Understand and explain the important contributions of the following German scientists to our

understanding of the cell: the botanist, Matthias Schleiden (1838) and zoologist, Theodor Schwann (1839);
the scientist and professor of pathology, Rudolf Virchow (1855); the biologist, Hooke (1665) and Van
Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723) (p59-60)
 Robert Hooke
o 1st person to observe cells
o Name shape of cork cellulae as ‘small room’

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

o 1st person to observe living cells with small lenses  term animalcules or little animals

 Mathias Schleiden
o State plants are aggregates of individualised independent beings i.e. cells
o Propose cell theory
 Theodor Schwann
o State animal tissues consist of individual cells
o Cell
 Unit of structure, physiology and organisation
 Retain dual existence
 Distinct entity
 A building block in construction of organisms
 Formed by free-cell formation
o Propose cell theory
 Rudolf Virchow
o Cells only come from other cells
Discuss the three basic tenets of the cell theory by explaining and applying the concept
1. All organisms composed of ≥ 1 cell
a. Metabolism and heredity occur in cells
2. Cells are smallest living things
a. Basic units of organisation of organisms
3. Cells come from other cells by division
 No additional cells originate spontaneously
o All cells derived from cell division

Explain what is meant by homeostasis by discussing this concept with regards to the cell and outside
environment (class notes).
 Homeostasis
o Dynamic process
o Maintain relatively constant and stable internal environment of cell
 Regardless of changes in external environment
 e.g. body temperature, pH, water potential, blood glucose level
 By self-regulating mechanisms of organs and specific functions carried by particular
organelles
 Presence of plasma membrane
o Allow for exchange of material with external environment to function properly  homeostasis

Explain the terms magnification and resolution by applying the knowledge to the different types of
microscopes (p61-62).
 Magnification
o How much larger object appear compared to real size
 Resolution
o 2 points apart at minimum distance distinguished as separate points
List the differences between the optical (light) and the electron microscope (p61-62 and class notes).
 Light microscope
o Use light
o Lower resolution and magnification
o Colour 2-D image due to stain or actual colour
o Simple preparation on specimen e.g. stain
o Watch living process
o Smaller in size + lighter in weight

 Electron microscope
o Use beams of electron  unable to view living specimen under vacuum in tube
 Prevent electrons from being absorbed by air molecules
o Much higher resolution and magnification
o Black and white image
 False-colour applied by using corrosive chemicals  lead to artefacts in image

o Transmission electron microscope

 2-D image of ultrastructure (inside)
 Electron beam passes through sample
 Higher magnification (50M times)

o Scanning electron microscope

 3-D image shows external surface of sample
  Electron beams over surface of sample
 Lower magnification (2M times)

Describe the process of cell fractionation and discuss its application in relation to the study of cells (class
notes).
 Process of cell fractionation
1. Break individual cells into pieces through homogenisation
2. Cell extracts in homogenate spin under differential centrifugation
a. Separate different cell components based on size and density
3. Lighter components in supernatant
a. Poured into next tube in each progressive centrifugation
b. Final supernatant = organelle-free cytoplasm
4. Heavier components in pellet
a. Remained in each tube and examined
 Application
o Purify cell components
o Study with physical and biochemical methods and determine functions of organelles
 Weight order from heaviest
o Nuclei, cellular debris
o Mitochondria, chloroplast
o Plasma membrane, internal membrane e.g. Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body
o Ribosomes
Explain why most cells are so small by demonstrating the application of the surface to volume ratio and
relating this to homeostasis (fig 4.1).
  cell size   volume +  surface area due to r2 : r3
o  surface area : volume ratio
o  synthesis of macromolecules and waste products
o  energy and nutrient requirement to meet metabolic needs of cell
  material exchange between internal and external environment through plasma membrane
o Due to  diffusion distance and length of diffusion time
Prokaryotic cell
 Domains
o Bacteria
o Archaea
 Feature
o No or very few membrane-bound organelles
 Absence of mitochondria, chloroplasts
o Presence of 70s (small) ribosomes
o Presence of mesosome for aerobic respiration
o Small in size
 Cell wall
o Bacteria
 Composed of peptidoglycan and carbohydrate matrix cross-linked by short polypeptide
units
o Protect cell from external environment
o Maintain cell shape
 Prevent cell from bursting under increased internal pressure

 Plasma membrane
 o Selective barrier
 Control substance movement into and out of cell
 By passive transport e.g. diffusion, osmosis
 By active transport
o Integral and peripheral proteins present

 Cytoplasm
o Contains enzymes for catalysis of chemical reactions
 Pili (singular: pilus)
o Help bacterial cells adhere to each other for exchange of genetic materials
o Absent in eukaryotic cells

 Flagella (singular: flagellum)

o Made of protein fibre extending out from cell
o Help cell movement by using motor protein
 Spin flagella like screws
 Rotary motor uses energy stored in gradient that transfers protons across plasma
membrane to power movement of flagellum
o Present in some eukaryotic cells e.g. sperm

 Ribosome
o Site of protein synthesis by translating mRNA
 Prokaryotic DNA
 o Naked in nucleoid
 Visible as dense central region segregated from cytoplasm
 No nuclear envelope or nucleus
 Absent in eukaryotic cells
o Plasmid (loop of DNA) in cytoplasm

 Capsule
o Protective layer made of polysaccharides
o Help adhere to surface supporting cell growth
o Retain moisture of cells
o Present in some bacterial cells

Eukaryotic cell
 DNA
o Associated with histones in chromosome
o Present in nucleus with nuclear envelope i.e. double bilayer phospholipid membrane
o Nucleosomes present
 Membrane-bound organelles present
o Mitochondria
 80s (big) ribosomes
o Bound to rough endoplasmic reticulum
  Relatively larger in size
 Plant cell wall
o Composed of cellulose

Cytosol
 Jellylike fluid within cell membrane
o Contains water, soluble, small and large molecules, protein, ions
o Exclude organelles
 Responsible for all chemical reactions in prokaryotes
o Dissolved molecules concentrated to an area for effective metabolism

Cytoplasm
 Contain cell components between cell membrane and nucleus
o E.g. organelles, cytosol, nucleic acid, enzymes, amino acid, inorganic ions
 Freeze organelles in place for effective metabolism
 Semifluid matrix due to high amount of macromolecules e.g. protein, lipid