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UPDATED TO 2019-21 SYLLABUS

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SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
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1.5. Calculations involving Mole

1. Atoms, Molecules and Concept
Stoichiometry M oles =
Mass
Molar Mass
​

1.1. Relative Mass V olume of a Gas = M oles  ×  24

Atomic mass (Ar): weighted average mass of an atom Formula applies to gases at r.t.p.
Molecular mass (Mr): mass of a molecule Unit of volume is dm3 and 1000cm3 = 1dm3
Formula mass: mass of one formula unit of a compound
Isotopic mass: mass of a particular isotope of an element
Moles
C oncentration =
Volume
​

Compared with 12C where one atom of 12C has

mass of
exactly 12 units Concentration unit = mol dm−3

1.2. The Mole 2. Atomic Structure

Mole: amount of substance that has the same number of
particles
(atoms, ions, molecules or electrons) as there 2.1. Subatomic Particle
are atoms in exactly
12g of the carbon-12 isotope.
Avogadro’s constant: number of atoms, ions, molecules or Relative
Subatomic Particle Relative mass/ a.m.u
electrons in a mole = 6.02 × 10 23 Charge
Protons (P) +1 1
1.3. Mass Spectra Neutrons (n) 0 1

Abundance of isotopes can be represented on a mass Electrons (e-) -1 1/1840

spectra diagram

Peak Height 2.2. Behaviour of a Beam of Subatomic

Relative Abundance = × 100%
Total Height
​

Particles
M ass  ×  Relative Abundance
Ar = ∑
100
​ ​

Protons: positively charged ∴ deflected to -ve pole

1.4. Empirical and Molecular Formulae Neutrons: no charge ∴ not deflected
Electrons: negatively charged ∴ deflected to +ve
pole
Empirical formula: gives simplest ratio of different atoms e- lighter than P+ ∴ deflected at
greater angle
present in a molecule
Molecular formula: gives actual numbers of each type of
atom in
a molecule
2.3. Protons, neutrons and electrons
Molecular formula can be calculated using the Mr of a
Mass concentrated within centre; nucleus
compound
and its empirical formula
An atom is electrically neutral; P+ = e-
M olecular F ormula = (Empirical Formula )n ​
Atomic no. or proton no. (Z) = no. of protons
Atomic mass or nucleon no. (A) = no. of P + N
Molecular Mass
Where n =
Mass of Empirical Formula
​

Atomic M ass  ×  N o. of M oles

% C omposition = × 100%
Molar Mass of Compound
​

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When filling, fill 4s before 3d and when removing, also

remove first
from 4s

2.6. Ionization Energies (I.E)

1st I.E: energy needed to remove 1 mole of

e-s from 1
mole of gaseous atom to form 1 mole of
unipositive ions
Each successive I.E is higher than previous one because
as
e-s are removed, protons > e-s ∴
attraction between
protons and remaining electrons increases
Isoelectronic ions: ions having same no. of e-s
Successive I.Es have large jump in their value when e-s
Isotopes: are atoms of the same element with the same
proton
number but different number of neutrons removed from lower energy shell
Deduce group no. by checking when 1st big jump occurs
2.4. Electronic Configuration
Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells
Each shell is described by a principle quantum no. (P.Q)
As the P.Q. increases, energy of shell increases
Inside the shell there are subshells: s,  p,  d and f
Orbital: region in space where there is a maximum
probability of
finding an electron
2.7. Factors affecting Ionization Energy
Nuclear charge
+ve charge due to protons in nucleus
Greater nuclear charge greater ionization energy

Shielding effect
Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions
Inner shells of e-s repel outermost e-s,
thus shielding
When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy,
them from +ve nucleus. The more e-
shells, the
they occupy them singly and then pairing takes place
greater is the shielding effect
e-s placed in opposite direction: both -vely charge & if
Greater effect lower I.E because lesser attractive
placed in same direction, they’d repel. In opposite
force between
nucleus & outer e-s
direction they
create a spin to reduce repulsion
Atomic radius
Completely filled or half filled (i.e. one e- in each
orbital) Distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
are more stable (reduced repulsion) outermost orbit
Greater radius lower I.E; distance of outermost e- to
2.5. Subshells nucleus is large ∴ less energy needed to remove
e-
Stable config.
s p d f
High I.E needed to remove e-s from completely or
half-
Orbitals 1 3 5 7
filled orbitals
Max e-s 2 6 10 14

Aufbau’s principle: method of showing how atomic orbitals

2.8. General 1st Ionization Energy
are
filled in a definite order to give lowest energy Trends
arrangement
possible
Down a group (decreases):
New shells added
Attraction of nucleus to valence e-s decreases
Shielding effect increases
Across a period (increases):
Energy difference between 4s & 3d very small ∴
an e- Shell no. remains same
from 4s can be promoted to half-fill or
full-fill 3d orbital, Proton no. increases
to make atom more stable Effective nuclear charge increases
Atomic radius decreases

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2.9. Trend in 1st I.E across 3rd Period 3.1. Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding
Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely
charged ions.
Structure: giant ionic lattice, crystalline solids

Have high melting and boiling points

I.E of Al lower than Mg: e- removed in Al is from

higher
energy 3p orbital which is further away from nucleus than
3s
e- being removed from Mg. Nuclear attraction is less Coordination number: number of oppositely charged ions
for
3p than 3s ∴ I.E of Al is lower than Mg that
surround a particular ion in an ionic solid
I.E of S lower than P: e- being removed in P is in a
half
filled, more stable 3p orbital whereas in S, the pairing of 3.2. Covalent Bonding
electrons in 3p results in increased repulsion ∴ less
energy need to remove an e- Covalent bond is the bond formed by the sharing of pairs
of
electrons between two atoms.
2.10. Ionic Radius Bonding electrons: e-s involved in bond formation
Non-bonding electrons or lone pair: pair of valence
e-s
Ionic radius: describes the size of an ion that are not involved in bond formation
Covalent compounds are made of molecules which are
held together by
weak intermolecular forces
They have low melting and boiling points

3.3. Coordinate/Dative Bonding

Coordinate bond is a covalent bond where both electrons
Positive ion: smaller radius than original neutral atom in the bond
come from the same atom
because
shell no. decreases, screening effect decreases Conditions:
but the attraction
of nucleus increases. An atom should have a lone pair of electrons
Negative ion: larger ionic radius than neutral atom An atom should be in need of a pair of electrons
because
e-s added while nuclear charge remains same Donor: the atom that supplies the pair of electrons
Acceptor: the atom that accepts the pair of electrons
Groups 1 to 3 5 to 7 Coordinate bond is represented by an “→ ” drawn from
Ion Positive Negative the atom donating
to towards the atom accepting

Formation of Ammonium ion
NH + 4:
No. of shells
​

n − 1 n

Across the period:

Proton no. and effective nuclear charge increases

Ionic radius decreases

Negative ions always larger than positive ions in the same

period as
they have one more shell

Formation of
AlCl3
dimer
( Al2 Cl 6 ):
3. Chemical Bonding ​ ​ ​

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2 pairs of e’s
2 bounded
Linear
180O
E.g. CO2

Above 750oC, exists as vapor & covalent molecule

AlCl3
As vapor cools, exists as dimer Al2Cl6
Bond angle as AlCl3 = 120o
3 pairs of e’s
Bond angle as Al2Cl6 = 109.5o 3 bounded
Trigonal planner
3.4. Orbital Overlap 120O
E.g. BF3
For a covalent bond to form, atomic orbitals containing
unpaired
valence electrons must overlap each other
S – S (Sigma Σ)
4 pairs of e’s
4 bonded
Tetrahedral
109.5O
E.g. CH4

S – P (Sigma Σ)

3 bonded, 1 lone
Pyramidal
107O
E.g. NH3

P – P (Sigma Σ)

2 bonded, 1 lone
Angular
104.5O
E.g. H2O
P – P (Pi π )

5 pairs of e’s
5 bonded
Trigonal Bipyramid
90O
Sigma bond has greater overlap ∴ σ > π E.g. PF5
Pi bond cannot exist without a Sigma bond.

3.5. Shapes of Covalent Molecules

6 pairs of e’s
Shape and bond angles of molecules depend on: 6 bonded
The number of pairs of electrons around central atom Octahedral
Whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonded pairs 90O
Valence shell electrons are arranged in pairs to minimize E.g. SF6
repulsion
between themselves
Order of repulsion strength (VSEPR Theory):

3.6. Hydrogen Bonding

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Strongest type of intermolecular force in covalent bonds  

For hydrogen bonding to occur, we need: Non-Polar Covalent Bonds
Molecule having a H atom bonded to F, O or N
Bond formed between:
Molecule having F, O or N atom with lone pair of e-s
Identical atoms: the electronegativity of both atoms is
the
same so pair of electron shared equally
Symmetrical polyatomic molecules: dipoles of bond
exert
equal & opposite effects hence cancel charge
Non-polar molecules have no overall charge

3.10. Intermolecular Forces

3.7. Electronegativity
Intermolecular forces: weak forces present between two
Ability of a particular atom, covalently bonded, to attract covalent
molecules
the
bonded pair of e-s towards itself
 
Electronegativity depends on:
Induced Dipole (Van Der Waals’ Forces)
Radius of atom inversely ∝
electronegativity
Nuclear attraction directly ∝
electronegativity Very weak forces present between non-polar molecules
Electronegativity increases across a period because Due to constant motion of e-s, at an instant, a non-polar
atomic
radius ↓ and nuclear attraction ↑ molecule develops poles due to distortion of electron
Electronegativity decreases down a group because density giving
rise to instantaneous dipole, which is able
atomic radius ↑
and nuclear attraction ↓ to induce a dipole in
the adjacent molecules
Dipole moment: slight charges on atoms in a covalent Van der Waals forces increase with:
bond due to
differences in electronegativity increasing number of contact points between
molecules; point
where molecules come close
together
increasing number of electrons (+ protons) in
molecule

3.8. Bonds
Bond energy: energy needed to break one mole of a given
Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces
bond in
one mole of gaseous molecules
Bond length: distance between the centers of two nuclei Weak forces present between polar molecules
of two
adjacent atoms Molecules always attracted to charged rod, whether +ve
Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because or –ve
because molecules have +ve and –ve charges
double bonds have
a greater negative charge density
between the two atomic nuclei
hence greater attraction
Bond length depends on radii of the two bonded atoms;
3.11. Metallic Bonding
larger the
radius, longer the bond length
Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
Strength of the bond depends on the length of the bond
cations and
delocalized mobile electrons
Structure: lattice of +ve ions surrounded by ­mobile
e-s
Strength of metallic bond increases with:
Increasing positive charge on the ions in the lattice
3.9. Polar and Non-Polar Decreasing size of metal ions in the lattice
Increasing number of mobile e-s per atom
Polar Covalent Bonds

Bonds with slight ionic character 3.12. Summary

Bond formed with atoms of different electronegativity
Bonding e-s attracted more towards atom with greater
electronegativity ∴ unequal sharing of electrons
∴
molecule develops slight charges = Polar Molecule
Polar molecules have dipoles; electric charges of equal
magnitude
and opposite sign
The greater the difference in electronegativity of the two
bonded
atoms, the greater is the ionic character

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M ass  ×  RT
Mr =
PV
​ ​

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

T1 ​ T2 ​

Quantity Unit Conversion

Pressure Pascal 1KPa = 1000Pa
Volume m3 1m3 = 1000dm3 = 1x106cm3
Temperature OK OC + 273

Standard Conditions: 101KPa and 273oK

Mols of One Gas
Mole Fraction
= Total Mols of Gases ​

Partial Pressure of a Gas =

M ole F raction ×
4. States of Matter T otal P ressure

4.1. Basic Assumptions of Kinetic 4.3. Liquid State

Theory Particles touching but may have gaps
Have EK to slide past each other in random motion
​

Ideal gas: a gas whose volume varies in proportion to Enthalpy of fusion: heat energy required to change 1 mole
temperature and in inverse proportion to pressure. of
solid into a liquid at its melting point
Noble gases such as helium and neon approach ideal Heating a solid (melting):
behavior because
of their low intermolecular forces. Energy transferred makes solid particles vibrate
faster
 
Forces of attraction weaken & solid changes to liquid
Ideal Gas Laws:
Enthalpy of vaporization: heat energy required to change
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly 1 mole
of liquid into a gas at its boiling point
Distance between gas molecules is greater than diameter Heating a liquid (vaporization):
of molecules
∴ volume is negligible Energy transferred makes liquid particles move faster
No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules Forces of attraction weaken
All collisions between particles are elastic EK conserved
​
Highest energy particles escape first
Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules
​
Liquid starts to evaporate – temp. below b.p.
Conditions at which gases behave ideally: Forces weaken further – particles move faster &
High temperature spread
Low pressure Liquid boils – temp. at b.p.
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container
 
Limitations of Ideal Gas Laws:

Real gases do not obey kinetic theory in two ways:

There is not zero attraction between molecules
We cannot ignore volume of molecules themselves

  Constant evaporation from surface

Deviations visible at low temp. and high pressure
Molecules are close to each other
Volume of molecules not negligible relative to container
VDW forces present, pulling molecules to each other
Pressure is lower than expected from ideal gas
Effective volume is less than expected from ideal gas
4.2. General Gas Equations
Particles continue to break away from surface but are
trapped in space above the liquid
As gaseous particles collide, some of them hit the surface
of the liquid again, and become trapped there
An equilibrium is set up in which number of particles
leaving surface is balanced by number rejoining it.
Liquid water molecules ⇌ Vapor water molecules
In this equilibrium, there will be a fixed number of the
gaseous particles in the space above liquid.

Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a vapor in

P V = nRT equilibrium with
a liquid.

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Vapor pressure increases as: Layers kept together by weak Van der Waal’s forces
High m.p./b.p. - strong covalent bonds throughout
Soft – forces between layers are weak
Conducts electricity - has delocalized electrons
4.4. Solid State
Ionic lattice

Silicon(IV) Oxide:
Each Si is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, but each oxygen
is bonded
to 2 Si atoms
Sand is largely SiO2
Similar properties to diamond

Metallic lattice
Hydrogen Bonded Lattice:

In ice form, water molecules slow down and come closer

together
Due to polarity, molecules form hydrogen bonds between
lone pairs of
oxygen & δ + charge of hydrogens
Each water molecule has 2 H-bonds
Simple molecular They arrange themselves into an open crystalline,
hexagonal
structure
Due to large spaces, ice is less dense than water

Macromolecular Lattice:

Diamond: Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties:

High m.p./b.p. - each carbon forms four covalent Relatively high m.p./b.p.: many strong H-bonds
bonds High viscosity: hydrogen bonding reduces ability of
Hard - tetrahedral structure water
molecules to slide over each other
High surface tension: hydrogen bonds in water exert a
Doesn’t conduct heat or electricity – no free e-
Used for cutting as is strongest known substance and downward force on surface of liquid
has sharp
edges Ice less dense than water: larger spaces between
molecules
in hexagonal structure

 
Simple Molecular Lattice:

Iodine:
Dark grey crystalline solid; vaporizes into purple gas
m.p./b.p. are slightly higher than room temp
Graphite:
Slightly soluble in water; dissolves in organic solvents
Three strong (sp2) covalent bonds Diatomic molecule formed due to covalent bond
Fourth e- in p orbital ∴ forms a pi
bond, forming a between individual
atoms
cloud of delocalised electron above and below
the Molecules have weak Van der Waals forces of
planes attraction between
them

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5.1. Energy Change in Reactions

Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions
Energy given out Energy taken in
Surrounding warmer Surrounding cooler
Bond making Bond breaking
Fullerenes:
ΔH N egative = ΔH P ositive =
Buckminsterfullerenes(C 60)
C atoms in pentagonal and hexagonal rings
EReactants > EProducts
​ ​
EReactants < EProducts ​ ​

Spherical
C 60 molecules held together by VDWs 5.2. Enthalpy Change Definitions
Conducts heat and electricity
Very strong and tough Standard molar enthalpy
Symbol Enthalpy change when
Insoluble in water change of
High m.p./b.p. 1 mole of element or
Combustion ΔHc ​ compound is
completely combusted
1 mole of compound is
Formation ΔHf ​ formed from its
elements
Nanotubes 1 mole of a solute is
C atoms in hexagonal rings only dissolved in a solvent
Cylindrical Solution ΔHsol
to form an infinitely
​

Structure is rod like due to continuing rings dilute solution

Conducts heat and electricity
1 mole of ions in the
Very strong and tough
Hydration ΔHhyd gas phase are
Insoluble in water
​

dissolved in water
High m.p./b.p.
1 mole of gaseous
Atomization ΔHat atom formed from its
​

element
1 mole of H + and
Neutralization ΔHn OH − combine to form
​

1 mole of H2 O ​

4.5. Ceramics
Note: All the above are under standard conditions in their
Ceramic: an inorganic non-metallic solid prepared by standard states
heating one
or a mixture of substance(s) to a high temp.
Most ceramic are giant molecular structures
5.3. Bond Energy
Properties of ceramics:
High m.p./b.p. and hard – strong covalent bonds
Energy needed to break a specific covalent bond
Don’t conduct electricity/heat – no mobile ions or
e-s Also how much energy is released when a bond forms
Chemically unreactive – e-s held in covalent bonds
5.4. Calculating Enthalpy Changes
4.6. Recycling
ΔH =  −mcΔT
Finite resource: resource which doesn't get replaced at
the same
rate that it is used up. When substance dissolved in water use c & m  of
water
Examples of finite resources: copper, aluminium, glass ΔT is change in temp.: add –ve or +ve to show
rise/fall
Advantage of Recycling: ○ Saves energy ○ Reduces
environmental issues ○ Conserves ore supplies ○ Less 5.5. Hess’s Law
wastage
○ Cheaper than extracting
The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is
independent of
the route by which the chemical reaction
5. Chemical Energetics

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takes place as long as the

initial and final conditions are Following these rules, all other atoms in a covalent bond
the same. must
balance out the charge
Reason to use Hess’s Law:
Std. conditions hard to maintain (e.g. exo/endo) 6.2. Redox Reactions
Elements don’t always react directly
Reaction where both oxidation and reduction occur
5.6. Calculating Enthalpy Change of… Can be shown with changes in oxidation numbers of
elements from the
product side to the reactant side
…Reaction from Formation E.g.
C a2 S i + 6H2 O → 2C a(OH)2 + SiO2 + 4H2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

C a = +4 → +2 ⟹ gain of negative
charge ∴
reduction
Si = −4 → + 4 ⟹ loss of negative charge ∴
oxidation

…Formation from Combustion 6.3. Balancing Equations

Equation:
HI + HN O3 → I 2 + N2 O3 + H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Half ionic: 2I − − 2e− → I 2

N +5 + 2e− → N +3
​

For every 2 iodines, there will be 1 nitrogen

Thus first put in correct ratio for iodine and nitrogen then
balance
hydrogens and oxygens
…Hydration from Anhydrous Salt
Balanced:
4HI + 2HN O3 → 2I 2 + N2 O3 + 3H 2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

6.4. Electrolysis
Electrolysis: decomposition of an electrolyte by an electric
current. Electrical energy is used to bring about a
…Reaction from Bond Energies chemical
reaction; endothermic
Electrolyte: an aqueous solution of an ionic substance or a
molten ionic salt that conducts electricity due to mobile
ions
Electrodes:
Rods which help current enter the electrolyte
Inert electrodes: do not take part in the reaction e.g.
graphite or platinum. Steel/titanium used in industry.
6. Electrochemistry Reactive electrodes: take part in the reaction

6.5. Products of Electrolysis

6.1. Calculating Oxidation Numbers
Ionic Molecules: group number = valence electrons
Covalent molecules:
Rules:
Atoms in a diatomic molecule; oxidation number =
0
Oxygen in a compound; oxidation number = -2

Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1

1st group elements & hydrogen; oxidation number = +1 7. Equilibria
H with highly reactive metal; oxidation number = -1
Reversible reaction: a reaction in which products can be
changed
back to reactants by reversing the conditions

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Dynamic Equilibrium: the state of a reversible reaction

carried
out in a closed container where the rates of
forward and backward
reactions are equal and constant

7.2. Le Chatelier’s Principle

When a chemical system in dynamic equilibrium is
disturbed
(conditions changed) it tends to respond in such
a way so as to
oppose the change and a new equilibrium
is set up

7.3. Equilibrium Constants

Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of concentration
[Product]mols
KC = SO3 not dissolved directly into water because reaction
[Reactant]mols
​ ​

Only liquids and gases explosive and causes H2SO4 to vaporize

Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of partial Forward reaction exothermic ∴ temp. not too high so
rate
pressure of backward reaction doesn’t increase & not too low so
p(Product)mols particles have EK for collision and catalyst works
KP = p(Reactant)mols
​

Since reaction highly exothermic, gases must be cooled

​ ​

Only gases No impurities otherwise catalyst will be poisoned

Atmospheric pressure enough because equilibrium
Large value of K C /K P   ⇒ equi. towards
products side
already favours
product side
​ ​

Smaller value of K C /K P   ⇒ equi. towards

reactants
​ ​

side 7.6. Acid-Base Equilbria

K C /K P changes only with changes in temperature
​ ​

The amount of reactants that disappear will always Brønsted-Lowry Theory:

appear in the
products in the same ratio as present in a An acid is a proton (H+) donor
balanced equation
A bases is a proton (H+) acceptor
Amphoteric: substances that can act like bases or acids
7.4. Manufacture of Ammonia
7.7. Conjugate Pairs
When acid-base reacts, an equilibrium mixture is formed

7.5. Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid

HCl is a conjugate acid of base C l− & vice versa

HCl is acid-I and C l−  is base-I
NH+  
4 is a conjugate acid of base
NH3 & vice versa
​ ​

NH+  
4 is acid-II and NH3 is
base-II
​ ​

8. Reaction Kinetics

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Rate of a reaction: change in concentration of reactants or Homogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in the
products per unit time same
physical state
Activation energy: minimum energy colliding particles Heterogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in
must
possess for a successful collision to take place different
physical states
Catalysis: acceleration of a chemical reaction by catalyst Enzymes: a protein molecule that is a biological catalyst.
Most
are specific to a substrate & function as lock-key
8.2. Effect of Concentration Changes
Increasing conc. of reactants increases rate of reaction:
9. Chemical Periodicity
more
particles per unit volume, collision rate between
reacting particles
increases, ∴ rate of successful collision Group 1 2 3 4
increases,
resulting in increased rate of reaction. Element Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon
Character Metal Metalloid
8.3. Maxwell-Boltzmann Theory Structure Giant metallic lattice Macromolecular
Metallic bond between cations Covalent bonds
Explains effect of temp. & catalyst on rate of reaction Bonding
and delocalized e- between atoms
Based on distribution of energy among reacting
molecules under
different conditions

Diagram

9.2. Reaction of Elements with Oxygen

Formulae Reaction Structure Oxid. Nature
8.4. Effect of Temperature Burns yellow
Na Na2O(s) +1 Basic
flame
Giant ionic
Burns blinding
Mg MgO(s) lattice +2 Basic
white flame
Al Al2O3(s) Coating +3 Amphoteric
Giant
Si SiO2(s) Coating +4 W. acidic
covalent
P2O3(s) Burns yellow +3
P S. Acidic
Number of collisions and chance of success will increase P2O5(s) flame Simple +5
SO2(g) Burns blue molecular +4
S S. acidic
8.5. Effect of Catalyst SO3(g) flame +6

Catalyst: a substance that increases rate of reaction but 9.3. Reaction of Na & Mg with Water
remains chemically unchanged itself at the end
Does not alter the chemical composition of substances
Na & 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) Very fast, floats, forms
and only
lowers the activation energy
Water 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) ball & dissolves
It provides a new route or mechanism to follow for
reactants that
requires less energy Mg & Mg (s) + 2H2O(l)
Very slow
Water Mg(OH) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg & Mg (s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) +
Very fast
Steam H2(g)

9.4. Reaction of Oxides with Water

Reaction Oxid. Nature
Na2O(s) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) +1 S. Alkaline

Curve unchanged, only activation energy changes MgO(s) MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH) 2(aq) +2 W. Alkaline
Al2O3(s) NO REACTION

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Reaction Oxid. Nature

SiO2(s)
P2O3(s) P2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO3(aq) +3
S. Acidic
P2O5(s) P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq) +5
SO2(g) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) +4
S. Acidic
SO3(g) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) +6
9.8. Atomic Radius
9.5. Acid-Base Reactions
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric ∴ reacts with acid
and
base

Al2O3 + H2SO4
Al2(SO4) 3 + H2O |
Al2O3 + NaOH NaAlO2 +
H2 O

Silicon dioxide is acidic: SiO2 + NaOH (hot & conc.) P+ in nucleus increases so nuclear charge increases
Na2SiO3
There are more e-, but increase in shielding is
negligible
Sulphur dioxide and trioxide are strongly acidic
because each extra e- enters same principal
energy level
With Produces ∴ force of attraction between nucleus & e-
increases ...
SO2(g) NaOH NaHSO3(aq) So atomic radius decreases.
SO2(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO3(aq) + H2O
SO3(g) NaOH NaHSO4(aq) 9.9. Ionic Radius
SO3(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO4(aq) + H2O

9.6. Reactions of Elements with

Chlorine
Formula Structure Oxid. Nature
Ionic radius decreases across a period however, since
Na NaCl­(s) +1 Neutral
Giant ionic non-metals
gain electrons, they have one more shell than
Mg MgCl2(s) +2 Neutral metals therefore they
always have a larger radius than
Al AlCl3(s) +3 Acidic metal ions
Si SiCl4(l) +4 S. Acidic
PCl3(l) Simple molecular +3 9.10. Melting Point
P S. Acidic
PCl5(l) +5

9.7. Reactions of Chloride with Water

Na Al m.p. increases because delocalized e- per atom

Sodium chloride simply dissolves in water. Water is polar

increases making metallic bond stronger

∴ positive Na+ attracted to OH-
while Cl- attracted to H+ Si has highest m.p. due to giant covalent structure
MgCl2 slightly acidic because Mg ion has smaller radius & The larger the molecule size, the stronger the VDW forces
higher charge ∴ attraction to water is so strong that
H2O ∴ S8 > P4 > Cl2 >
Ar
loses a proton and solution becomes slightly acidic
9.11. Electrical Conductivity

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All gp. 2 metals tarnish in air forming oxide coatings

Burn vigorously in oxygen forming white solids

9.16. Reactions with Water

Metals: M (s) ​
+ H2 O(l) →  M (OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
​ ​ ​ ​

Metal Oxides:
MO (s) + H2 O (l) → M(OH)2(aq)
​ ​ ​ ​

Na < Mg < Al because no. of delocalized electrons which

Solubility of M, MO and M(OH) 2 increases down group
can carry
charge increases
Alkalinity of solution increases down the group
Silicon is a semi-conductor
Solubility of M and MO increases do+wn the group
Non-metals – covalent ∴ no charge
Solubility of M(OH) 2 and MSO4 decreases down
group

9.12. Electronegativity
9.17. Reaction with Acid
M ∗ (s) + Acid ∗ (aq)→  Salt  +  Hydrogen
MO ∗ (s) + Acid ∗ (aq)→  Salt  +  Water

M(OH) ∗ x(s) + Acid ∗ (aq)→  Salt  +  Water

MCO × 3(s) + Acid(aq) →
  Salt + Water + C arbon Dioxide
Increases across period because the bonded e- are in the
same energy level but are attracted more strongly as no.
9.18. Thermal Decomposition of Gp. 2
of protons
increases
Metals
9.13. First Ionization Energy
MCO 3(s) M O (s) + CO 2(g)
​ ​ ​

2M(NO 3 )2(s) 2 MO (s) + 2NO 2(g) + O 2(g)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

NO2: thick brown, acidic and soluble gas

Thermal stability increases down the group ∴
decomposition becomes more difficult.

9.19. Uses of Group II Metals

Generally, increases as no. of protons increases
Decrease Mg → Al: more distant and less effective Calcium compounds:
nuclear charge on 3p
orbital
Decrease P → S: in S, one electron paired ∴ causing
repulsion and easier to lose electron

9.14. Group II – Alkaline Earth Metals

m.p./b.p. decreases down group: atoms/ions get larger,
distance
between nuclei & e-s increases ∴ bonds
weaker Calcium oxide (lime): basic oxide used to neutralize acidic
m.p./b.p. higher in gp. 2 than 1: 2e-s per atom
donated soil
and used as a drying agent for drying ammonia
into delocalized system ∴ metallic bonding
stronger Calcium carbonate (limestone): used as building material
density increases down group: mass of atoms increases (cement, concrete) etc., for extraction of iron, glass
faster
than their size (volume) as atomic no. increases industry,
neutralize soil or chemical waste

9.15. Reaction of Gp. 2 Metals with 10. Group 17 – Halogens

Oxygen
10.1. Trends in Colour and Volatility

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Fluorine Yellow Gas m.p. & b.p. Volatility

10.5. (Sub) Halide ions and aq. Sulphuric
Yellow- increases ↓ decreases ↓
Chlorine Acid
Green
Orange-
Bromine Liquid Metal Halide + Conc. H2SO4(aq) Hydrogen
Halide
Brown
Iodine Grey-Blue Conc. H2SO4(aq) is an oxidising agent
Solid
Astatine Black This reaction is used for preparation of hydrogen halides

increases and
volatility decreases Chlorine NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) → HCl(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
Bromine NaBr(s) + H2SO4(aq) → HBr(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
10.2. Oxidising Ability HBr(g) + H2SO4(aq) → Br2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
Iodine NaI(s) + H2SO4(aq) →HI(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
Halogens have high electron affinity (they gain electrons HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) → I2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
easily)
hence they are good oxidising agents HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) → I2(g) + H2S(g) + H2O(l)
Oxidising ability decreases down the group because
electron affinity
decreases as atomic size increases.
10.6. The reactions of chlorine with
10.3. Some reactions of the halide ions aqueous sodium hydroxide
X2(g) + H2(g) 2HX(g) Disproportionation: a reaction in which the same
Product Reaction Description substance is
oxidized and reduced simultaneously
HF Reacts explosively in all conditions producing two different products
When chlorine reacts with a solution of cold aqueous
HCl Reacts explosively in sunlight
sodium
hydroxide, the disproportionation goes to lower
HBr Reacts slowly on heating oxidation states
HI Forms an equilibrium mixture on heating
C l2 + 2N aOH → N aCl + N aClO + H2 O
​ ​

Thermal stability of halogen hydrides decreases down the

With a hot solution, the oxidation state of chlorine goes up
group
because:
to +V
Size of halogen atom increases
∴ nuclear attraction decreases 3C l2 + 6N aOH → N aClO3 + 5N aCl + 3H2 O
​ ​ ​

The H – X bond becomes longer and weaker

Thus, less energy needed to break the bond This happens as the chlorate is formed by
Bond energies decrease down the group disproportionation of
hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid

ClO− + 2HClO  → ClO3− + 2HCl

10.4. (Sub) Halide ions and aq. Silver ​

Ions Higher temperatures promotes the formation of

hypochlorous acid through
hydrolysis of hypochlorite and
therefore speeds up the reaction
Ag +(aq) + X-(aq)
AgX(s)
Halide With Silver With dilute aq. With conc. aq.
Ion Nitrate ammonia ammonia 10.7. Some important uses of halogens
Cl‑ White ppt. ppt. dissolves and of halogen compounds
Br- Cream ppt. X ppt. dissolves Fluorine:
I- Yellow ppt. X X To make chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
As fluoride in toothpaste
dissolves, it forms a complex ion: To make polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) – non sticking
coating in
pots and pans
AgX(s) + 2NH3(aq) →
[Ag(NH3) 2]+(aq) +
X-
Bromine and Iodine: manufacture of photographic films
The complex ion formed is called Diamine Silver(I) ion Chlorine:
In bleaches
[H3 N :⟶ Ag ←: N H3 ]+
​ ​
To make PVC and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
As solvents
Use of chlorine in water purification:

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The oxidising power of chlorine is used in treatment of Man-made: in car engine, high temp. and pressure
water to
kill bacteria Catalytic convertors: exhaust gases passed through
catalytic
convertors containing a catalyst (platinum/
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)→ HCl(aq) +
HClO(aq) palladium/nickel)
helping to reduce oxides to nitrogen.
HClO(aq)→ HCl(aq) + O Catalytic role in oxidation of sulphur dioxide:

This disproportionation reaction produces reactive

oxygen atoms
which kill bacteria

11. Nitrogen and Sulphur

11.1. Lack of Reactivity of Nitrogen
11.6. Pollution
Nitrogen molecule has three strong covalent bonds
Bond is very strong and requires high energy for splitting Acid Rain: SO3 + H2O→
H2SO4
the two
nitrogen atoms of a molecule. 2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2 or
NO2 + H2O + ½O2 → HNO3
It reacts only under extreme temperature or pressure or
in presence
of catalyst. Damages trees & plants, kills fish and other river life,
buildings,
statues and metal structures
11.2. Ammonium  
Combustion Pollutants:
Lone pair of e-s of nitrogen forms a coordinate bond with
Nitrogen oxide (NO): formed by reaction of N2 and
O2 in
the H+ ion
the engine, forms acid rain and respiratory
problems
Formation: NH3(g) + H+
NH4+ Carbon monoxide (CO): source: incomplete combustion of
Shape: tetrahedral hydrocarbon fuel, toxic effect on haemoglobin
Bond angle: 109.5o
Bond length: equal lengths 11.7. Food Preservation
SO2 is used by itself or as a sulphite to preserve food
Displacement of ammonia from its salts:
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3(aq)
warm
Any Ammonium Salt  +  Any Base   
​

 Ammonia Gas  +  salt  +  water SO2 & sulphites inhibit growth of bacteria, yeasts, etc.
&
are reducing agents, so reduce rate of oxidation of food.
Used to prevent spoilage of dried fruit, dehydrated
11.3. Uses of Ammonia & its Compounds vegetables and
fruit juices.

Used in the production of nitric acid

Used in the production of inorganic fertilizers 12. Introduction to Organic
Used in the production of nylon
Used in the production of explosives Chemistry
11.4. Eutrophication Organic chemistry: study of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives
Nitrate fertilisers leach into rivers and lakes after rain Carbon can form a variety of compounds because:
Water plants grow more than usual Carbon is tetravalent
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath Carbon-carbon bonds can be single, double or triple
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 Atoms can be arranged in chains, branches and rings
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation Homologous series: a series of compounds of similar
structures
in which:
11.5. Oxides of Nitrogen contain the same functional group
all share same general formula
N2(g) + O2(g)→ 2NO(g) or
N2(g) + ½O2(g)→ NO2(g) formula of homologue differs from neighbour by CH2
similar chemical properties
Naturally: during lightning, EA provided for
N2 to react gradual change in physical properties as Mr increases

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Functional group: an atom or group of atoms in an organic Organic Family Suffix Example
molecule that determine the characteristic reactions of a
homologous
series.
Alkyl group: a reactive group which is alkane minus 1 H
-ol Methanol
12.2. Hybridization
Hybridisation: mixing up of different atomic orbitals Alcohols
resulting
in new orbitals of equal energy.
Carbon’s electron configuration:

-al Methanal

Aldehydes

sp3 sp2 sp
All orbitals mix 2s, 2px, 2py mix 2s and 2px mix
-one Propanone
3 sp2 orbitals 2 sp orbitals
4 sp3 orbitals
1 pure p orbital 2 pure p orbitals
Ratio of characteristics s : p Ketones
1:3
1:2 1:1
Methanoic
-oic
acid

Carboxylic Acid

12.3. Classes of Compound

Methyl
Organic Family Suffix Example -oate
ethanoate

Esters
-ane Methane

Alkanes -amine Methylamine

Amines
-ene Ethene

Alkenes -nitrile Ethyl nitrile

Nitriles
halo- …
Chloroethane
-ane
12.4. Types of Formulae
Halogenoalkanes
Displayed formula (Hexane)

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Examples: CH-, Cl-, NH3,

H2O, CN-

 
Electrophilic reagent (electrophile): acceptor of pair of
e-

+ve ions or e- deficient molecules

Structural formula (Hexane) Attack regions of high e- density
CH3-CH2CH2CH2CH2-CH3
or CH3(CH2) 4CH3 Examples: Br+, CH3+,
AlCl3
Skeletal formula (Hexane)

12.8. Types of Reaction

Molecular formula (Hexane)
C 6H14
12.5. Nomenclature
Select longest chain as the main chain
Other carbon chains as substituent alkyl groups
Give lowest number C in main chain to substituent
molecule removed from reactant (alcohols and
If different alkyl groups present on identical position, give
simpler alkyl smaller number
Two or more alkyl groups present, order alphabetically
by acid or alkali (esters and alkenes)
If same substituent repeated use di, tri, tetra prefix
If ring of carbon present, use prefix cyclo
Write position of double bond in alkene e.g. but-1-ene
12.6. Breaking of Covalent Bonds
Addition reaction: single product formed
Electrophilic addition (alkenes)
Nucleophilic addition (carbonyl compounds)
Substitution reaction: two products formed
Nucleophilic substitution (halogenoalkanes)
Free radical substitution (alkanes)
Elimination reaction: more than one product formed,
small
halogenoalkanes)
Hydrolysis reaction: breaking down of molecule by water,
sped up
12.9. Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation: addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen
Reduction: addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen

Homolytic Fission: 12.10. Shapes of Ethane and Ethene

Two atoms sharing e- pair of similar electro-tivity
Ethane: sp3 bonds, all sigma bonds
When bond breaks, each atom takes one e- from pair of
electrons forming free radicals
Free radicals: electrically neutral atoms or group of atoms
with
unpaired electrons very reactive
Free radical reaction catalysed by heat or light

 
Heterolytic Fission:

Two atoms sharing e- pair are of different electro-tivity

When bond breaks, one of the bonded atoms takes both Ethene: Planar Shape, H – C – H bond = 120o
bonding
e-s
Results in formation of +ve and –ve ions
If +ve charge on C, its called carbocation or carbonium
If –ve charge on C, its called carbanion

Note: homolytic fission require less

energy than heterolytic

12.7. Types of Reagents

Nucleophilic reagent (nucleophile): donator of pair of e-

Benzene
Must have lone pair of e-s
Attack centre of +ve charge (positive pole)
Reaction with nucleophile called nucleophilic reactions

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Have different physical and chemical properties

Ratio of C : H Functional Gps. Example

1:3 Alcohol & Ether C 2H­6O
1:2 Aldehyde & Ketone C 3 H6 O
1:2
12.11. Isomerism Must have O2
Carboxylic acid & Ester C 3H6O2

Existence of two or more compounds with the same

molecular formula
but different structural formula
12.15. Geometric (cis/trans) Isomers
Shown only by alkenes
Arises due to restriction of double bond
Only possible when each carbon has 2 different groups
cis-trans isomers have different b.p.
cis isomers have higher dipole
trans isomer of symmetrical alkene has zero dipole

Note:

Straight chain alkanes have higher b.p. than branched

Branching makes molecule more spherical reduces
contact points VDW
forces decreases

12.12. Chain Isomers

Isomers have different carbon chain length
12.16. Optical Isomers
Same chemical properties but slightly different physical
Example: Arises from different arrangement of atoms or groups in
3D space
resulting in two isomers
Have effect on polarised light
Chiral carbon: a carbon having 4 single bonds and 4
different
atoms or groups
Isomers non-super-imposable images of each other
Have same physical and chemical properties
No. of optical isomers in a molecule containing n chiral
carbons
= 2n
12.13. Position Isomers
Isomers differ in position of substituent atoms or group or
the
functional group
Same chemical properties but slightly different physical
Example: But-1-ene

13. Hydrocarbons
13.1. Properties
Example: But-2-ene
Generally unreactive:

All C–C bonds single; alkanes = saturated hydrocarbons

Non-polar ∴ no center of charge to act as either
nucleophile or electrophile ∴ cannot attract polar
12.14. Functional Isomers reagents like acids, bases, metals or oxidizing agents

Physical properties:
Isomers have different functional groups, belong to
different
homologous series

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The volatility of the alkanes decreases and m.p/b.p
increases as
number of carbon atoms increases
electrons loosely and more susceptible to attacks
Reason: increasing Van der Waals forces
deficient groups like electrophiles
13.2. Combustion
More reactive than alkanes due to presence of double
bond; pi
by e-
Alkenes combust completely carbon dioxide + water
Give energy but not used as fuels; have other uses

Used as fuel because they burn in oxygen to given out 13.7. Electrophilic Addition Mechanism
large amounts
of energy
Alkanes kinetically stable in presence of O2; combustion
occurs when necessary amount of Ea supplied
Reaction occurs only in gas phase
Complete: carbon dioxide + water
Incomplete: carbon monoxide + carbon (soot) + water
General Equation of Hydrocarbon Combustion:
y y
C xHy + (x + ) O2 → xCO 2 + H2 O
4 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Electrophile forms by heterolytic fission

13.3. Substitution Electrophile attacks double bond
Pair of e-s from double bond migrate to electrophile and

Alkanes react with halogens: Cl2 and Br2 π bond breaks

Carbocation formed which attacks the nucleophile
Example: Chlorination of Methane
Reaction
Reagent Condition
Type Mechanism
13.8. Carbocations
Cl2(g) UV light Substitution Free Radical

of C =**
$\mathbf{\uparrow}$ **variety of products**

13.4. Cracking
Breaking of large less useful alkanes into useful, more
energy value
smaller products using heat & catalyst
Products:
smaller alkanes and alkenes or Markovnikov’s principle: an electrophile adds to an
smaller alkenes and hydrogen gas unsymmetrical alkene so that the most stable carbocation
Thermal cracking: high temp. & pressure is formed
as an intermediate
Catalytic cracking: high temp. & catalyst Hydrogen binds to carbon with more hydrogens

13.5. Hydrocarbons as Fuels Inductive effect of alkyl groups:

Alkyl groups donate e-­­ to the ring
Source of alkanes: crude oil Producing a positive inductive effect
Steady change in b.p. of alkanes allows crude oil to be A larger alkyl group has a weaker inductive effect
separated by
fractional distillation
Catalytic conversion of CO and NOx: 13.9. Addition Reactions
2NO2 + 4CO N2 + 4CO2
2NO + 2CO N2 + 2CO2 Hydrogenation (Alkene + H2 Alkane)
Reagent: H2(g)
13.6. Alkenes Condition:
Catalyst: Nickel
Unsaturated hydrocarbons Temp.: 100oC
Contain at least one C=C double bond Press.: 2 atm.
General formula: C nH2n (like cycloalkanes) Use: convert liquid oils to saturated solid fats
Source of alkenes: Halogenation (Alkene + X2 Dihaloalkane)
Cracking alkanes Reagent: Halogen(aq)
Dehydration of alcohols
­Condition: r.t.p./dark

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Halogenation (Alkene + Hydrohalogen Halogenoalkane) Insulation of wires

Reagent: Hydrohalogen(g)
Condition: r.t.p.
Hydration (Alkene + H2O(g) Alcohol)
Reagent: steam General conditions: high pressure,
Condition: high temperature and catalyst
Catalyst: H3­PO4 – phosphoric acid Disadvantages:
Temp.: 300oC Non-biodegradable: does not break down so increases
Press.: 70atm amount of
volume needed for landfill sites
Combustion produces harmful gases which contribute
to global
warming e.g. SO2, CO­2 and HCl from PVCs
13.10. Oxidation of Alkenes
Disposal of Polymers:
Recycle existing plastic
Both oxidation and addition to double bond involved
Make polymers biodegradable by adding starch units
KMnO4 changes from pink to colourless

With Cold Dil. Acidified KMnO4/H+ 14. Halogen Derivatives

Diol is formed
14.1. Types of Halogenoalkanes

Primary 1o (S N 2)

With Hot Conc. Acidified KMnO4/H+

Leads to the rupture of the double bond

Two compounds are formed
Products formed depend on alkene
Secondary 2o (S N 2)

Tertiary 3o (S N 1)

13.11. Polymerization
Repeated addition of 1000s of alkene molecules
(monomer) to each
other forming a macromolecule 14.2. Strength of C – Hal Bond
Polyethene:
LDPE: cling wrap Polar Nature Bond Energy Reactivity
HDPE: water pipes, wire insulation Fluoro
Chloro
Decrease Decrease Increases
Bromo
Iodo
Polychloroethene (PVC):
Water pipes

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Polar Nature Bond Energy Reactivity 14.5. Reflux

Electro-tivity Bond length increases, bond
decreases energy decreases, lower EA so
Many organic reactions proceed slowly
down group
more reactive Heating done under reflux to prevent volatile organic
solvents to
evaporate
Mechanism similar to simple distillation
14.3. Nucleophilic Substitution
Mechanism
The C – X bond is a polar bond, has partial charges due to
high
electro-tivity of halogen.
The δ+ carbocation is easily susceptible to attack by a
nucleophile

S N 1 Mechanism:
14.6. Elimination Reaction

R – X + OH- Alkene + X- + H2O

Mechanism:
Unimolecular – only one molecule involved in 1st step
Tertiary halogenoalkanes

S N 2 Mechanism:

Reagent: ethanolic NaOH or KOH

Conditions: temp. 60oC, reflux
Bimolecular – two molecules involved in 1st step
OH- acts as a proton acceptor; it accepts the
H+ loss from
Primary and secondary halogenoalkanes
the halogenoalkanes during elimination
Elimination become progressively easier
14.4. Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction
Primary < Secondary < Tertiary
Hydrolysis (R – X + OH- R – OH + X-)
Note: the carbon atom adjacent to carbon with halide
Reagent: strong alkali; NaOH(aq) or
KOH(aq)
must have at
least one hydrogen attached to it.
Condition: heat/reflux
Fluoroalkanes are not hydrolysed because the C – F
bond is too
strong 14.7. Uses of Halogenoalkanes
Ease of hydrolysis increases: Primary < Secondary <
Tertiary CFCs are inert and can be liquefied easily: Strength of C –
Tertiary halogenoalkanes can be hydrolysed without X
bond is very high, hence do not decompose easily and
alkali are not
flammable.
Uses:
Note: if any Cl- or Br- ions present in
NaOH(aq), these
As propellants in aerosol cans
ions will interfere with reaction
As solvents in dry-cleaning
Nitrile (cyanide) (R – X + CN- RCN + X-) As refrigerant for freezers and fridges
Reagent: KCN or NaCN in ethanol Fire extinguishers, insecticides and pesticides
Condition:
Solvent: Ethanol
14.8. CFCs Effect on Ozone Layer
Heat/Reflux
Reaction forms a C – C bond therefore no. of C
Causes the destruction of the ozone layer
increases; name
has one more carbon
CFCs escape in atmosphere and because of their
Primary Amines (R – X + NH3 RNH2(l) +
HX(g))
inertness, remain
without further reaction until they reach
Reagent: Ammonia (NH3) the stratosphere and ozone
layer.
Condition: ammonia in alcohol under pressure in In stratosphere, high energy U.V causes Cl atom to split of
sealed container CFC
molecule forming Cl⋅ which reacts with ozone
Note: if excess conc. ammonia used, HX reacts with it
This is a catalytic cycle where one Cl⋅ can react with many
forming NH4X
O3 thus causing destruction of ozone layer:

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Cl⋅ + O3(g) ⋅OCl(g) +

O2(g) b.p. of alcohols > alkenes as they have hydrogen bonds
⋅OCl(g) + O(g) Cl⋅ +
O2(g)
 
Can react and breakdown another O3 molecule
Solubility of Alcohols in Water:
Note: alternative is using HCFCs (replace Cl with H or
Smaller alcohols mix completely with water since strong
more F
atoms) as they break down more easily and do not hydrogen
bonds occur between alcohols and water
release Cl → less
effect on ozone layer As hydrocarbon nature increase (i.e. more C-C… bonds),
the non-polar
character outweighs the ability of the OH to
15. Hydroxy Compounds form hydrogen bonds and
∴ solubility decreases
Small alcohols (e.g. ethanol) are good solvents for both
polar and
non-polar compounds as they have polar and
15.1. Types of Alcohols non-polar components

Primary 1o 15.3. Reaction with Sodium

R – OH + Na(l) RO- Na+ + ½

H2(g)

Type of reaction: acid-base

Reagent used: liquid sodium metal
Reactivity of alcohols decreases with increasing chain
lengths of
hydrocarbon
Secondary 2o Reaction less vigorous than that of Na and water which
shows water
is a stronger acid than alcohol

15.4. Reaction with Carboxylic Acids

Tertiary 3o

Reagent Condition Type of Reaction

Heat-reflux
Source of Alcohols: R-COOH Esterification
Conc. H2SO4
Hydration of alkenes
Fermentation
as fats, oils & flavours in fruits

15.2. Properties Used in food flavourings and perfumes and as solvents

Physical Properties: 15.5. Hydrolysis of Esters

Colourless liquids at r.t.p
b.p. and density increases with increasing C atoms and
also with
increasing OH groups

 
Boiling Point:
b.p. decreases→

because: 15.6. Dehydration of Alcohols

Alcohol(l) Alkene + H2O(l)

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Condition: Tertiary alcohols not oxidised because no hydrogens

Conc. H2SO4 OR attached to
carbon with OH group so oxidising agent
H3PO4 at 180oC OR colour does not change

Al2O3 at 300oC
Type of reaction: Elimination
15.9. Tests for Alcohols
Mechanism: Result with:
Reagent
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Na metal Bubble of H2 Gas

K2Cr­2O4 /H+ Green X

Adjacent carbon to carbon with OH must have at least one

KMnO4/H+ Colourless X

hydrogen
(tertiary cannot undergo dehydration)

15.7. Halogenation
16. Carbonyl Compounds
Boiling Point:
Type of Reaction: Nucleophilic Substitution

R – OH R – X
Forming
Producing: Reactions Condition
Reagent
Conc. HCl Solubility:
Zn +
RCl(l) +
Heat/Reflux
H2 O Smaller carbonyl compounds: completely soluble as they
SOCl2 form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules; are good
RCl(l) + solvents for polar &
non-polar solutes
Larger carbonyl compounds: polar nature decreases, and
SO2(g) +
non-polar
nature increases; ability to form hydrogen
HCl(g)
Alkyl r.t.p bonds decreases
Chlorides PCl5 RCl(l)
+
POCl3(aq)
16.2. Nucleophilic Addition with HCN
R– + HCl(g)
OH+ Reagent Condition Type of Reaction
PCl3 RCl(l)
HCN HCN w/alkali or HCN w/KCN Nucleophilic Addition
+
Heat/Reflux
H3PO3(aq)
Since HCN added, carbon chain increases
+ HCl(g)
Product formed is hydroxynitrile or cyanohydrine
NaBr + HBr(g) Aldehydes are more susceptible to nucleophilic attacks
H2SO4(aq) RBr(l) + than ketones
HBr Alkyl H2 O Smaller carbonyl compounds more reactive
r.t.p Product has a chiral carbon ∴ exhibits optical
isomerism
P + Br2 – Bromides PBr3(g)
warm RBr(l) +
Mechanism:
PBr3 H3PO3(aq)
PI3(g) RI(l)
P + I2 – Alkyl
+ r.t.p
warm PI3 Iodide
H3PO3(aq)

15.8. Oxidation of Alcohols

Note: HCN is a poor nucleophile and with few CN-
ions, the
Reagent: Oxidising agents
reaction is slow. To increase CN- conc.:
Reagent Type of Reaction
Make HCN react in presence of alkali
Acidified K2Cr­2O4 Acidified KMnO4
Oxidation
Orange to Green Pink to Colourless HCN + OH- H2O + CN-

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Addition of KCN and dilute H2SO4 can provide

HCN and High m.p./b.p.
-
more CN ions High solubility of smaller carboxylic acids
Forms hydrogen bonded dimers when pure vapour, liquid
or solid &
when dissolved in non-polar organic solvents
16.3. Reduction of Carbonyl
Compounds

Type of Reaction: nucleophilic addition (H- ions)

Reducing agents:
NaBH4 – sodium tetrahydrioborate
17.2. Formation of Carboxylic Acids
LiAlH4 – lithium aluminium hydride
From alcohols: complete oxidation of primary alcohols
H2/Pt or Ni From aldehydes: oxidation of aldehydes
Aldehydes ⟹ 1o
Alcohols From nitriles: acid/base hydrolysis of a nitrile
R-CHO + 2[H] RCH2OH
Ketones ⟹ 2o Alcohols
R-CO-R + 2[H] R-CH(OH)-R

16.4. Testing Carbonyl Compounds

2,4,- dinitrophenylhydrazine: 17.3. Formation of Salts
Heterolytic fission of the hydroxyl bond (-OH)
Salts called carboxylates

It is a nucleophilic addition & condensation/elimination

Forms: red/orange ppt.
The m.p. of the ppt. can be used to identify individual
aldehydes
and ketones

Tests Given only by Aldehydes:

18. Analytical Techniques
Tollen’s Reagent 18.1. Infra-red Spectroscopy
Solution of AgNO3 + aq. NH3 excess AG(N H3 )2
This is when a sample being analysed is irradiated with
​ ​

Aldehyde + Tollen’s Reagnet Silver Mirror electromagnetic waves in the infra-red region of the
electromagnetic
spectrum.
Ag + reduced to Silver and –CHO oxidised to acid
Machine used is spectrophotometer and it detects
intensity of
wavelengths of infra-red that pass through the
2Ag + + RCHO 2Ag + RCOOH- + H+
sample
Fehling’s Solution The energy absorbed corresponds to changes in vibration
CuSO4 in ammonia solution of bonds
leading to the bond being to stretch, bend and
Aldehyde + Fehling’s Solution Red ppt. twist
At a specific frequency, the resonance frequency, the
Cu2+ reduced to Cu(I) oxide and –CHO oxidised to acid
largest
vibrations are obtained
Each type of vibration will absorb characteristic
2Cu2+ + RCHO 2Cu+ + RCOOH-
wavelengths of
infra-red radiation
H+ We can hence identify the presence (or absence) of
different
functional groups from the absorbance pattern
17. Carboxylic Acids and on an infra-red
spectrum

Derivatives
Weak acids; don’t dissociate completely
Forms hydrogen bonds:

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IR spectroscopy identifies particular bonds in a molecule,

and so
each pollutant will show a different pattern of
absorptions – this
allows the identification of the pollution
It is also possible to measure the concentration of each
pollutant
with the different amounts of absorption

18.2. Monitoring Air Pollution

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