2.

How and to what extent were Ming/Qing China and Tokugawa Japan prepared for a
capitalistic breakthrough and why eventually only western Europe took the lead in that
breakthrough.
Capitalism is an economic system based on concept of Free market where those things that make
money like land, factories, transportation, shipping, industries, are owned by private business and
cooperation. To some extent there were seeds of capitalism in Ming/Qing dynasty of China and
Tokugawa dynasty of Japan but those minute development did not match the level of development
of Capitalism from western European countries. The reasons for these disparities were differences
between China, Japan and western Europe in terms of control of firms by state, political and social
prejudices, taxes, technological gap...etc. The transatlantic slave trade helped European countries in
accumulation of wealth that ultimately boosted capitalism in most of the European countries.
In Chinese and Japanese dynasties, the industrialists were not given independence in the field of
market as it was given in western European nations. Most of the trade and firms were under the
control of State. Also, cultural prejudices of promoting agriculture played a major role in these
steady development of capitalism in China and Japan because state preferred agriculture over
manufacturing and trade and that was the reason, they increased taxes on trade and Industries and
decreased taxes on agriculture
ace the pace of Capitalism. Whereas in western Europe the case was totally different, there the
bourgeois were given freedom in the industrial, financial and trade field which worked as a catalyst
in development of capitalism in Europe.
Due to abundance of labour power in China, there was no need for inventing a lot of mechanised
means of production. State was against the overseas trade which brutally broken the development
of capitalism. Europe was more politically fragmented than China and Japan which made
administration easier to help in the development of Capitalism in Europe. As China discouraged
Overseas voyages, it didn't capitalise on booming possibility of sea commerce. Also, Japan and China
was not paying enough money to workers, they were not paid as much like western European
nations which was one the major reason for discouragement among the workers, which ultimately
hampered the fast growth of Capitalism in China and Japan during Qing/Ming and Tokugawa
dynasty.
Belief in cosmic unity did not prevent the Chinese from devising technologies to master nature's
operations in this world. For example, the magnetic compass, gunpowder and the printing press
were all Chinese inventions. Moreover, Chinese technicians had mastered iron casting and produced
mechanical clocks centuries before European did. This helped in increasing trade and commerce and
ultimately Capitalism But it's contribution to both practical and pure science didn't match the level
of Europe during Qing Dynasty. In early 17th century, the advanced European clock introduced by
Jesuit Matteo Ricci was found more reliable than Chinese clock. So, the modern technological
advancements helped Europe to gain momentum in Capitalism.
Peace and prosperity for a long a long period of time under Tokugawa shogunate increased dramatic
rise in commerce, manufacturing and trade in the cities like Edo, Kyoto and Osaka. Technological
advances in agriculture, an expansion of arable land and voracious appetites of the Aristocrats for
new product increased living standard and also contributed to the growth of trade and industry.
Major cities and castle towns sae commercial expansion where the merchants and artisans lived
alone with Samurai, who were clustered in neighbourhood surrounding the daimyo's castle.
Flourishment of banking, use of paper money as medium of exchange and formation of guild were
among some of the economical development which helped Japanese merchant class getting out of
shadow to play a significant role in Japanese nation. Tokugawa era was also described as first stage
in the rise of indigenous form of Capitalism by some historians. Not everyone benefited from the
changes that were seen in Japan during 17th and 18th centuries. The Samurai community barred by
traditions and prejudice from commercial activities were still relied on their revenue from rice lands,
which were obviously insufficient to cover inflating prices during that time which made them to fall
into the trap of debt.

Qing dynasty increased relationship with Korea, Vietnam, Burma, Nepal and its territorial expansion
reached far into central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia. The increasing relationship with these countries
helped dynasty to flourish trade and commerce and redouble the agrarian base. Chinese merchant
continued trade with Japan in exchanging textile, ceramics and medicine for spices and rice. Getting
together some of the traders formed guild which helped in smooth trading finally contributing to
Capitalism. Though Chinese rulers regulated external trade, Europe still needed China more than the
other way around. For the majority of Chinese, no superior model of belief, politics or economics
was conceivable. After Qing had taken over a crumbling empire in 1644, a century later China was
enjoying a new level of prosperity due to seeding Capitalism.
Japanese were mostly culturally non diverse nation which didn't allow any other Foreigners to
mingle with them that's why the government suppressed Christianity and made European
missionaries to run out of country. Even more problematic was the lure of trade with European.
Tokugawa dynasty thought that trading at various Japanese port would pull the commercial region in
various directions away from the Capital. When they came to know about European trader using
Kyushu port, the shogunate stopped them to use that port. However, it didn't totally alienated Japan
from the rest of the world. They increased trade with South east Asian Countries like Korea, China,
Vietnam...etc. and these connections helped in Flourishment of trade and commerce which helped
in Capitalism in Japan.

The factors that lead European in the breakthrough of capitalism are:

Exploitation for profit- Europeans literally exploited a lot of people in this plant to gain money and
power. Slavery was one of the most oppressed behaviour of Colonisers Countries towards their
Colony and the major victims of this were mostly African and Americans. Another was using the
colonies lands in their own way and exploiting the local Peoples.

Technological advancement:- The technical development was one of the major reason for faster
development of Capitalism in European countries. For example, European timepieces become a
popular novelty at court. The emperor was fascinated and found the European clock more reliable
than Chinese Clock.

From the above discussion it is clear that even though Ming/Qing China and Tokugawa Japan
prepared for capitalistic breakthrough but eventually Western Europe took the lead in the
breakthrough. The transformation from feudalism to Capitalism was an evolutionary process which
took several centuries. Several factors were included in development of Capitalism in Ming/Qing and
Tokugawa, in faster development of Capitalism in Europe, Difference in pace of development of
Capitalism between Europe Japan and China. Cultural prejudices and old notions kept the China and
Japan very far away in Capitalism from Europe. Slavery, Technological advances, Colony, Export,
import, Places helped western Europe in leading the Capitalism.