STE

Applied Chemistry
Laws of Matter and
the Atomic Theory

STEM

STE

SSES

Learning Toolkit No. 1

The ASTRAL Project
Appropriate Science and Technology Resources for the Advanced Learners

Special Curricular Program in Science

DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL

Department of Education
DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
Special Science Learning Toolkit No. 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Special Program in Science, Technology and Engineering

Special Science Learning Toolkit 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY
Quarter 1: Laws of Matter and the Atomic Theory
First Edition, August 2020

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Special Science Learning Toolkit No. 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Learning Competency:
Discuss how the basic laws of matter led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic
Theory.

What I Need to Know

Look closely at almost any sample of matter - a rock, a piece of wood, a
butterfly wing and you’ll see that it’s made of smaller parts. With a microscope,
you would further see the smaller parts. And, if you could zoom in a billion times
closer, you’d find on the atomic scale, the ultimate particles that make up all
things.

This toolkit will guide you to know the different laws of chemical changes
which led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic theory and also, it will discuss
the basic assumptions of Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and Schrodinger’s
theory. It explains that science of chemistry is based on the concept of atoms
and molecules. Knowledge of the atoms and molecules in the environment and
in biological systems has provided an understanding of the changes occurring
in them. It has also allowed the prediction of their behavior and the solution to
any problem observed in their behavior.

After going through this learning toolkit, you are expected to:
1. explain the basic laws of matter (Law of Conservation of Mass, Law
of Constant Composition, Law of Multiple Proportion); and
2. discuss the atomic theories of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford and
Bohr.

What is It
Modern scientists are not the first to try to explain what things are made
of. The philosophers of ancient Greece believed that everything was made of
one or, at most, a few elemental substances (elements), whose properties gave
rise to the properties of everything. But, Democritus (460 - 370 BC), the father
of atomism, took a different approach. He reasoned that if you cut a piece of,
say, aluminum foil smaller and smaller, you reach a particle of aluminum too
small to cut, so matter must be ultimately composed of indivisible particles with
nothing but empty space between them. He called the particles atoms (Greek
atomos, “uncuttable”). But, Aristotle (384 - 322 BC), one of the greatest
philosophers of Western Culture, said it was impossible for “nothing” to exist,
and the concept of atoms was suppressed for 2000 years.

Finally, in the 17th century, the English scientist Robert Boyle argued
that, by definition, an element is composed of “simple Bodies, not made by any
other bodies, of which all mixed Bodies are compounded, and into which they

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
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APPLIED CHEMISTRY
are ultimately resolved,” a description remarkably close to our idea of an
element, with atoms being the “simple Bodies.” The next two centuries saw
rapid progress in chemistry and the development of a “billiard - ball” image of
the atom. Then, an early 20th century burst of creativity led to our current model
of an atom with a complex internal structure. In this module, we are trying to
understand the basic laws of chemical combination which led to the formulation
of Dalton’s Atomic Theory and examine the properties and composition of
matter on the macroscopic and atomic level.

Laws of Chemical Combination

Any model of the composition of matter had to explain two widespread
observations known as the Law of Mass Conservation and the Law of
Definite (or Constant) Composition. As you’ll see, an atomic theory
developed in the early 19th century explained the mass laws and another now
known as the Law of Multiple Proportion.

I. Law of Conservation of Mass

The most fundamental chemical observation of the 18 th century was
the Law of Mass Conservation or Law of Conservation of Mass which
states that the total mass of substances does not change during a chemical
reaction. The number of substances may change and, by definition, their
properties must, but the total amount of matter remains constant. The great
French chemist and statesman Antoine Lavoisier first stated this law on the
basis of experiments in which he reacted mercury with oxygen. He found out
that the mass of oxygen plus the mass of mercury are always equal to the
mass of mercuric oxide which is the product of the reaction.

Even in a complex biochemical change, such as the metabolism of the

sugar glucose, which involves many reactions, mass is conserved:

180 g glucose + 192 g oxygen gas 264 g carbon dioxide + 108 g water
372 g material before 372 g material after

masses of the reactants = masses of the products

before the reaction after the reaction

In the chemical reaction of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) to form

water (H2O):
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O Note:
(2)(2)(1) + 2(16) (2)(2)(1) + (2)(16) Atomic mass of the
following elements:
4 g + 32 g 4 g + 32 g H=1g O = 16 g
36 g = 36 g

masses of hydrogen and oxygen equals the mass of water.

Note: Mass conservation means that, matter cannot be created or destroyed.

(mass does change in nuclear reactions but not in chemical reactions)

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Albert Einstein, a Nobel laureate physicist and one of the most creative
intellects in human history, recognized the quantitative interconversion of
mass and energy in reactions, as shown by his famous equation: E = mc2 .

The interconvertibility of mass and energy holds true in energetic

processes like radioactivity and atomic explosions. Strictly speaking, the
interconversion of energy and mass cannot possibly allow a constancy of
one or the other. However, the amount of energy and the mass change are
too small to be detected in the laboratory. Therefore, we can still count on
the law of conservation of mass for practical purposes.

II. Law of Definite Composition

The sodium chloride in your salt shaker
is the same substance whether it comes from
a salt mine, a salt flat, or any other source.
This fact is expressed in the Law of Definite
(or Constant) Composition, which states
that no matter what its source, a particular
compound is composed of the same
elements in the same parts (fractions) by https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of+
salt&hl=en&sxsrf=ALeKk03ImoxOuMBIxuMlsF
mass. Fig. 1. Different sources of salt

The fraction by mass (mass fraction) is the part of the compound’s

mass that each element contributes. It is obtained by dividing the mass of
each element by the mass of the compound.

The percent by mass (mass percent, mass%) is the fraction by mass

expressed as percentage (multiplied by 100).

Consider calcium carbonate, the major compound in seashells,

marble, and coral. It is composed of three elements - calcium, carbon, and
oxygen. The following results are obtained from a mass analysis of 20 g of
calcium carbonate:

Analysis by Mass Fraction Percent by

mass(g) - 20 g (parts/1.00 part) (parts/100 parts)
8 g calcium 0.40 calcium 40% calcium
2.4 g carbon 0.12 carbon 12% carbon
9.6 g oxygen 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen
20 g 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass

The mass of each element depends on the mass of the sample - that
is, more than 20 g of compound would contain more than 8 g of calcium - but
the mass fraction is fixed no matter what the size of the sample. The
sum of the mass fractions (or mass percentages) equals 1.00 part (or
100%) by mass.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

The law of definite composition tells us that pure samples of calcium

carbonate, no matter where they come from, always contain 40% calcium,
12% carbon, and 48% oxygen by mass.

Because a given element always constitutes the same mass fraction

of a given compound, we can use the mass fraction to find the actual mass
of the element in any sample of the compound.

Equation:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒙
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔

Sample Problem:
Pitchblende is the most important compound of uranium. Mass
analysis of an 84.2 g sample shows that it contains 71.4 g of uranium, with
oxygen the only other element. How many grams of uranium are in 102 kg
of pitchblende?

1st step: Determine the given data

mass of the compound in sample = 102 kg
mass of element in compound = 71.4 kg
mass of compound = 84.2 kg

2nd step: Determine the formula

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒙
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔

3rd step: Supply the given data to the formula

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒙
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝟕𝟏. 𝟒 𝒌𝒈
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒌𝒈 𝒙
𝟖𝟒. 𝟐 𝒌𝒈

= 86.5 kg

Converting the mass of uranium from kg to g:

1000 𝑔
86.5 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 1 𝑘𝑔 = 86, 500 g

Another example to illustrate the Law of Definite Composition:

Table 1: Law of Definite Composition

Trial Mass of C (g) Mass of O2 (g) Mass of CO2 (g)
1 2.00 5.34 7.34
2 15.00 40.05 55.05
3 5.00 13.36 18.36
These are the mass data for the amounts of C, O2, and CO2 in the
reaction: C + O2 CO2 .

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Finding the percentages of carbon and oxygen:

Equation:
mass of element x 100%
% element = mass of compound
Using the formula:
1st Trial 2nd Trial 3rd Trial
2.00 g 15.00 g 5.00 g
%C = x 100% %C = x 100% %C = x 100%
7.34 g 55.05 g 18.36 g
= 27.2 % = 27.2 % = 27.2 %
40.05 g 13.36 g
%O = 5.34 g x 100% %O = x 100% %O = x 100%
7.34 g 55.05 g 18.36 g
= 72.8% = 72.8 % = 72.8 %

These shows that the percentage of carbon in CO2 which is 27.2% and
the percentage of oxygen in CO2 which is 72.8% are definite. Regardless of
the mass, mass fraction and mass percent are constant.

The experimental data in Table 1 also verify and confirm the law of
conservation of mass since the sum of the masses of the reactants equals
the mass of the product.

III. Law of Multiple Proportions

Dalton and others made an observation that applies when two
elements form more than one compound, now called the law of multiple
proportions: if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different
masses of B that combined with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a
ratio of small whole numbers.

Consider two compounds, let’s call them I and II, in the form of carbon
and oxygen. These compounds have very different properties: the density of
carbon oxide 1 is 1.25 g/L, whereas that of II is 1.98 g/L: 1 is poisonous and
flammable, II is not. Mass analysis shows that:
Carbon oxide I is 57.1 mass % oxygen and 42.9 mass % carbon
Carbon oxide II is 72.7 mass % oxygen and 27.3 mass % carbon

To see the phenomenon of multiple proportions, we use the mass

percent of oxygen and carbon to find their masses in a given mass, say 100
g, of each compound. Then we divide the mass of oxygen by the mass of
carbon in each compound to obtain the mass of oxygen that combines with
a fixed mass of carbon.
Carbon oxide I Carbon oxide II
g oxygen/100g compound 57.1 72.7
g carbon/100g compound 42.9 27.3

divide mass of oxygen by 57.1 72.7

= 1.33 = 2.66
mass of carbon 42.9 27.3

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

If we then divide the grams of oxygen per gram of carbon in II by that

in 1, we obtain a ratio of small whole numbers:

Carbon oxide II 2.66 2

= = 1
Carbon oxide I 1.33

The law of multiple proportions tells us that in two compounds of the

same elements, the mass fraction of one element relative to the other
element changes in increments based on ratios of small whole numbers. In
this case, the ratio is 2:1, for a given mass of carbon, compound II contains
2 times as much oxygen as 1, not 1.583 times, 1.716 times, or any other
intermediate amount.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

With over 200 years of hindsight, it’s easy to see how the mass laws
could be explained by an atomic model - matter existing in indestructible units,
each with a particular mass - but it was a major breakthrough in 1808 when
John Dalton (1766 - 1844) presented his atomic theory of matter in A New
System of Chemical Philosophy.

Atomic model of John Dalton comes in many names; solid sphere

model, billiard ball model, and bowling ball model. See fig. 2 for Dalton’s
atomic model. The idea of an atom began to be of operational significance. He
showed that this could explain the existing laws of chemical combination. He
chose the word atom to express the idea of indivisibility. He pictured an atom
as a tiny indestructible sphere with mass.

Fig. 2. Dalton’s Atomic Model

Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton expressed his theory in a series of postulates. Like most great
thinkers, he integrated the ideas of others into his own. As we go through the
postulates, presented here in modern terms, we’ll note which were original and
which came from others.
1. All matter consists of atoms, tiny indestructible particles of an element
that cannot be created nor destroyed.
▪ This is derived from the “eternal, indestructible atoms” proposed
by Democritus more than 2000 years earlier and reflects mass
conservation as stated by Lavoisier.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another

element. In chemical reactions, the atoms of the original substances
recombine to form different substances.
▪ This rejects the belief in the magical transmutation of elements
that was widely held into the 17th century.

3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are
different from atoms of any other element.
▪ This contains Dalton’s major new ideas: unique mass and
properties for atoms of a given element.

4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of

atoms of different elements.
▪ This follows directly the Law of Definite Composition.

How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws?

Let’s see how Dalton’s postulates explain the mass laws:

I. Mass Conservation. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (Postulate 1)

or converted into other types of atoms (Postulate 2). Therefore, a
chemical reaction, in which atoms are combined differently, cannot
possibly result in a mass change.

II. Definite Composition. A compound is a combination of a specific ratio of

different atoms (Postulate 4), each of which has a particular mass
(Postulate 3). Thus, each element in a compound constitutes a fixed
fraction of the total mass.

III. Multiple Proportions. Atoms of an element have the same mass

(Postulate 3) and are indivisible (Postulate 1). The mass of element B
and the fixed mass of element A will give a small, whole - number ratio
because different numbers of B atoms combine with each A atom in
different compounds.

The simplest arrangement consistent with the mass data for

carbon oxides 1 and II in our earlier example is that one atom of oxygen
combines with one atom of carbon in compound 1 (carbon monoxide)
and that two atoms of oxygen combine with one atom of carbon in
compound II (carbon dioxide): see figure 2.1 for carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide.

Taken from General Chemistry 1 and 2 by Siberberg

Fig. 2.1. one atom of oxygen combines with one atom of carbon in compound I (Carbon
monoxide), and two atoms of oxygen combine with one atom of carbon in compound II
(Carbon dioxide).

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

In previous Grade Level (Grade 8), you have learned about the concept
of atomic theory, specifically the concept of Thomson and Rutherford. Let’s us
revisit/ study again the concept.

The Observations that led to the Nuclear Atom Model

Dalton’s model established that masses of reacting elements could be
explained in terms of atoms but not why atoms bond as they do: why, for
example, do two, and not three, hydrogen atoms bond with one oxygen atom
in a water molecule?

Moreover, Dalton’s model of the atom, which represented it as a tiny,

indivisible particle, like a minute billiard ball, did not predict the existence of
subatomic charged particles. These were observed in later experiments that
led to the discovery of electrons and the atomic nucleus. Let’s examine some
of these experiments and the more complex atomic model that emerged from
them.

Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties

For many years, scientist had known that
matter and electric charge are related. When +
https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of

amber is rubbed with fur, or glass with silk,

positive and negative charges form, the same
charges that make your hair crackle and cling to
your comb on a dry day. They also knew that an
electric current could decompose certain
compounds into their elements. But they did not
know what a current was made of.

Cathode Rays
To discover the nature of an electric current, some investigators tried
passing current through nearly evacuated glass tubes fitted with metal
electrodes. When the electric power source was turned on, a “ray” could be
seen striking the phosphor coated end of the tube and emitting a glowing spot
of light. The rays were called cathode rays because they originated at the
negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the positive electrode (anode)

Figure 3 shows the properties of cathode rays based on these

observations. The main conclusion was that cathode rays consist of negatively
charged particles found in all matter. The rays appear when these particles
collide with the few remaining gas molecules in the evacuated tube. Cathode
ray particles were later named electrons.
Fig. 3. Observations about the properties of cathode rays

Observation Conclusion
Ray bends in magnetic Consists of charged
field particles
Ray bends toward
Consist of negative
positive plate in electric
particles
field
Ray is identical for any Particles found in all
cathode matter

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Mass and Charge of the Electron

Two classic experiments revealed the mass and charge of the electron.

1. Mass/charge ratio. In 1897, the British physicist J.J. Thomson (1856 -

1940) measured the ratio of the mass of a cathode ray particle to its
charge. By comparing this value with the mass/charge ratio for the
lightest charged particle in solution, Thomson estimated that the cathode
ray particle weighed less than 1/1000 as much as hydrogen, the lightest
atom! He was shocked because this implied that, contrary to the Dalton’s
atomic theory, atoms contain even smaller particles. Fellow scientist
reacted with disbelief to Thomson’s conclusion. Thinking he was joking.

2. Charge. In 1990, the American physicist Robert Millikan (1868 - 1953)

measured the charge of the electron. He did so by observing the
movement of oil droplets in an apparatus that contain electrically
charged plates and an x - ray source (Figure 1.3). X - rays knocked
electrons from gas molecules in the air within the apparatus, and the
electrons stuck to an oil droplet falling through a hole in a positively
charged plate. With the electric field off, Millikan measured the mass of
the droplet from its rate of fall. Then, by adjusting the field’s strength, he
made the droplet hang suspended in the air and, thus, measured its total
charge.

After many tries, Millikan found that the total charge of the various
droplets was always some whole number multiple of a minimum charge. If
different oil droplets picked up different numbers of electrons, he reasoned that
this minimum charge must be the charge of the electron itself. Remarkably, the
value that he calculated over a century ago is within 1% of the modern value of
the electron’s charge, which is - 1.602 x 10-19 C .

Conclusion: Calculating the electron’s mass.

The electron mass/charge ratio and the value for the electron’s charge
can be used to find the electron’s mass, which is extremely small:

mass x charge
mass of electron =
charge
= (- 5.686 x 10-12 kg/C)(-1.602 x 10-19 C)
= 9.109 x 10-31 kg or 9.109 x 10-28 g

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

The presence of electrons in all matter posed some major questions
about the structure of atoms. Matter is electrically neutral, so atoms must be
also. But if atoms contain negatively charged electrons, what positive charges
balanced them? And if an electron has such a tiny mass, what accounts for an
atom’s much larger mass? To address these issues, Thomson proposed his
atomic theory.

Thomson’s Atomic Theory

His atomic model is also known as Raisin Bread Model or Plum
Pudding Model. It is a spherical atom composed of diffuse, positively charged
matter with electrons embedded like “raisins in a plum pudding”. (Figure 4 for
the model.)

Thomson’s Atomic Model

negative charge positive charge

Fig. 4. Thomson’s Atomic Model

Alpha - Scattering Experiment

In 1910, New Zealand - born physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937)
tested Thomson’s model of an atom. He concluded that if his model was
correct, most of the alpha particles would pass through a thin gold foil with very
slight deflections because the positive charge of the atom was diffused. (Figure
5, 5.1 and 5.2)
1. Experimental design. Figure 5 shows the experimental setup, in which
tiny, dense, positively charged alpha (α) particles emitted from radium
are aimed at gold foil. A circular zinc sulfide screen registers the
deflection (scattering) of the α particles by emitting light flashes when
the particles strike it.

Educatingphysics.com

Fig. 5. Rutherford’s α - scattering experiment

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

2. Expected results. With Thomson’s model in mind (Figure 5.1),

Rutherford expected only minor, if any, deflections of the alpha particles
because they should act as bullets and go right through the gold atoms.
After all, an electron would not deflect an alpha particle any more than a
ping pong ball would deflect a baseball.

Blogs.unimelb.edu.au

Fig. 5.1. Thomson’s model with alpha scattering

3. Actual results. Initial results were consistent with this idea, but then the
unexpected happened (Figure 5.2). A few bounced back in the direction
from which they came. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15
inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.” In
fact, very few α particles were deflected at all, and only 1 in 20,000 had
a large - angle deflections of more than 90O (“coming backwards’).

Socratic.org
Fig. 5.2. Rutherford’s alpha scattering

4. Conclusion. Rutherford concluded that that these few α particles were

being repelled by something small, dense, and positive within the gold
atoms. Calculations based on the properties of α particles and the
fraction of large angle deflections showed that
• An atom is mostly space occupied by electrons.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY
• In the center is a tiny region, which Rutherford called the nucleus,
that contains all the positive charge and essentially all the mass
of the atom.
• He proposed that positive particles lay within the nucleus and
called them protons.

Rutherford’s nuclear model explained the charged nature of matter, but

it could not account for all the atom’s mass. After more than 20 years, in 1932,
James Chadwick (1891 - 1974) discovered the neutron, an uncharged dense
particle that also resides in the nucleus. (Figure 5.3)

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

electron

proton

Pinterest.com.au
Fig. 5.3. Rutherford’s nuclear model

Structure of the Atom

An atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a
positively charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively
charged electrons (Figure 6). The nucleus contributes 99.97% of the atom’s
mass.

Fig. 6. General features of the atom

An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons (the only exception

is the simplest hydrogen nucleus, which is a single proton). The proton (p+)
has a positive charge, and the neutron (nO) has no charge; thus, the positive
charge of the nucleus results from its protons. The magnitude of the charges
possessed by a proton and by an electron (e-) are equal, but the signs of the
charges are opposite. An atom is neutral because the number of protons in the

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY
nucleus equals the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus. Some
properties of these three subatomic particles are listed in Table 2.

Table 2: Properties of the Three Subatomic Particles

Charge Mass
Name Location
Relative
(Symbol) Relative Absolute (C)* Absolute (g) in Atom
(amu)*
Proton (p+) 1+ +1.60218 x 10-19 1.00727 1.67262 x 10-24 nucleus
Neutron (nO) 0 0 1.00866 1.67493 x 10-24 nucleus
outside
Electron (e-) 1- -1.60218 x 10-19 0.00054858 9.10939 x 10-24
nucleus
* The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge
* Atomic mass unit (amu)

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

After the nuclear model was proposed, Niels Bohr (1885 - 1962), a
young Danish physicist working in Rutherford’s laboratory, suggested a model
for the H atom that did predict the existence of line spectra.

Postulates of Bohr’s Model

In his model, Bohr used Planck’s and Einstein’s ideas about quantized
energy and proposed three postulates.
1. The H atom has only certain energy levels, which Bohr called stationary
states. Each state is associated with a fixed circular orbit of the electron
around the nucleus. The higher the energy level, the farther the orbit is
from the nucleus.
2. The atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states.
Even though it violates principles of classical physics, the atom does not
change energy while the electron moves within an orbit.
3. The atom changes to another stationary state (the electron moves to
another orbit) only by absorbing or emitting photon. The energy of the
photon equals the difference in the energies of the two states.
Ephoton = ΔEatom = Efinal - Einitial = hv

Features of Bohr’s Model

1. Quantum numbers and electron orbit. The quantum number n is a
positive integer (1,2,3,…) associated with the radius of an electron orbit,
which is directly related to the electron‘s energy: the lower the n value,
the smaller the radius of the orbit, and the lower the energy level.
2. Ground state. When the electron is in the first orbit (n = 1), it is closest
to the nucleus, and the H atom is in its lowest (first) energy level, called
the ground state.
3. Excited state. If the electron is in any orbit farther from the nucleus, the
atom is in an excited state. When the electron is in the second orbit (n
= 2), the atom is in the first excited state; when it’s in the third orbit (n =
3), the atom is in the second excited state, and so forth.
4. Absorption. If an H atom absorbs a photon whose energy equals the
difference between lower and higher energy levels, the electron moves
to the outer (higher energy) orbit.

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5. Emission. If an H atom in a higher energy level (electron in farther orbit)
returns to a lower energy level (electron in closer orbit), the atom emits
a photon whose energy equals the difference between the two levels.
Figure 10 shows an analogy that illustrates absorption and emission.

Taken from Chemistry 1 and 2 by

Silberberg
Fig. 10. A “quantum staircase” as an
analogy for atomic energy level

How the Model Explains Line Spectra

A spectral line results when a photon of specific energy (and thus
frequency) is emitted. The emission occurs when the electron moves to an orbit
closer to the nucleus as the atom’s energy changes from a higher state to a
lower one. Therefore, an atomic spectrum is not continuous because the atom’s
energy is not continuous, but rather has only certain states.

Figure 10.1 shows how Bohr’s model accounts for three series of
spectral line of hydrogen. When a sample of gaseous H atoms is excited,
different atoms absorb different quantities of energy. Each atom has one
electron, but there are so many atoms in the sample that all the energy levels
(orbits) have electrons. When electrons drop from outer orbits to the n = 3 orbit
(second excited state) the emitted photons create the infrared series of lines.
The visible series arises when electrons drop to the n = 2 orbit (first excited
state), and the ultraviolet series arises when electrons drop to the n = 1 orbit
(ground state). Table 3 summarizes the electron spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Fig. 10.1. The Bohr explanation of three series of spectral lines emitted
by the H atoms

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Table 3: Summary of the Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

SERIES n final n initial Spectrum Region
Lyman 1 2, 3, 4 Ultraviolet
Balmer 2 3, 4, 5 Visible and ultraviolet
Paschen 3 4, 5, 6 Infrared
Brackett 4 5, 6, 7 Infrared

The flame test is a simple experiment used to identify the color emitted
by the atom of a certain element (Figure 10.2).

https://www.compoundchem.com/2014/02/06/metal-ion-flame-test-colours-chart/

Fig. 10.2. Flame test

Limitations of Bohr’s Model

Despite its great success in predicting the spectral lines of H, the Bohr
model failed with every other atom. The reason is that it is a one - electron
model: it works beautifully for the H atom and for one - electron ions, such as
He+ (Z = 2), Li 2+ (Z= 3), and Be 3+ (Z= 4). But it fails completely for species with
more than one electron because electron - electron repulsions and additional
nucleus - electron attractions create much more complex interactions.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

In classical physics, a moving particle has a definite location at any
instant, whereas a wave is spread out in space. If an electron has the properties
of both a particle and a wave, can we determine its position in the atom?

In 1927, the German physicist Werner Heisenberg postulated the

uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to know simultaneously
the position and momentum (mass times speed) of a particle.

Equation
Δx ˑ mΔu ≥ h
4π
Where Δx is the uncertainty in position, Δu is the uncertainty in speed,
and h is Planck’s constant. The more accurate we know the position of the
particle (smaller Δx), the less accurately we know its speed (larger Δu), and
vice versa.

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger derived an equation that is the basis for the
quantum mechanical model of the H atom. The model describes an atom with
specific quantities of energy that result from allowed frequencies of its electron’s
wavelike motion. The electron’s position can be known within a certain
probability.

Schrodinger Equation and the Atomic Orbital

The electron’s matter - wave occupies the space near the nucleus and
is continuously influenced by it. The Schrodinger equation is quite complex but
can be presented in simpler form as

Equation
Hψ = Eψ
Where E is the energy of the atom. The symbol ψ (Greek psi) is called
a wave function, or atomic orbital, a mathematical description of the
electron’s matter - wave in three dimensions. The symbol H, called the
Hamiltonian operator, represents a set of mathematical operations that, when
carried out with a particular ψ, yields one of the allowed energy states of the
atom.

An important point to keep in mind throughout this discussion is that an

“orbital” in the quantum mechanical model bears no resemblance to an “orbit”
in the Bohr model: an orbit is an electron’s actual path around the nucleus,
whereas an orbital is a mathematical function that describes the electron’s
matter - wave but has no physical meaning.

The Probable Location of the Electron

While we cannot know exactly where the electron is at any moment, we
can know where it probably is, that is, where it spends most of its time. We get

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY
this information by squaring the wave function. Thus, even though ψ has no
physical meaning, ψ2 does and is called the probability density, a measure of
the probability of finding the electron in some tiny volume of the atom. We depict
the electron’s probable location in several ways, which we’ll look at first for the
H atom’s ground state.

1. Probability of the electron being in some tiny volume of the atom. For
each energy level, we can create an electron probability density diagram,
or more simply, an electron density diagram. The value of ψ2 for a
given volume is shown with dots: the greater the density of dots, the
higher the probability of finding the electron the electron in that volume.
Note, that for the ground state of the H atom, the electron probability
density decreases with distance from the nucleus (Figure 12).

Fig. 12. probability of the electron within a tiny volume

2. Probability contour and the size of the atom. How far away from the
nucleus can we find the electron? This is the same as asking “how big
is the H atom?” Recall that the probability of finding the electron far from
the nucleus is not zero. Therefore, we cannot assign a definite volume
to an atom. However, we can visualize an atom with a 90% probability
contour: the electron is somewhere within that volume 90% of the time.

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
Special Science Learning Toolkit No. 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY

What’s More

WORKSHEET 1
Identify the Law of Matter that each of the following observations/ experimental
results demonstrates. Write your answer in the space provided.

1. A sample of potassium chloride from Chile contains the same

percent by mass of potassium as one from Poland.
__________________________________________________

2. A flashbulb contains magnesium and oxygen before use and

magnesium oxide afterward, but its mass does not change.
__________________________________________________

3. Arsenic and oxygen from one compound that is 65.2 mass% arsenic
and another that is 75.8 mass % arsenic.
__________________________________________________

4. A student heats 1.00 g of a blue compound and obtains 0.64 g of a

white compound and 0.36 g of a colorless gas.
__________________________________________________

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

WORKSHEET 2
Venn Diagram

Write the following information in the Venn Diagram (Thomson and

Rutherford):
1. Atom composed of diffuse, positively charged matter with electrons
embedded in it.
2. Plum pudding model
3. An atom has a tiny region called the nucleus
4. Protons
5. Raisin bread model
6. Electrons
7. Gold foil experiment

For the Differences, list down the differences between Thomson and
Rutherford’s model:

Thomson Rutherford

Differences

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
Special Science Learning Toolkit No. 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY

WORKSHEET 3
Write the designated concept of the following scientist (left side) and names of
the following models of atoms (right side). Choices are written below. Write your
answer inside the box.

1. He pictured an atom as a tiny indestructible sphere with mass.

2. Views an electron as a cloud of negative charge having a certain
geometrical shape. This model shows how likely an electron could be
found in various locations around the nucleus.
3. Atoms consist of a large sphere of uniform positive charge embedded with
smaller negatively charged particles.
4. Electrons normally exist in the lowest energy state called ground state.
When an electron goes into a higher energy state, it is said to be in an
excited state. Excitation is achieved by supplying energy to the atom from
an external source.
5. He pictured an atom as mostly an empty space to explain why most alpha
particles passed through undeflected. There is a tiny, positive, central core
called the nucleus where the mass of the atom is concentrated.
6. Solid Sphere Model
7. Planetary Model
8. Nuclear Model
9. Plum Pudding Model
10. Quantum Mechanical Model

John Dalton

Joseph John Thomson

Ernest Rutherford

Niels Bohr

Erwin Schrodinger

ttps://www.pinterest.ph
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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
Special Science Learning Toolkit No. 1
APPLIED CHEMISTRY

What I Have Learned

Guide Questions:
1. What are the different Laws of Matter?

2. What are the different atomic models?

3. How did the basic Laws of Matter led to the formulation of Dalton’s
Atomic Theory?

What I Can Do
Enrichment Activity:
Make a scrap book about atomic theory; Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr,
and Schrodinger. Below is the rubric in making the scrap book.
EXCELLENT VERY GOOD GOOD CAN DO BETTER
CRITERIA (4pts) (3pts) (2pts) (1pt)
All topics are All topics are All topics are Only few topics are
addressed and addressed and addressed but addressed and
information information clearly information information does
clearly relates to relates to the topic does not clearly not clearly relate to
CONTENT the topic. It but limited relate to the the topic and with
includes supporting details/ topic and with limited supporting
essential details. and or examples. limited details/ and or
supporting examples.
details/ and or
examples.
Information is Information is Information is Information is not
very well organized with organized but organized and
ORGANIZATION organized with well-constructed paragraphs are paragraphs are
well- constructed paragraph. not well not well
paragraphs. constructed. constructed.
No grammatical, Minimal Noticeable Unacceptable/
spelling or grammatical, grammatical, grammatical,
MECHANICS punctuation spelling or spelling or spelling and
errors. punctuation errors. punctuation punctuation errors.
errors.
More than 5 With 5 current With 4 current With 3 current
current sources, sources, of which sources, of sources, of which
of which at least 3 at least 2 are peer- which at least 1 at least 1 are peer-
SOURCES
are peer-review review journal are peer-review review journal
journal articles or articles or journal articles article or scholarly
scholarly books. scholarly books. or scholarly book.
books.

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DIVISION OF NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Assessment
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter
on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following postulates of Dalton explains the law of conservation

of mass?
a. All matter consists of atoms, tiny indestructible particles of an
element that cannot be created nor destroyed.
b. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio
of atoms of different elements.
c. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and
are different from atoms of any other element.
d. All of the above

2. Experiments with cathode rays led to the discovery of the

a. Atom c. Neutron
b. Electron d. Proton

3. Which of the following scientist explained the behavior of positively charged

particles being deflected from a metal foil as the nucleus?
a. Bohr c. Dalton
b. Chadwick d. Rutherford

4. This particle with no charge which has almost the same mass as the proton.
a. Atom c. Neutron
b. Electron d. Proton

5. Which of the following is TRUE about the nucleus of an atom?

a. composed of tightly packed protons
b. composed of tightly packed neutrons
c. composed of tightly packed neutrons and protons
d. composed of loosely connected protons and neutrons

6. What color would be the flame test of a substance containing Boron?

a. Blue c. Red
b. Green d. Yellow

7. Which sub-atomic particles can be found outside the nucleus?

a. Electron c. Proton
b. Neutron d. Positron

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

8. What is the state in Bohr’s model which is associated with a fixed circular
orbit of the electron?
a. Electron state
b. Excited state
c. Ground state
d. Stationary state

9. Two students are given a ball of clay with the same mass. Both students are
asked to create an object out of the clay. Student 1 rolled it to make a ball
while student 2 made a long skinny rope. Which of the following is correct?
a. student 1 clay is heavier because it is round
b. student 2 clay is heavier because it is long
c. insufficient data to answer
d. the figures are equal in mass

10. Regions of space around the nucleus of an atom that can be occupied by
one or two electrons with identical energy are called
a. shells b. energy levels c. photons d. orbitals

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Answer Key
Worksheet 1
1. Law of Definite Composition
2. Law of Conservation of Mass
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
4. Law of Conservation of Mass

Worksheet 2

Thomson Rutherford

Differences
Atom composed of An atom has a tiny
diffuse, positively Probable answers: central region
charged matter 1. Location of positive and called the nucleus
with electrons negative charges
embedded in it 2. Names of the charges, Protons
positive and negative charges
are use in Thomson’s model, Electrons
Plum pudding model Rutherford’s model use proton
for positive and electron for Gold foil
negative
Experiment
Raisin bread model 3. Illustrations of the model

Note: Students may provide

different answers.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Worksheet 3

John Dalton
He pictured an atom as a tiny Solid Sphere Model
indestructible sphere with mass.

Joseph John Thomson Plum Pudding Model

Atoms consist of a large sphere of uniform
positive charge embedded with smaller
negatively charged particles.

Nuclear Model
Ernest Rutherford
He pictured an atom as mostly an empty space to
explain why most alpha particles passed through
undeflected. There is a tiny, positive, central core
called the nucleus where the mass of the atom is
concentrated.
Planetary Model

Niels Bohr
Electrons normally exist in the lowest energy state called
ground state. When an electron goes into a higher energy
state, it is said to be in an excited state. Excitation is
achieved by supplying energy to the atom from an external
source.

Erwin Schrodinger
Views an electron as a cloud of negative charge having a certain
geometrical shape. This model shows how likely an electron could
be found in various locations around the nucleus.
Quantum Mechanical Model

Assessment ttps://www.pinterest.ph
1. A 5. C 9. D
2. B 6. B 10. B
3. D 7. A
4. C 8. D

References
Martin et al. (2007). Chemistry Connecting with Science. Copyright @ 2007
by Salesiana Books by Don Bosco Press, Inc.
Mendoza et al. (1997). Chemistry Textbook. Copyright @1997 by Phoenix Publishing House
Inc.
Silberberg M. (2016). General Chemistry 1 and 2. Copyright @2016 by McGraw - Hill
Education.
Tabujara G. (2016). General Chemistry K - 12 Compliant Worktext for Senior High School.
Copyright @ 2016 by JFS PUBLISHING SERVICES.
Ungson O. (2006). Science Fundamentals for High School III, Chemistry. Copyright @ 2006 by
Trinitas Publishing Inc.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY

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