio • one or more double covalent bonds between

carbons
 Example: C6H12O6
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
Triglycerides
• Monosaccharide:
 simple sugar (1 sugar)
 Examples: glucose and fructose
Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
Polysaccharide:
Fatty Acids
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen
Carbohydrates3

Functions of Carbohydrates

 Short-term energy storage

 Converted to glucose quickly
 Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
 Brain cells require glucose
 Phospholipids
Characteristics of Proteins
 Contains C, H, O, N
 Amino acids are the building blocks
 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group
and carboxyl group
 Amino acids are not stored, so a daily
supply is required
Amino Acid Structure and Bonding
Linear Sequence of Amino Acids in a Protein
Protein Folding
Functions of Proteins
 Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
 Part of the hemoglobin molecule
 Act as enzymes
 Immune system functions
 Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
 Part of the cell membrane
Protein Denaturation
Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen
bonds that maintain shape of a protein are broken
and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
Factors that can cause denaturation are: high
temperatures and/or improper pH
Enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the
rate at which biochemical reactions proceed
without the enzyme being permanently changed.
Enzymes work by lowering the energy of
activation.
Activation Energy and Enzymes
Enzyme Action
 Nucleic Acids

 Composed of C, H, O, N, P
 Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 Nucleotides are the building blocks
 Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar

Structure of DNA

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is an especially important organic molecule found in all living organisms.
It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with the organic base adenine) and three phosphate groups.
ATP is often called the energy currency of cells because it is capable of both storing and providing energy.
Structure of ATP