AY1920 EG114101 Teaching Materials

Chapter 1.
RC Buildings
Reinforced Concrete (R.C.)
There are various types of construction materials, among which reinforced

concrete is the most common one used in Hong Kong. Reinforced concrete is
composed of concrete and reinforcement, where reinforcement is in the form of steel
bar.
Concrete
 Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate and water. Concrete sets to a

rock-like mass due to the chemical reaction (hydration) which takes place
between cement and water, resulting in a paste or matrix (calcium silicate
hydrate) which binds the other constituents together.
 The quality of a concrete is denoted by its compressive strength. For example,
a concrete that has a compressive strength of 40 MPa is known as Grade 40
concrete (or C40).
 Plain concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. The actual ratio
varies but roughly the compressive strength is about ten times of the tensile
strength.
 If a plain concrete beam is bent, the upper part of the beam will be set in
compression while the lower part will be in tension.
 It can be expected that the beam will fail in tension at a relatively small loading.
 If this weakness in tension is reinforced in such a manner that the tensile
resistance is raised to a similar value as its compressive strength, the reinforced
beam will be able to support a load ten times that of the plain concrete beam.
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Chapter 1. RC Buildings
Load Compression in
upper fibres
simply supported plain concrete beam
Tension in The beam will crack

lower fibres break at low loading
Loading a plain Concrete Beam
Load Compression in
upper fibres
Simply supported R.C. beam
Tension in The reinforcement

lower fibres helps to resist tension
Loading a Reinforced Concrete Beam
Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars (rebar) are made of high carbon steel. They are manufactured by
hot rolling and therefore also known as ‘Hot rolled steel bar”. Two types of rebar
are used for construction:
Plain round steel bar
A plain round steel bars is made of mild steel. It is classified as Grade 250. It
means that the characteristic yield stress shall not be less then 250 MPa. Common
nominal sizes (bar diameter in mm) are: 10, 12 and 16. Plain round steel bars are
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named with a prefix ‘R’. For example, R10 denotes a plain round steel bar of 10
mm diameter.
Plain round steel bar Deformed high tensile steel bar
Deformed high tensile steel bars
A deformed high tensile steel bar is rolled on the surface with ribs to increase the
bond strength with concrete. It is classified as grade 500. Common nominal sizes
are: 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40. They are named with a prefix ‘T’. (Formerly it
is name as high yield steel bar with a prefix ‘Y’.)
Reinforced concrete structures
Beam
Wall Superstructure
Column
Floor slab
Substructure
Foundation
A typical reinforced concrete building 3 of 18

Major structural elements of a R.C. framed building
 Columns are vertical members which carry the loads from beams and transfer
the loads down to the foundations.
Main beam Span
Column
Secondary beams
Typical R.C. Framed Structure
 Beams are horizontal member supporting floor slabs. They are further
subdivided into main beam and secondary beam.
Main beams span between columns and transfer the loads placed upon them to
the columns.
Secondary beams span between main beams and transfer their loadings to the
main beams. Their primary function is to reduce the spans of the floor slabs.
 Floor slabs provide platforms on which people can circulate and furniture can
be placed.
 Walls – wall can be classified into external walls and internal walls:
External walls are the envelope of the building to exclude rain, wind, sunlight,
etc.
Internal walls (partitions) are used to subdivide the floor space in a storey of
different uses.
Some walls also help to take loadings.
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R.C. Beam
 When a beam is subjected to loading, the upper part of the beam will be in
compression while the lower part is in tension.
 Therefore, main reinforcements should be placed at the bottom side to resist
tension.
 Top bars are often used as carriers for links.
 For heavily loaded beams, top bars also help to resist compressive stress.
 Even though compressive and tensile strengths of the beam are not exceeded,
cracks may still appear in the web of the beam near the supports. These cracks
are in fact shear failure lines at an angle of approximately 45 to the horizontal,
and sloping downward toward to the supports.
P P
Crushing
Flexural cracks
Shear crack R
R
Crack Pattern of Loading a R.C. Beam
 Shearing stress may be resisted by bent up bars at 45 to the horizontal and
positioned to cut the anticipated shear failure plane at right angles. These are
in fact the main bars from the bottom of the beam which are no longer required
to resist tension which can be bent up to the top and carried to the support.
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A
Links at close centres Links at nominal centres Links at close centres
02 02
03
01 01 01
Main bars 01 Top bars 02 Link 03 Section
A
A-A
Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement (without bent up bar)
 Even where shear resistance is not required, nominal links are provided in
beams for hanging up the top bars. They also help to minimize shrinkage
cracks of the concrete and confine the compression bars from buckling.
 For cantilever beams, main bars should be placed at the top as tension is
appeared at the top of the beam.
Main bars
Link
Bottom bars
Fixed
support
Typical Reinforcement Details of Cantilever Beam
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R.C. Column
Since concrete is strong in compression, it may be concluded that no reinforcement

will be required in columns provided the compressive strength of the concrete is not
exceeded. However, rebars are often added in a column. The major reasons are to
increase its compressive capability of the column and to resist bending. Bending
may be induced in columns in the following conditions:
 Buckling of slender column when subject to axial load (a column is considered

to be slender if the ratio of effective height to thickness exceeds 15).
 Reaction to beams upon the column, as the beam deflects it tends to pull the
column towards itself thus inducing bending in the column.
 Wind loading acting on high-rise buildings, the columns on the windward side
may be subject to tension.
P P
Wind
Columns
in tension
Buckling of Reaction to beam Wind Loading acting on

Slender Column upon the column High-rise Building
 The minimum number of the main bars in a column should not be less than four
for rectangular columns and six for circular columns.
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 To prevent the slender main bars from buckling

due to compression and hence causing spalling
of the concrete, links shall be provided at
suitable centres as restraints. A A
main
bar
Main bar link

link
B B
Section A - A Section B - B
Typical R.C. Column Reinforcement
R.C. Slabs
Main bars Top reinforcement

(at top for cantilever structures) (to resist hogging over support)
Slab
Canopy Main bars of slab

Beam
Distribution bars
Typical Slab Reinforcement
 Slabs are spanning members and they behave very similar to beams.
 Main bars should be placed at the bottom side of the slab to resist sagging.
 Normally, top reinforcement is not required except for heavily loaded slabs.
However, a hogging moment will occur above supports which necessitating top
reinforcements.
 For cantilever slab such as canopies, the main bars shall be place near the top of
the slab to resist top tensile stresses.
 The slab thicknesses of most domestic buildings are about 100 mm to 150 mm.
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There are three basic forms of floor slab systems:
 Beam and slab system
 Flat slab system
Slab
 Ribbed slab system
Beam
Beam and slab system Beam and

slab system
 In this system the slab are supported on beams.

 Most beam and slab systems are designed to span in one way but some are in
two ways.
Slabs
Beams
Columns
Beam & slab spanning two-ways Beam & slab spanning one-way
Flat slab system
 A flat slab is a slab supported on columns directly without beams.

 In fact, a fact slab is divided into columns strips and middle strips while the
reinforcement are concentrated in the column strips.
 Therefore, a column strip can be viewed as a beam with the same thickness as
the slab.
 Structurally, flat and shallow beams are inefficient but have the advantage of
giving a clear ceiling height. Moreover, the most labour intensive element,
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beam, is eliminated which makes the construction much easier.

 Flat slabs are normally designed to span in two ways. Sometimes dropped
panels are added at the supports to resist punching shear around the column
heads.
Middle strip
Slabs
Drop panel
Column strip Columns

Flat slab Flat slab with drop panels
Waffle slab
 A ribbed slab is also known as waffle slab or honeycomb floor (or roof).
 It is cast over lightweight moulds or pans made of glass fibre, or polypropylene.
 Ribs in both longitudinal and transverse directions are formed in close centres
and tied with each others.
 Ribbed slabs can resist great bending moment in both longitudinal and
transverse directions.
 They are used for large span slabs and require less concrete and less
reinforcement than other slab systems.
Slab
Ribs
Column
Waffle slab
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R.C. Walls
External walls
An external R.C. wall should contain a mat of reinforcement in each of two faces.
The horizontal reinforcement of each mat should be evenly spaced in the outer layer
to contain the vertical compression bars. Additional horizontal restraining links
should be provided.
Minimum thickness of a R.C. wall as an external wall is 100 mm.
Horizontal bar Vertical bar
Restraining links
Typical wall reinforcement (plan view)
Shear walls
 Shear walls are thick R.C. walls to increase the lateral stability of a building.
Strong wind tries to cause a high-rise building frame to sway. Shear walls are
ideally suited for bracing tall buildings because of their very high in-plane
stiffness and strength. Therefore, shear wall is also known as ‘wind wall’.
 Shear walls also carry gravity loadings. They replace part of or even all
columns. Shear walls are arranged as external walls and partitions. Grouped
shear wall may also be used to form services cores, elevator shaft and stairwells.
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The floor plan of a typical domestic building in Hong Kong

(Source: Centaline Property)
Non-load bearing walls
 Most partitions are non-load bearing.

 They may be made of reinforced concrete, brick or block.
 Non-load bearing R.C. walls contain only minimum steel.
 Bricks are made of hard well-burnt clay while block are made of cement sand
mortar or concrete.
 They are bond together by cement sand mortar of approx 1:3 (by volume) to
form a wall. Brick or block walls are seldom used as loading walls in HK.
Basic construction process of R.C. structures
Namely, the basic construction process of R.C, structures are:

 Formworking
 Steel fixing
 Concreting
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Formwork
Concrete when first mixed is a fluid. Formwork is the temporary moulds for casting
concrete members where the fresh concrete can be placed to retain its shape, size and
position as it sets.
Formwork materials
A lot of materials can be used as formwork materials, such as timber, steel,

aluminium, glass reinforced plastic, etc. (Only timber formwork will be discussed here.)
Timber plank
 Various sizes of timber planks are available but the most common one used in
Hong Kong is 2” x 4” (50 mm x 100 mm) planks.
Plywood
 Most common type of plywood used in Hong Kong is 4’ x 8’ x 3/4” (1.2 m x 2.4
m x 19 mm) 7 plies plywood.
 Some plywood is resin coated (sealed plywood). It is more expensive but the
board life is extended (typically 5 to 10 reuses) and it gives good concrete finish.
Advantages if using timber as formwork material

 Timber can be easily cut and fabricated into different sizes and shapes.
 Using timber to form formwork is more flexible and is economical in small
projects.
 Not much machinery is needed. (Basically one or two carpenters can complete
the work with simple hand tools, such as hammers, hand saw and nails.)
Disadvantages if using timber as formwork material

 Constructing timber formwork is a labour intensive work. It is uneconomical
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in large scale projects.

 Mechanization usually cannot be employed.
 The reusability of timber formwork is low, only two to five times.
 Considerable amount of timber waste produced which increase the cost to treat
the solid waste.
 Considerable amount of hardwood consumed which destroys our rain forest.
Soffit form
 Bearers of suitable size shall be placed on top of the U-heads / prop cap plate.
 Bearers shall be fixed by wedges / nails centrally to prevent eccentricity and
dislodgement.
 Joists shall be placed at suitable centres on top and at right angle to the bearers.
 Plywood can then be placed on top of the joists and fixed by nails.
Joist
Plywood
Bearer
Fork head
Soffit form
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Column Form
Clamps
Studs
Plywood panel
Plan Front view
Timber Column Formwork
 Column forms are commonly formed by using

four plywood panels backed with vertical
studs.
 To resist lateral hydrostatic pressure caused by
the wet concrete, clamps shall be placed at
suitable centres.
Beam Form
 This is basically a three sided box supported and propped in the correct position
and to the desired level.
 The beam formwork also has to resist lateral hydrostatic pressure of the wet
concrete, sufficient braces shall be provided.
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A Side panel
Slab soffit form
Raking strut
Shutter
Stud
Kicker
Joist
Bearer
Soffit panel
Fork head
Falsework
A Front view Section A-A

Beam formwork
Wall formwork
Wall forms are constructed from the following basic parts:

 plywood panels to retain concrete until it hardens,
 studs which supports the plywood panels,
 wales to support the studs and align the forms
 ties to resist lateral hydrostatic pressure of wet concrete
A
Plywood panel
Wall tie
Stud
Double walings
Floor level Kicker

Front view A Section A-A
Timber wall formwork
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Steel Fixing
Steel bars are cut to correct lengths, bent to desired shapes and then fixed to positions
with steel wires.
3.2.1 Reinforcement Schedules and detailing
Reinforcement on detail drawings is annotated by a coding system to simplify

preparation and reading of the details, for example:
A 5 R10-04-100 B 5 R10-04-100
6 R10-04-200
03 03 2T 10 03
03 03
01 01 01 02 01
02 02
Section A-A 2 T20-01 & 1 T16-02 Section B-B
A B
Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement Details
Legend
total number of bars in the group centre to centre spacing
5 R10 -04-100
plain round steel diameter in mm bar mark number
Typical R.C. Beam Bending Schedule

Member Bar Type No. No. Total Length Shape
mark and of in No. of each
size mbrs each bar
Beam1 1 T20 3 2 6 2600
2300
2 T16 3 1 3 1400 straight
3 T10 3 2 6 2300 Straight
4 R10 3 16 48 1000
250
150
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Hooks and Bends
To prevent bond failure hooks or bends can be used at the ends of bars.
Bend sand Hooks for R-bars Bends and Hooks for T-bars
(Source: R. Chudley)
Concrete Cover
 Concrete cover is the thickness of concrete measured from the concrete surface
to the outer face of the reinforcing bar.
 The concrete cover provides corrosion protection and fire protection to the steel.
 Normally, concrete cover is between 20 to 40 mm.
 In very severe condition concrete cover may be increased to 100 mm.
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Chaper 2. Earthwork, Substructure, Foundation and ELS
Reshaping of land profile - cut and fill
Very few sites are level and therefore re-shaping works have to be carried out before
any construction work can be taken place.
A site may be leveled by: cutting, filling, or both.

 Cut: - It has the advantage of giving undisturbed soil over the whole of the site
but would increase the cost of disposing the spoil
 Fill:- Filling materials must be available and compaction must be properly
performed to prevent settlement.
 Cut and fill: - if properly carried out, the amount of cut will be equal to the
amount of fill.
original ground level battered face
cut
formation level
formation level
fill
original ground level
original ground level

formation level
cut
fill
Leveling slopping sites
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Excavation
There are various kinds of excavation plants. Suitable choices of plants increase the
efficiency and reduce the cost.
Backactor / Backhoe
The major functions of a backactor:

 For digging below track level such as trenching and basement excavation
 For trench excavation, using a bucket width equal to the trench width can be
very accurate with a high output rating
 Bulk excavation
 It also digs above track level, such as trimming of slop, but in reduced efficiency.
 For hanging of giant pneumatic breaker for rock excavation
 For lifting of light objects, but never use it as a crane for lifting heaving weights
Backactor (Source: HKSAR Government) Loader Shovel
2.2 Loader Shovel

 Designed for loading loose materials such as aggregate and loosened soil.
 Other tasks: spreading soil and rough grading
 Require a level working platform when operating.
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Bulldozer
 Mainly designed for excavating, spreading or pushing soil from one position to
another.
 Excavation is carried out by lowering the mould board or blade into the soil and
pushing the soil in front of the machine.
 Other tasks:
 clearing vegetation
 stripping topsoil
 excavating and opening up pilot roads
 maintaining haul roads
 as tractor for towing other plants
Bulldozer Face Shovel
Face Shovel (Front Shovel)
 Designed for digging above track level.

 Extensively used in quarries and pits and on construction sites and is useful in
excavation blasted rock in cuttings, etc.
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Multipurpose Excavator
 Both backhoe and loader shovel attached in one machine. It is also known as
backhoe loader.
 Multi-function.
 Useful in confined site.
 The two components cannot be operated at the same time.
Road Lorry
Backhoe Loader
Road Lorries
 For hauling on public roads.

 Sizes up to about 38 tonnes gross vehicle weight.
 Loaded by other plant but unloaded by side or rear tipping.
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Dump trucks and dumpers.
 Vary in size from 1 to about 80 tonnes capacity.

 Large capacity machines are generally used in large mines or quarries.
 The speed of tipping is increased over a road lorry by the absence of a tailgate.
 Small dumper units are available for work on small sites and commonly have the
load carried in front of the driver.
Dumper Dump Truck
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Rock Excavation
The techniques of breaking and excavating rock or other hard material depend on the
type of material, the quantity involved and the conditions on site. Such techniques
include:
Pneumatic breakers
Pneumatic breakers may be used to break the rock into small fragments. The power
supply to this type of breaker is from an air compressor. Small pneumatic breakers
are hand-held while giant breakers are hung on excavators.
Hand-held pneumatic breaker Giant pneumatic breaker

(Source: Atlas Copco) (Source: Krupp)
Drill and blast
Holes of 25 – 150 mm  can be formed in rocks by rock drilling methods. The rocks
can then be further broken down by explosives.
There are basically two methods of producing holes in rock. These are:
 Rotary-percussive drilling
 Rotary drilling
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Rotary-percussive drilling
For hard rocks, the rotary-percussive drilling method is often favoured because the
rig is light and provides good rates of penetration up to 50 m deep and 150 mm
diameter. The method is used for blast holes, rock anchors, grouting holes, etc.
In rotary-percussive drilling the drill bit is supplied with both a percussive and a
relatively slow rotary action. The broken rock fragments are flushed out with either
compressed air or water. Various types of bits are available for different conditions:
Chisel and cross bit (Source: J. Antill))
Rotary-Percussive Drilling Rig

(Source: Boart Longyear) Button bits
(Source: Boart Longyear)
Rotary drilling
For larger diameters boreholes, or when boring to greater depths and accuracy are
required, or where soil or soft rock are encountered, rotary drilling methods are
preferred.
Rotary drilling relies on a high feed thrust applied down the drill stem, to force the
edges of the bit into the rock surface. High torque and rotation of the drill shaft then
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cause cracking and chipping, and rock fragments are broken away. Flushing of the
drill hole may be carried out with water or compressed air. Various bits are available
for different conditions:
Drag bit
Roller bits
Blasting
Blasting is a specialist operation not to be discussed here.
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Filling
Fill materials
Earthwork fill materials may consist of soil, rock, or inert construction and
demolition material.
Inert construction and demolition material shall mean rock, rubble, earth, soil,
concrete, asphalt, brick, tile and masonry generated from construction and demolition
works.
Fill material shall also be capable of being compacted to form stable areas of fill.
Compaction
Earthwork fill materials when deposited are normally loose and bulked. It is
therefore necessary to compact the materials so as to prevent softening, dislodgment
and settlement of the earth.
Fill material shall be compacted in layers to a stable condition. The thickness of each
layer shall be 150 mm to 300 mm which depends of the capacity of the compaction
plant used. The amount of compaction attained is measured by “dry density” of the
fill. Generally, the fill material shall be compacted to obtain a relative compaction of
at least 95% of the “maximum dry density” of that material.
Soil Insitu Density Test

(Sand Replacement Method)
(Source: Geo Site & Testing Services Ltd.)
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Compaction plants
Vibrating Rollers
 Beside the weight of the machine, vibration greatly improves compaction
performance.
 They are suitable for compacting granular soil
 Various size available:
- manually guided tandem roller (1 tonne baby roller)
- up to 20 tonnes vibrating roller (effective compaction thickness: 300 mm)
Manually guided tandem roller Heavy vibrationg roller

(Source: Wacker) (Source: HKSAR Government)
Vibrating plate
 manually guided
 for light compaction
 useful in utility trenches, confined space
and awkward situations
 maximum compaction thickness: 150mm
Vibrating plate
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Power Rammers
 manually operated
 suitable for compacting soil in narrow
trenches and around foundations
 effective compacted depth about 200mm
Power rammer
(Source: Masalta)
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Substructure
Substructures are structures below ground. Foundations and basements are the
most common type of substructures.
Shallow Foundation
A foundation is structure designed and constructed to be in direct contact with

and transmitting loads to the ground.
Shallow foundations are found at a depth of less than 3 m below the finished
ground level.
Pad footing
A pad footing is an isolated foundation

to spread and transfer a concentrated
load to the earth. The plan shape of a
pad footing is usually square.
Pad footing (Source: R. Chudley)
Blinding concrete layer Reinforcement of pad footing
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(Blinding concrete is a layer of non-structural concrete of about 50 mm thick

laid on the earth. Its functions are to provide a flat and clean platform for steel
fixing, formwoking and to prevent contamination of the fresh concrete by the
earth.)
Strip Foundation
A strip foundation is a foundation

providing a continuous longitudinal
ground bearing.
Strip foundation (Source: R. Chudley)
Columns
FRONT
VIEW
Blinding
concrete
PLAN
Strip foundation
Strip foundation supporting closely spaced columns
 Strip foundations are used to transfer the load from a wall, or from a
succession of closely spaced piers or columns, to the ground.
 They consist of a continuous ribbon-shaped strip formed of reinforced
concrete. Main bars are placed transversely to resist bending while
longitudinal bars are used for the continuity of the strip foundation and to
bridge soft spots in the soil.
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Raft foundation
 A raft foundation is a foundation continuous in two directions, usually

covering an area equal to or greater than the base area of the structure.
 The structure moves together with the raft foundation when ground
movements occur such that cracking or damage can be prevented.
 A raft foundation is also called a floating foundation.
Raft foundations are useful in the following cases:

1. where buildings have to be erected on soils susceptible to excessive
shrinkage, swelling or frost heave;
2. where differential settlements are likely to be significant.
3. for structures where the column loads and/or soil conditions are such that
the resulting footings occupy most or the site.
Solid Slab Raft
Solid slab rafts are suitable for lightly loaded structures such as small houses.
A solid slab raft consists of a reinforced concrete slab, usually slightly larger
than the area of the building. Reinforcement in the form of a mesh fabric is
provided on both the top and bottom faces of the slab.
Solid slab Raft (Source: R. Chudley)

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Beam and Slab Raft
There may be variations in ground stiffness and cause differential settlement.

The solid slab raft may be further reinforced with ground beams. The columns
shall be positioned at the intersection of the ground beams.
Columns
Raft slab
Ground level
Blinding
Concrete
Ground beams
Beam and slab raft foundation
Combined foundation
 Rectangular footing is used supporting for two closely spaced columns.

 Balanced base footing is used for eccentrically load column. This often happen
in perimeter column where the footing is limited by site boundary.
Rectangular footing Balanced base footing (Source: R. Chudley)
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Shallow foundations
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Shallow basement
A basement can be defined as a storey with a floor which at some point is more
than 1.2 m below the highest level or ground adjacent to the outside walls.
The structural walls of a basement below ground level are in fact retaining walls
which have to offer resistance to the soil and ground water pressures as well as
assisting to transmit the superstructure loads to the foundations.
Considerations of basement construction

 Excavation methods.
 Surface and ground water control
 Lateral stability of basement excavation.
 Stability of adjoining building.
Lateral stability for basement excavation
There are various kinds of methods for basement construction and maintaining
the stability of the ground. The choice depends on the nature of ground
condition and the depth of basement.
Open Excavations
Open excavation (Source: R. Chudley)

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Temporary support is often needed to the sides of the excavation for stability. These
temporary members can be intrusive when the actual construction works of the
basement is carried out. One method is to use battered excavation sides that cut back
to a safe angle of repose thus eliminating the need for temporary support.
This method is suitable for shallow basement only because the extra volume of
soil needed to be excavated increases rapidly with depth increased. Another
limitation is that large amount of free space around the site must be available.
Sheet piling cofferdam
The term ‘cofferdam’ can be defined as a structure, usually temporary, built for the
purpose of excluding water or soil sufficiently to permit construction to proceed
without excessive pumping, and to support the surrounding ground.
There are a lot of methods and materials for forming cofferdams. Among which steel
sheet piling cofferdam is the most common one in Hong Kong. It has the following
advantages:
a. Steel sheet piles have high structural strength
b. They can be driven deep into most types of ground.
c. Cofferdams can be constructed to a depth of about 15 m below existing ground
level.
d. The sheet pile interlocks provide an almost completely watertight enclosure.
e. The sheet piles can be withdrawn and reused.
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Sheet piles are normally driven into the ground by drop hammers or vibration
hammers to form an enclosure prior to excavation. To ensure that the sheet
piles are pitched and installed vertically a driving trestle or guide frame is used.
Driving of sheet piles
When excavation is taken place inside the cofferdam, adequate support must be
provided for the lateral stability.
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Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts
This method is suitable for a depth up to 5 m. After the sheet piles has been driven
around the perimeter of the site to form an enclosure, the centre of the basement is
excavated down to the formation level but leaving a wedge of soil at the perimeter to
support the cofferdam. Raking struts are installed to support the cofferdam. Finally
the wedge of soil is trimmed away.
battered slope
base slab
waling
sheet pile wall base slab raking struts
Stage I Stage II Stage III
Cofferdam supported with Raking Struts
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Cofferdam supported with strut and waling
In deeper excavation, the sheet pile

cofferdam can be supported with
king post
layers of bracing frame. Each bracing
frame is formed with struts and
walings. For wide cofferdams, king
posts (vertical supports) are installed
to support the bracing frames. This
method is suitable for excavations up
Cofferdam supported with struts and walings
to about 10 m deep. (Source: R. Chudley)
Cofferdam supported with struts and walings
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Work sequence of basement construction (Bottom-up method):

1. Sheet piles are driven into the ground in predetermined location to enclose the
area to be excavated. Meanwhile, piles are installed at suitable positions.
2. The earth inside the cofferdam is excavated to about 1 m below the first bracing
level.
3. The first bracing frame (struts and walings) is installed by welding to support
the cofferdam.
4. The processes of excavation and bracing frame installation are repeated until the
desired depth is reached
5. The pile caps and the base slab of the basement are constructed.
6. The construction of the basement is continued upward until the lowest bracing
frame is encountered.
7. The cofferdam is shored to the basement wall by short struts, and the original
struts are then removed.
8. The above process is repeated until the basement is constructed to the ground
level.
9. The space between the basement and the cofferdam is backfilled with soil and
compacted in layers. The short struts are removed progressively and finally the
sheet piles are withdrawn.
Ground Level
Sheet piles
To be backfilled
and compacted
in layers
Bottom-up basement construction

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Cofferdam support with ground anchors
 After the sheet piles have been driven around the perimeter to form an enclosure,
the centre of the cofferdam is excavated to about 1m below the first bracing
level.
 Holes at suitable spacings and in the same level are drilled into the ground at an
inclination of 30-45 below the horizontal penetrating through the sheet piles.
 Prestressing wires are inserted in to the holes and the ends are grouted with
cement grout.
 Walings and anchorage heads are installed and the wires are prestressed to hold
the cofferdam.
 The process is repeated for the subsequent bracing levels until down to the final
formation level.
This method is suitable for wide and deep basement. It also provides a clear working
area within the cofferdam. However its use is often limited by the site boundary.
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Cofferdam support with ground anchors
Piled Foundation
Classification of Piles
Classification by Method of Load Transmission
 End bearing piles - they act as columns carrying the loads through the
overlaying weak subsoils to a firm stratum on which the pile toes rest.
End bearing piles (Source: Jufri & Wellman)
 Friction piles - they transfer the loads by the adhesion or friction action of
the soil around the perimeter of the pile shaft.
Friction pile (Source: Jufri & Wellman)

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Classification by Method of Installation

 Displacement Piles - the piles are forced into the ground, the soil is
displaced downwards and sideways, but material is not actually removed.
Displacement piles are also called driven piles
Displacement pile (Source: Jufri & Wellman)
 Replacement Piles - a shaft (or hole) is excavated and the soil replaced with
concrete to form a pile. This type of pile is called a replacement pile.
Replacement pile (Source: Jufri & Wellman)
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Choice of pile types will be subject to the following factors:

 Superstructure design and the site area
 Soil conditions and surrounding building and structures
 Availability of equipments and site constraints
 Knowledge of pros and cons of various piling systems
Construction of Displacement Piles
Displacement piles are preformed piles made in a factory, transported to the site, and
then driven into the ground. They are also called ‘preformed piles’ or ‘driven piles’.
Preformed piles may be made of reinforced concrete or steel.
Piling equipment for displacement piles
Displacement piles are generally driven into the ground by one of the following
methods:
1. Percussion
2. Vibration
Percussive driving
Piles are driven into the ground by the impact of heavy pile hammers. There are
several types of pile hammers:
a. Drop hammer
b. Diesel hammer
(These two types of piles are now obsolete.)
c. Hydraulic Hammer
A hydraulic hammer unit is mounted on the pile while operating. It is similar to a

drop hammer but the weight is raised by hydraulic jacks. The weight then falls freely
under gravity on to the pile head. Hydraulic jacks are so powerful that the weight can
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be up to 18 tonnes. The stroke height is about 1-2 m. The blow rate depends on the
stroke height and ranges from 40 to 100 blows per minutes.
Most hydraulic hammers are equipped with silencers nowadays. They produce less
noise than diesel hammers and they do not emit exhaust fumes. They are suitable for
hard drive.
Hydraulic hammer (Source: Junttan) Vibration Hammer
Vibratory driving – vibration hammer
Vibration hammer is comparatively silent. It is used in driving small displacement

piles such as H-piles and sheet piles. The equipment consists of a vibrating unit
mounted on the pile head transmitting vibrations down the length of the pile shaft.
These vibrations are in turn transmitted to the surrounding soil, reducing its shear
strength enabling the pile to sink into the subsoil under its own weight and also that
of the vibration hammer.
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Piling rigs
A piling rig has the function of guiding the pile at its correct alignment from the stage
of first pitching in position to its final penetration. It also carries the hammer and
maintains it in position co-axially with the pile.
Pile helmet
(Source: Jufri & Wellman)
Crane supported leader Piling frame

(Source: R. Chudley)
Pile helmet
Helmets (Source: R. Chudely)
The head of displacement piles must be protected from damage during driving. The
protection consists of resilient packing which is held in position by a steel helmet.
The resilient packing distributes the impact load from the piling hammer evenly on to
the pile head.
The helmet should fit loosely around the pile, so that the pile may rotate slightly
without inducing torsion on the pile.
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Precast prestressed concrete tubular pile
In the past, most of precast concrete piles were square in cross sections. They can be
made of either of normal reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Their bearing
capacity ranged between 800-1500 KN.
In 1980s, precast concrete piles in H.K. became tubular because of the development
of a manufacturing technology. This type of pile is prestressed and the concrete is
compacted by centrifugal spinning process. The spinning process effectively
compacts the zero slump concrete and produces a hollow tube without the need of a
former. They are then steam cured in an autoclave under high steam pressure and
high temperature in order to obtain a minimum concrete compressive strength of
about 80 MPa within three days.
The outside diameters of the piles are about 400-600 mm and in lengths of up to 12
m. They have a nominal bearing capacity in the range up to 3500 KN.
Each pile length has integral steel joint plates (end plates) cast onto ends of the pile.
Lengthening is done by a full penetration butt welding of the end plates.
Steel end plate Guide ring Butt welding

(Source: Jufri & Wellman)
The disadvantages of these piles are that they produce great noise and vibration
during the installation of these piles. Moreover, most Hong Kong soils are coarse,
containing boulders and rocks which are not too suitable for large diameter
displacement piles.
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Preformed Steel piles
Hollow steel piles
Two main types of hollow steel piles: tubular and box sections. Box piles are
normally driven with closed ends (now obsolete) with internal drop hammers. Open
ended tubes can be driven with vibration hammers. Hollow Steel piles have a high
resistance to lateral loading and buckling and good energy-absorbing properties.
They are particular suitable for structures subjected to lateral and impact loading such
as jetties and dolphins.
Steel H-pile
Steel H-pile is strong and tough. The displacement of the soil is little compared with
other types of displacement piles. It is widely used in HK.
Driving steel piles generally do not require pile shoes. In hard conditions, the toe of
the pile may be strengthened. Strengthening may be carried out by welding steel
plates or angles to the toe of the pile. Preformed pile shoes for H-piles are also
available. In ground conditions where boulders exist, Oslo point may be used.
H-pile point
Strengthening by (Source: Housing Department)
welding of angles Oslo Point
(Source: Tomlinson) (Source: Tomlinson)
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Lengthening
Lengthening of steel H-pile is done by butt-welding. Splicers may be used to help

splicing.
Lengthening of steel H-pile is by butt-welding Splicer
Corrosion Protection
Steel preformed piles may deteriorate as a result rusting. Corrosion protection is of

particular importance for steel piles because they are embedded in the ground and
become inaccessible for maintenance. A protective coating shall be applied on the
steel piles before being driven into the ground.
The surfaces of steel piles to which protective coatings will be applied shall be
prepared by blast cleaning.
(Source: General Specification for Civil Engineering Works)
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3.4 Procedure of driving a displacement pile
1. Prepare a piling rig and a piling hammer.

2. Put marks on the pile length at 500 mm interval to indicate the
length being driven.
3. Pitch the pile in the piling rig. Check its alignment and
verticality.
4. Place a suitable pile helmet on the pile head. Mount the piling
hammer on top of it and then start driving.
5. If the whole length of the pile has been driven into the ground,
splice a new length on it, then continue the driving.
6. Repeat step 5 until it renders significant resistance against
driving.
7. Perform the set measurement. If the predetermined set is
attained, the piling process is completed. Otherwise repeat
from step 5 until it does.
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Measurement of set
‘Set’ related to the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile can be determined by pile
driving formulae by considering the parameters of the pile, the soil and the ground
condition. There are many pile driving formulae, among which the Hiley formula is
the most commonly used one.
The final set shall be measured as:

1. penetration per 10 blows, or
2. the number of blows required to produce 25 mm penetration.
Measurement of Set
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Advantages and disadvantages of displacement piles
Advantages
1. Where large numbers of piles are to be installed in easy driving conditions, it can
be more economic.
2. Projection above ground level advantageous to marine structures.
3. The pile can be inspected for quality and soundness before driving.
4. Construction operations not affected by ground water.
5. Not liable to ‘squeezing’ or ‘necking’.
Driven piles for marine structure Necking of replacement pile
Disadvantages of displacement piles
1. Transporting the complete length of pile through narrow and/or congested streets
may be difficult.
2. The driving process, which is generally percussion, can cause unacceptable noise
and vibrations.
3. Pile driving hour is limited by environmental regulations.
4. May break during driving, causing delays and replacement charges.
5. Displacement of soil during driving may damage adjacent structure or cause up
lifting of adjacent piles.
6. Cannot be driven in very large diameters.
7. Cannot be driven in conditions of low headroom.
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Replacement Pile
Replacement pile is also called 'non-displacement pile'. It is formed by boring a pile

shaft and replacing the soil with in situ concrete. In Hong Kong, it is commonly
called ‘bored pile’.
Methods and equipment for boring pile shafts
Rotary boring
Rotary boring involves a drilling rig which may be mounted on a mobile crane or a
truck. The drilling rig consists of a telescopic or extendable kelly bar on which a
boring tool is attached.
Flight auger (Source: Tomlinson) Cheshire auger (Source: R. Chudley)

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There are various types of boring tools:
1. Cheshire auger – The auger has only a few helix turns. It has
to go up and down repeatly to cut the soil and bring the spoil
to the ground surface.
2. Continuous auger (flight auger) – It has a long helix. The
spoil is continuously brought to the ground surface by the
spiral motion. However, the drilling rig must provide
sufficient torque to overcome the great friction.
3. Drilling bucket – It is designed to withstand the high torque
forces developed during penetration of dense strata. The spoil
is temporarily stored in the bucket to reduce the friction
created. The frequency of up and down motions can also be
reduced as compared with that of the Cheshire auger.
4. Coring bucket – It is used to raise a solid core of rock.
5. Chisel - It is used break through boulder or rock.
Cheshire auger Drilling bucket Coring bucket Chisel

(Source: Tomlinson)
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Grab boring
A grab consists of a clamshell bucket which is operated by means of wire ropes

suspended from a mobile crane. The grab is dropped on to the soil with the bucket
opened. It is then closed and cut the soil. The spoil is raised to the ground surface
and emptied at the side of the borehole.
Virtually the rope can be of infinite length. The depth of a borehole can be over a
hundred meters by grab boring. Most boreholes are circular in cross section but can
be rectangular by using a rectangular grab.
Grab boring supplemented by chisel A Hammer Grab
When boulders are encountered, they can be broken by free falling a rock chisel on to
it. The rock fragments are then removed by the grab. Chisel and grab are often used
alternately to break through obstructions.
A circular rock chisel A rectangular rock chisel

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Down the hole (DTH) drilling
A down the hole drill (DTH) is a large size hammer drill. It is equipped with a button
bit that can drill holes into rock with diameters up to 750 mm and to depths of several
hundred meters.
A conventional hammer drill becomes less efficient as the length of borehole

increases because of the loss of energy in drill stem. To overcome this difficulty the
‘down the hole’ drill was developed. Its rotary motor remains above ground level
while the pneumatic hammer is followed down the hole. The drill stem rotates in
slow motion while the drill bit strikes rapidly. The drill debris is blown out by
compressed air.
Pneumatic Hammer
Down the hole drill
Button bit 38 of 66
Reverse circulation drilling (RCD)
A reverse circulation drilling rig can drill at a fast rate in a wide range of ground
conditions including rocks. In Hong Kong, it is commonly use to form the bed rock
sockets for bored piles.
The Reverse circulation drill sits on the temporary steel casing while operating. The
Compressed air is injected through the air delivery pipe and discharge at the base of
the hollow drill stem. The rising column of air and water at the centre of the drill
stem lifts the soil and rock fragments which have been loosened by the drilling bit.
(It is termed as air lifting. Air lifting is also commonly used to clean the bottom of a
bored pile before concreting.)
Rock roller Cutter Reverse Circulation Drill
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Bell-out
The base of a bored pile can be enlarged to three times the shaft diameter to increase
the bearing capacity of the pile. The method is known as under-reaming which is
done by a belling bucket.
The belling bucket is lowered to the bottom a borehole by a kelly bar with the cutter
in retracted position. It is then rotated by the kelly bar and the cutter is jacked out to
form the bell.
Belling bucket in retracted position Belling bucket in extended position

(Source: R. CIRIA) (Source: CIRIA)
Methods of supporting boreholes

Belling tool for rock
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Self-supported (unsupported)
For small diameter bored piles and in stable soils, the borehole may remain
unsupported without collapsing. However, a borehole without support is not
recommended in Hong Kong.
Supported with temporary casing
In unstable or water-bearing ground, the bored pile shaft should be supported by a

steel casing to prevent collapse. The casing can be driven into the ground by a casing
oscillator (or a vibration hammer).
Casing oscillator Vibration hammer
The oscillator consists of a collar clamp and a pair of hydraulic jacks. The collar
clamp grips the casing. The two hydraulic jacks extend and retract repeatly in
opposite phrases. This oscillation motion helps to cut the soil by the casing shoe and
sink the casing into to ground.
The steel casing is usually thick and expensive and will be retrieved after the
borehole is concreted. The casing oscillators (or vibrator hammer) the can be used to
withdraw the casing. In a long pile the casing may be stuck by the concrete and the
extraction becomes difficult. Moreover, temporary steel casings which are in contact
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with concrete shall be withdrawn before the initial set of the concrete has taken place.
Otherwise, it shall be left in place.
To overcome this problem, it is advisable to extract the casing in stages, i.e., the
casing is extracted as concreting progresses upwards. However, it is important that a
sufficient concrete pressure head shall be maintained within the steel casing to ensure
that the pressure from external soil and ground water would not cause necking of the
pile. Extraction of
casing
Earth and
ground
water
pressure
Fresh
concrete
pressure
Light gauge corrugated steel casing Necking of replacement pile
Permanent casing
Sometimes a permanent casing will be lowered into a temporary cased borehole. The
permanent casing is made of light gauge corrugated steel sheet. It is much cheaper
than the thick temporary casing.
The permanent casing prevents the expensive temporary casing being stuck by the
fresh concrete. It also reduces the risk of necking of the pile after extraction of the
temporary casing and prevents the fresh concrete being contaminated by soil and
ground water. Corrugated steel casings are often used in long piles and in difficult
grounds such as reclaimed land.
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Supported with bentonite slurry
Bentonite is a kind of clay. When mixed with the correct amount of water bentonite
slurry produces thixotropic properties, it gives a liquid behaviour when agitated and a
gel structure when undisturbed.
During boring, the borehole is filled with bentonite slurry. The boring action stirs the
slurry so it remains liquid state. But the slurry penetrates slightly into the subsoil and
forms a soft gel or so called 'filter cake' at the interface of the excavation sides.
Hydrostatic pressure caused by the slurry thrusting on the 'filter cake' that prevents
the borehole from collapse. This method is not suitable for soil with high
permeability.
Examples of Replacement Piles
Bored pile
Bored pile is perhaps the most popular type of pile in Hong Kong currently. The
maximum diameter can be over 3 m and the pile length can be over 100 m. It can be
designed to carry loads up to 30000 kN.
There are various techniques for boring pile shafts and supporting them. The choices
of the methods and their combinations depend on the ground condition and the pile
design. Some typical examples are as follows:
Bored pile supported with temporary and permanent casing
Procedure
1. Pitch a temporary steel casing in the correct position and drive it into the ground
with a casing oscillator.
2. Bore within the casing with a hammer grab. Boring shall not go beyond the
bottom of the casing to prevent collapse of the borehole.
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3. If rocks or boulders are encountered, use a chisel to break them and then use the
grab to remove the fragments.
4. Extend the steel casing and drive it into the ground if necessary.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 until the founding rock is reached.
6. Place a reverse circulation drill on top of the steel casing. Form the socket of
desired depth into the bed rock with a roller cutter. The debris is removed by air
lifting.
7. Remove the RCD. (Lower a permanent casing into the borehole.)
8. Lower the reinforcement cage into the borehole.
9. Check the rate of ingress of ground water. If it does not exceed 0.3 L/s, place
high slump concrete into the shaft immediately after it is pumped dry.
Otherwise, fill the shaft with tremie concrete.
10. Extract the temporary steel casing as the concreting is progress upward. When
the concrete level reaches the desired lever, the piling process is completed.
Boring supported with temporary casing Boring supported with bentonite slurry
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Bored pile supported with bentonite slurry
Procedure
1. Pitch a steel collar casing in the correct position and drive it into the ground with
a vibration hammer.
2. Fill bentonite slurry within the casing and excavate the borehole with a hammer
grab.
3. Maintain the slurry level to about 500 mm below the top of the casing during the
whole piling process.
4. If rocks or boulders are encountered, use a chisel and the grab alternately to
break the rocks and remove the fragments.
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 until the founding rock is reached.
6. Use the chisel and the grab alternately to form a socket in the rock.
7. Lower the reinforcement cage into the borehole through the slurry.
8. Insert an air lift pipe to the bottom of the borehole. Clean the bottom of the
borehole with air lifting. Slurry loaded with soil particles shall be pumped to a
settling tank, stained and recycled.
9. Fill the pile shaft with tremie concrete. Displaced slurry shall be retrieved.
10. Stop concreting with the concrete reaches 1 m above the cut-off level. Remove
the collar casing and the piling is completed.
Barrette
(Source: General Specification for Civil Engineering Works)
By definition, a barrette is exactly the same as a bored pile supported with bentonite
slurry. However, a barrette is often referred as a pile in rectangular cross section. Its
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formation is the same as that of a bored pile except that four concrete guide walls are
used instead of the collar casing. The guide walls are about 150 mm thick, arranged
as a topless and bottomless box with internal dimension the same as the barrette
section.
Formation of guide walls Excavation of barrette
Socketted steel H-piles
 A socketted steel H-pile is a replacement pile with an H-pile in the core.

 It is formed by pre-drilling a borehole which is temporary supported with a steel
casing. The borehole shall be of adequate size to allow a minimum grout cover
of 40 mm to the H-pile.
 The borehole shall be sunk to sound rock level and the bottom of the borehole
shall then be cleaned by air lifting.
 A H-pile is inserted into the borehole and the annular space is subsequently
filled with cement grout.
 The temporary casing can then
be withdrawn.
Socketted steel H-piles 47 of 66

Bored pile over water
Piling over Water
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Minipile (Micropile)
Minipiles are defined as piles having a diameter of less than 300 mm. Generally they
range in shaft diameter from 50 to 250 mm, with working loads in the range of 50 to
500 kN. There are many ways of forming minipiles. A typical method currently used
in Hong Kong is:
1. Drill a borehole of about 150 mm diameter with a rotary drilling rig and line the
borehole with a steel casing.
2. Grout the borehole with cement slurry from the bottom of the hole.
3. Insert the pile reinforcement into the casing. Normally it consists of 2-4 numbers
of T40 or T50 bars.
(The steel casing is left in place to enhance corrosion protection.)
The principal use of minipiles is for underpinning work or in steep slope where large
piling machine cannot access.
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Placing Concrete in Piles
Concreting by trunking
In boreholes where the rate of ingress of water does not exceed 0.3 L/s, the piles shall
be dried immediately before concrete is placed. Then the concrete can be placed
using a readily workable mix (slump  100 mm , which is self-compacting but does
not segregate) through a trunking.
Concreting under water (tremie method)

If the excavations for piles are supported by bentonite slurry or if the rate of ingress
of water exceeds 0.3 L/s, concrete shall be placed by a tremie. A tremie is a steel
tube suspended in the water by a crane, with a hopper fixed to the top end to receive
the concrete. The tube shall be watertight, smooth-bored, diameters of 150 - 200 mm.
The tremie concrete shall be of high workability (minimum 150 mm slump).
Procedure:
 Erect the tremie pipe (with hopper) vertically and resting on the bottom of the
pile shaft.
 Place a traveling plug (formed with foamed plastic in plastic bag) into the tremie
pipe.
 Feed high slump concrete into the hopper to push the traveling plug downward.
 When the plug reaches the bottom, slightly raise the tremie pipe to let the plug
and the concrete to flow out.
 Continuously feed fresh concrete into the tremie pipe. Pump away displaced
water/bentonite slurry.
 Raise and remove sections of the tremie pipe progressively to maintain the
concrete flow rate, but keeping at least 3 m embedment of the tremie pipe in the
concrete.
 Continue concreting until the concrete level reaches 750 mm above the cut-off
level.
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 Remove the tremie pipe. The concreting process is completed.

(The surplus concrete shall be trimmed away after hardening.)
Concreting by tremie method
Advantages and Disadvantages of Replacement Piles
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Advantages of replacement piles:
1. Soil or rock removed in boring can be inspected for comparison with site
investigation data.
2. Can be installed in very large diameters.
3. Can be installed in very long length.
4. End enlargements up to three diameters are possible
5. Can be installed without appreciable noise or vibration.
6. Can be installed in conditions of very low headroom.
7. No risk of ground heave.
Disadvantage replacement piles:
1. Drilling a number of piles in group can cause loss of ground and settlement of
adjacent structures.
2. Squeezing or ‘necking’ may occur in soft ground that reduces the bearing
capacity of the pile.
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Diaphragm Walls
Diaphragm walling describes the construction of continuous concrete walls into the
ground. The process, sometimes called the slurry trench method, involves the
excavation of a narrow trench to the required depth which supported with bentonite
slurry. The trench is then filled with concrete to form the wall.
Reinforced Concrete diaphragm wall
Construction procedures of cast-insitu concrete diaphragm wall:
1. A perimeter trench, 1 to 1.5 m deep and with a width equal to the wall
thickness plus 300 mm is excavated.
2. The trench is lined on both sides with 150 mm thick in-situ concrete. (The
linings provide a guide for the grab and protect the top of the excavation from
collapse.)
3. The wall is divided into to panels. The width of each panel is about 4.5 to 7 m.
The sequence of construction for the panels is in an alternatively way. That is,
an intermediate panel is excavated after panels on its both sides have been cast.
4. The trench is then filled with bentonite slurry from a large storage tank before
excavation. Excavation is done by a grab. During excavation, it is important
to maintain the slurry level at about 0.5 m below the top of the trench. (The
function of the bentonite is to prevent the ingress of water and soil into the
trench.) Excavation is continued until the founding is reached.
5. Stop end pipes of diameter equal the wall thickness are placed at both ends of
the panel. A reinforcement cage is lowered through the bentonite and panel is
cast with tremie concrete. The displaced bentonite is recovered, strained to
remove the soil particles and then stored for future use.
6. When the concrete has set, the stop end pipes are removed. Semi-circular
sockets are formed which provide key for the adjacent panels.
7. Further panels of the diaphragm wall are then formed in a similar manner until
the wall is completed.
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Construction of diaphragm wall
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Top-Down Basement Construction
It is to construct the basement in the downward direction to the final levels of the
basement. The sequence of work is as follows:-
1. Construct the permanent basement wall using diaphragm wall or soldier piles
wall.
2. Construct bored piles with temporary steel casings as the foundation of the
basement. The cut-off level of the piles is at the final basement level.
3. Place steel columns inside the steel casings of the bore piles from the foundation
level up to the ground level.
4. Backfill the shafts with granular material to hold the steel columns.
5. Construct the ground floor slab supported on the steel columns and the
diaphragm walls. (This slab provides a working platform for superstructure
construction and acts as the lateral support for the basement excavation.) Access
opening in this slab shall be provided for further excavation.
6. Excavate beneath the ground floor slab down to next basement floor soffit.
7. Cut the steel casing, remove the gravel and expose the steel column.
8. Cast the second basement slab. (The slab is connected to the columns with shear
studs and connected the diaphragm wall with dowels)
9. Repeat the process for the successive basement floors until down to the final
basement slab.
The top-down method provides the following main advantages:-

1. Superstructure can be constructed at the same time as the basement construction
takes place and therefore the overall construction time is reduced.
2. Temporary and permanent works are combined and therefore there is no need for
extensive steel temporary works.
3. Stiff rigid walls allow an almost watertight construction and basement
construction to great depth. These stiff walls provide at the same time a
limitation to ground movement.
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Steel casing infilled

with granular material
Steel column on
top of bored pile
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Pile Test
Sonic Test
A non-destructive test is based on the principle of measuring the velocity of
propagation of vibrations between a transmitter and a receiver which are both placed
inside the pile.
It is therefore necessary to cast min. 4 nos. of tubes of approximately min. 50 mm

diameter in the pile. In some cases, holes are drilled after the pile has been cast. The
transmitter and receiver are then inserted into these tubes or holes. The tubes or holes
are then filled with water, and the measurement of signal is taken various depths.
Full Coring Test

A destructive test consists of the recovery of a continuous core through the concrete
pile shaft, and max. 5000 mm into the bed rock. A coring drill with diamond drill bit
is used to dill the core. The core is then cut into appropriate lengths, capped, and
tested under compression. The results of the test indicate the strength of the concrete.
The drilled hole in the pile is subsequently pressure grouted. This method is generally
used for large diameter bored pile and caissons in Hong Kong.
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Interface Coring Test

This is a similar operation of full coring test in which a steel tube is installed inside of
the pile and placed 1m higher than the founding level before concreting. A drilling rig
is then drilled the concrete and bedrock through the steel tube.
This method achieve very quickly when compare with coring test. However, the pile
shaft condition can not be known. This testing method is commonly used for bored
pile in Hong Kong.
Vibration Test
This is one kind of non-destructive test and no preparation work is required during
construction. It is carried out by placing an electro-dynamic vibrator on the centre of
the prepared pile head. The vibrator imposes a sinusoidal force of constant amplitude
to the pile. A velocity transducer records the movement of the head of the pile caused
by the vibration. The pile concrete condition and the length are then measured from
the geometry of the curve.
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Koden Test
KODEN test is a pile test for testing the size of bell-out of large diameter bored pile.
Before using this test, all bell-out have to be checked by sending of diver down to the
bottom of the pile for inspection, and actually the diver was working in the very
dangerous environment such as unsupported soil, extremely deep level etc.
KODEN test utilizes the principle of ultrasonic wave travel from sensor to the wall of
drilled hole and reflect to the sensor through the bentonite slurry or water as a media.
Wave travelling time varies with size of the hole so it can be interpreted to reflect
characteristics of the hole accordingly. Equipment consists of two parts, i.e. recorder
unit and winch unit. Recorders unit controls the operation and record the test result.
On the other hand, winch unit lowers the probe with sensor down the hole for
ultrasonic reflection. KODEN test is quick and easy to perform. Installation of test
equipment is not so complicated. Test result can be obtained immediately after the
test and the result is simple to be analyzed.
However, there are still some limitations for this test:
1. Test cannot be performed in dry hole as it needs liquid as a media for ultrasonic
wave transmission.
2. Density media must not exceed 1200 kg / m³
3. Data cannot be stored electronically in computer.
Winch and recorder unit
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Static Load Test

When the pile is done and before carrying out any loads, it is necessary to prepare a
test(s) to test the pile. It is one kind of “Destructive Test”, and nowadays, “Static
Load Test” (sometime known as “Maintained Load Test”) is the most popular pile
test used in Hong Kong.
The test can gives very accurate results and detailed analysis can be carried out.
However, the cost is very high and the test itself is time consume. Also, it cannot be
applied to every pile on site.
The typical set up and equipments are shown as below:
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The pile to receive the jack and the instrumentation. This is done by cutting off or
building up the head of the pile to the necessary elevation, and by capping the head
appropriately to produce a clean horizontal bearing surface.
Before carrying out the load test, the engineer will state the working load and the test
load, and he will describe the different stages of loading in the test. Most
specification gives the test load as twice the working load. The test load is applied in
increments of about 25% of the working load, until the working load is reached.
Smaller increments are added thereafter until the specified limit is reached.
Loading tests are usually carried out in a cycle. Each stage of the loading test or
increment of load is applied as smoothly and quickly as possible. Readings of load,
time and settlement are taken when loading commences, and at intervals as the load
increases. Each increment of load is allowed to remain until settlement has ceased.
Similarly, unloading of each incremental load must not commence until recovery has
ceased.
Most Hong Kong specifications require that after unloading, the maximum test load
be applied again in one operation, and be maintained for a minimum period of 72
hours.
Graphs of load against time, load against settlement, and settlement against time are
then plotted. These graphs are used to determine if the pile has satisfied the
requirements of the specification.
The pile is deemed to have failed the test if:
i. the total pile settlement > + D / 120 + 4 mm

ii. and residual pile settlement > D / 120 + 4 mm
where D = diameter of circular or least lateral nominal dimension of other piles
in mm.
= L (2P + Pt) / 3AE mm
P = test load (kN)
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L = length of pile (m)

A = cross-section of pile (m2)
E = Young's modulus of elasticity of pile (kN/m2).
Pt = resistance at the tip of the pile
= 2APb(kN)
where Pb = safe bearing capacity of sub-soil strata at the tip of the pile (kN/m2). This
can be calculated from the appropriate soil parameters obtained by site investigation.
Equipments for the Test
1. Kentledge
 Provide testing weight for the pile, it can be concrete block or

structural steel section.
2. Hydraulic Jack
 An instrument for providing reaction force to the tested pile. The

maximum capacity is up to 1200 tons per set.
3. Main Girders
 A main beam formed by structural steel, it provides load path

between kentledge and hydraulic jack.
4. Grillage
 A set of structural steel for load transfer between kentledge and

main girder.
5. Dial Gauge
 Very small but important measuring equipments. The valid

calibration certificate must be provided before carry out the test.
The dial gauges are attached to reference beam or test pile.
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Generally, four dial gauges are fixed parallel to the pile axis and
equidistant from the centre of the pile. The dial gauges should be
able read to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
6. Reference Beam
 An instrument which is fixed firmly on the ground. It provides a

working platform for dial gauges for measuring purpose. It must
note that the beam must not be disturbed during the test.
Otherwise, retest may be required.
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Test of Pile by using Anchor Piles

Alternatively, the kentledge can be replaced by “Anchor Piles”. The anchor piles can
be formed by existing pile and will be against loading from the future. However, if no
existing piles can be acted as this function, it may require constructing extra piles for
this particular purpose.
Main Girder
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Test for Tension Pile

Similar set up of static load test by anchor pile. This time the hydraulic jack is located
at the top of the main girder and the hydraulic jack will push-up to the pile through
attached steel pile or similar at pile. By pushing the steel pile, the tested pile will push
upward accordingly. Normally, this set up can only be tested on small capacity pile.
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Chapter 3. Precast Concrete
Precasting means casting a concrete member at a place other than where it will be
used and then moving it to the place where it will be installed.
Precast yard
Most precast units are produced in factories or casting yards. Fundamental factors
that contribute to the success of a factory/casting yard for the precasting include:
 proximity to the place where the precast unit will be installed
 sufficient area for the storage of materials, bending and fabrication of steel
reinforcement, casting, curing and storage of finished products
 land price or rent
 good access such as road, rail or pier
 availability and cost of materials and labour supply
 availability plants such as batching plants and lifting facilities
Techniques to improve the production
Fabrication of reinforcement
Reinforcement fixing is labour intensive on site. For precasting, mechanization is
possible for the fabrication of reinforcement because of mass production.
Cutting, bending and fixing the
reinforcement can have high
degree of automation. The
reinforcement can also be fixed by
spot welding. (Normally,
welding for T-bars is not permitted
on site as poor temperature control
on welding lowers the strength of
Automatic rebar fabrication machine
high tensile steel.)
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Prestressing
The technique ‘prestressing’ greatly improve the strength of precast units. Usually,
pre-tensioning is used for precasting. Sometimes, post-tensioning is also used for
non-standard units or where curved tendons are required.
Concrete moulds
Steel moulds are usually used for precasting which have the following advantages:
˙ easy assembling and demoulding
˙ durable - can be reused up to a thousand times for percasting works
˙ hard and smooth surfaces of
the moulds can be cleaned
easily and give good
concrete finishes
Steel Mould for Precast Staircase
Compaction of concrete
External vibrators - which mounted on the moulds reduce the labour works for
compacting the concrete.
Hydraulic pressing - which can be employed to compact low slump concrete of small
precast units, such as paving blocks and concrete drainage pipes. The units
can also be demoulded immediately without breaking.
Hydraulic pressing Centrifugal Spinning

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Centrifugal spinning - In the production of some precast concrete pipes and

prestressed tubular pile (e.g. Daido Pile), the centrifugal spinning process
effectively compacts the zero slump concrete. It produces a uniform hollow
tube without the need of a void former.
Accelerated curing
An increase in the curing temperature of concrete increases its rate of development of

strength. It reduces the curing time hence reduces the cycling times of concrete
moulds and prestressing bed.
Steam curing (at atmospheric pressure and below 100C)

˙ Steam curing is normally applied in special chambers or in tunnels through which
the concrete members are transported on a conveyor belt.
˙ Alternatively, portable boxes or plastic sheet covers can be placed over precast
members; steam is supplied through the connections of flexible hose.
Plastic sheet cover for steam curing Autoclaving
Autoclaving (high pressure steam curing)

˙ Precast units are placed into an autoclave (a pressure vessel) and steam of high
pressure and temperature (about 170 - 200C and 8 - 10 atmospheric pressure) are
applied.
˙ Usually the concrete can become fully matured in one day.
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Handling of precast units
Since precast concrete unites are bulk and heavy, lifting equipments are required for
the lifting. Lifting fittings should also be cast into units for easy handling.
3.1 Fittings for lifting

lifting hook
lifting hooks
threaded sockets lifting plates
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Lifting devices
Mobile crane Derrick arm
Tower crane Launching Girder
Application and installation of precast units
There are various applications of precast concrete, and the precast units can be
installed by different methods.
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Precast Slab
Planks and blocks

 A precast slab can be formed by placing long planks at suitable centres
supported on main beams or loading bearing walls
 The intermediate spaces are then filled with smaller block units to complete the
slab.
 Normally, a structural topping is not required but the upper surfaces of the units
are usually screeded to provide the correct surface for the floor finishes.
 This method eliminates the requirement of falsework during the construction
period.
Planks and blocks
Hollow core slab

Prestressed tendon Assimilated I-beam
 Hollow core slabs can be used for most
building floor or roof systems.
 The voids greatly reduce the dead load of
the slab and the material cost.
 The web resembles closely spaced I-beams
Hollow core slab
that provide efficient moment resistance.
 Prestressed hollow core slabs are available. This means long spans, shallow
depth and the ability to carry heavy loads are easily accommodated.
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 Hollow core slabs may be simply supported on beams or load bearing wall.
 To resist hogging moment at the support, steel dowel are can be provided.
Filled with cement grout
Dowel
Min. 75mm
Hollow floor installation
External Wall
 Façade Panel is the most widely used precast concrete wall in Hong Kong.
 Various installed methods had been used.
Building
structural Joint filled
frame with cement
grout Cast with
insitu
concrete
Fixing of Facade Panel (Source: City University)
The prevailing installation method:

 Erection of the façade panel with temporary plumbing guide
 Fixing of reinforcement of adjoining walls lapping with the dowel of the façade
panel
 Shuttering of wall formwork and casting of concrete
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Fabric reinforcement for wall construction after installing precast façade
Modular Integrated Construction (MiC)

MiC is an innovative construction method, it refers to a construction whereby
free-standing integrated modules (completed with finishes, fixtures and fittings) are
manufactured in a prefabrication factory and then transported to site for installation in
a building. The adverse impacts of weather conditions, scarce labour resources and
site constraints can all be substantially reduced. MiC provides a great degree of
production quality control, and can improve construction productivity, safety and
sustainability.
Design for Manufacture and Assembly
Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) is a design approach that emphases
the ease of manufacture and efficiency of assembly of construction components. It
enables off-site manufacturing for on-site assembly, which can reduce on-site
construction processes.
Prefabrication components and MiC, both of which replace conventional site

operations with off-site prefabrication, are examples of DfMA.
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Differences between Prefabrication Components & MiC
 Prefabricated components only comprise small parts of a building.
 Structural parts other than prefabricated components still need to be built using
conventional construction methods.
 Substantial amount of formwork, steel fixing, and concreting works are

involved.
 Interior decoration and laying of pipes, etc., could only be carried out
thereafter.
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Advantages and disadvantages of Precast Concrete and MiC
Advantages of precast concrete and Mic

˙ The units can be mass-produced and are therefore cheaper.
˙ Cost of formwork can be reduced.
˙ Easier to fix reinforcement and place concrete which to be done on ground and
under cover.
˙ Units can be cured by accelerated techniques.
˙ The quality of units can be strictly controlled.
˙ Units can be cast before the site becomes available hence the construction time
can be reduced.
˙ Temporary supports such as falsework and scaffolding are reduced to minimum.
˙ Precast units can be structurally load tested if required.
˙ Precast units can be pre-tensioned.
˙ Precasting produces less construction waste than insitu works and therefore more
environmental friendly.
Disadvantages of precast concrete and Mic

˙ Uneconomical if only a small number of units are required.
˙ Waterproofing of joints may be expensive.
˙ The transportation of long units may be difficult.
˙ Lifting device should be required to load and unload the units on site.
˙ Skilled workmanship is required in the application of the panel on site.

˙ Need for repetition of forms will affect building design.
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Chapter 4 Structural Steelwork
Structural Steel Sections

˙ Structural steel sections can be classified into various groups according to their
shapes.
Universal Column (UC) Flange

˙ Universal Columns are rolled with parallel flanges.
˙ Generally, the depth of the section and the width Web
of the flanges are approximately equal.
Universal Column
Universal Beam (UB)

˙ Universal beams are rolled with parallel flanges.
˙ The depth of section is about double of the width
of the flanges.
Universal Beam
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Joist
˙ Joists are rolled with 8° tapered flanges.
˙ They provide a useful range of sections smaller than those
in the universal beam
1.4 Channel Section Joist

There are two types of channel sections:
˙ Parallel flange channels
˙ Tapered flange channels with 5° tapered
flanges.
Tapered flanges Parallel flanges

Channel
Structural Tee
˙ Structural tees may be cut from
universal beams or universal columns.
Cut from UB Cut from UC

Structural Tee
1.6 Angle
There are two types of structural steel
angles :
˙ equal leg angles
˙ unequal leg angles
Equal leg angle Unequal leg angle
Hollow Sections
˙ Available hollow sections are round, square and rectangular.
˙ Hollow sections are specified by their size and thickness.
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Fabrication
Fabrication is carried out in a fabrication workshop, where the steel sections undergo
the following stages of treatments:
1. The steel sections are first cleaned to remove dirt, mill-scales and any corrosion
by sand blasting. They are then painted with a priming coat of paint within 2
hours.
2. The sections are cut to the correct length by sawing or cropping.
3. Holes are drilled or punched on the workpiece for bolted connections. Sometimes
the edge of a workpiece is machined for welded connections.
4. Jointing accessories (fittings), such as angle cleats, plates, bases, etc., are
manufactured by drilling, punching and cropping machines at the same time.
5. To reduce the site works, the main components and the fittings are then assembled
into modules. The size of each module should be convenience for lifting and
transportation.
6. The components are then transferred to the dispatch bay to await transport to site.
Fabrication Workshop
Sand Blasting (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
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Connection
˙ Steelwork can be connected by bolting or welding
Bolting connection
Black bolt
˙ Black bolts are made of mild steel, unpolished and the least expensive.
˙ They are used in clearance hole, i.e. the hole diameter is 2 mm larger than
the bolt, or 3 mm larger if the bolt diameter is 24 mm or above.
High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt

˙ HSFG bolts are made of high tensile steel.
˙ They are used in clearance holes as black bolts.
˙ Bolts are always tightened to a predetermined shank tension.
˙ This enables shear loads to be transferred by friction between the interfaces.
˙ HSFG bolts may be tightened by three methods:
a. Torque or calibrated wrench method
b. Turn-of -nut method waist
c. Direct tension indication

(e.g. by turning the tail of the bolt until it sheared off)
H.S.F.G bolt
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Welding Connection
Methods of welding
Gas welding
˙ In gas welding, an oxy-acetylene flame provides the heat needed to melt the
steel interfaces and the weld metal.
Metal-arc welding equipment Gas welding equipment
Metal-arc welding (Electric-arc welding)

˙ A metal filler rod is connected to an electrode of a power supply while the
work piece is connected to the other electrode.
˙ When the metal filler rod is placed near the work piece, an electric arc is
formed which heats and melts the interfaces and the end of the filler rod.
Types of Welds
Fillet Welds
˙ Fillet welds are used to join
plates at an angle (usually
90) to each other.
Fillet weld (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)

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Butt Weld
˙ Before butt welding, the ends of the work pieces have to be machined to
receive the weld.
˙ The work pieces are then butt against each other and are welded together.
Butt weld (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
Erection
Connection of steel column to foundation

˙ In base connection, a steel base plate is required to spread the load of the
column on to the foundation.
˙ The base plate and column can be connected together by fillet welding.
˙ Gusset plates can be used to increase the stability.
˙ The base plate is then fixed to the foundation by holding down bolts.
Universal
clolumn
Fillet weld
Cement
grout
Connection of steel column to foundation (Source: SteelConstruction.info)
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Welded Gusset Base (Source: S.A.R. Jufri & R.J. Wellmen)
Beam to Column Joints

Double web cleats connection
˙ The UB and the UC are connected by bolting with two web cleats.
˙ The joint allows some degree of rotation and is considered as a semi-rigid
joint.
Header plate / End plate connection
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Chapter 5 Prestressed Concrete
Principles of Prestressed Concrete
The well known properties of concrete are that it has high compressive strength and
low tensile strength. Consider a beam of plain concrete carrying a load, the beam
deflects slightly and then fails abruptly as the load increases. We can expect this
happen at a relatively small load.
Plain Concrete Beam (Source: R. Chudley)
In a reinforced concrete beam, reinforcement in the form of steel bars is placed in

tensile zones to resist the induced tension. Since the tensile strength of steel
reinforcement is much higher the concrete, this enables the R.C. beam to resist a
greater load than a plain concrete beam.
Reinforced Concrete Beam (Source: R. Chudley)
1 / 15
Prestressing is a method for overcoming the concrete's natural weakness in tension.

In a prestressed concrete beam, steel tendons (generally of very high tensile strength
alloy steel) are stretched to introduce a pre-compressive force into the member. The
prestressing force offsets the tensile stress and eliminates the tensile strain allowing
the beam to resist further higher loading or to span longer distance.
Advantages
Prestressing also improves the properties of concrete in the different ways:

 Concrete is brittle material because it has a low tensile strength. By
prestressing, concrete behaves as if it has a high elastic properties and has a
higher resistance to dynamic loadings such as vibration and impact.
 Perstressing eliminates or reduces tensile stresses hence the concrete is less liable
to crack. Therefore prestressed concrete is more durable and particularly
suitable for structures in severe conditions, such as marine structures.
Disadvantages
 High initial equipment, material and labor cost

 Greater design skills and closer site supervision
 Specialised skills in structure demolition
Tendons for Prestressing

2 / 15
‘Tendon’ is a stretched element used in a concrete member to impart prestress to the

concrete. Tendons may consist of individual hard-drawn wires, bars or strands.
Various types of Tendon Strand in Coil
3 / 15
Single Wire
Single wires have diameters ranging from 3 to 7 mm, and are in coils up to 500 m.
Strand
Strands are made up of several small diameter wires, twisted around a straight central
wire. The most commonly used strand is seven-wire strand and is available in sizes
from 8 mm to 18 mm nominal diameter.
Compacted Strand Normal Strand
Compacted Strand
To reduce the percentage of voids in the cross-section of normal strand, the strand can
be drawn through a die which compresses it. So, for the same ‘nominal’ diameter,
the amount of steel is higher, thus enabling a larger force to be exerted.
High-tensile alloy-steel bar
High-tensile alloy-steel bars vary in diameter from 20 mm to 50 mm and can be

smooth or ribbed. With the smooth bars, threads are rolled on at the ends which can
be used for anchorage purposes or coupling together. The ribbed bars have
rolled-on ribs for the entire length and these ribs act as threads for anchorage
purposes.
High-tensile alloy-steel bar 4 / 15

Pre-tensioning
In pre-tensioning, the steel is tensioned before the concrete is placed in moulds

around it.
Equipment for Pre-tensioning
The equipment used for pre-tensioning consists of abutments, barrels and wedges,
and hydraulic prestressing jack. Abutments provide reaction points for the
hydraulic prestressing jack to stress the tendons and anchorage points of the tendons.
A barrel has a tapered hole into which two or three pieces of steel wedges are fitted.
The wedges have serrated teeth to grip the tendon.
Anchor Barrels and Wedges
Pre-tensioning Prestressing bed

5 / 15
Procedure of Pre-tensioning
1. Stressing (Tensioning)
 The concrete mould with the reinforcement cage, if any, is placed between the
abutments.
 The tendons are threaded through the mould and anchored to one of the
abutments with barrels and wedges.
 At the opposite abutment, the tendons are stressed with a hydraulic jack, which
needs regularly checked and calibrated, to the predetermined tension and then
securely anchored them on the abutment.
2. Concreting
 Concrete is placed in the moulds and the tendons are embedded by the concrete.
3. Curing
 The casting is then usually steam-cured for 24 hours to obtain the desired
characteristic strength.
4. De-tensioning
 When the concrete has achieved sufficient strength, the tendons are released from
the abutments gradually; the prestressing force is transferred to the concrete
through the bond that now exists between the tendons and the concrete.
Pre-tensioning Prestressing bed

6 / 15
Applications of Pre-tensioning
Pre-tensioning is only used in precast concrete production. It is particular suitable

for the manufacture of a large number of identical units, which will be employed for
multi-lane bridges of short spans. Some examples are shown bellows:
Precast Beam and Slab

The sections can be of rectangular, inverted T-shape, U-shape, box shape or double
T-shape; Precast Bridge Beam; Railway slipper.
Precast Building Beams Precast Bridge Beams
Precast Prestressed Tubular Concrete Pile

This type of pile is produced by using the steel mould to provide reaction for
prestressing instead of abutments; e.g. Daido SS Pile and Nippon Hume SS Pile.
Railway Slipper Precast Prestressed Concrete Pile

7 / 15
Post-tensioning
In post-tensioning the concrete is cast around ducts in which the stressing tendons can
be housed and the stressing is carried out after the concrete has hardened.
Materials and Equipment for Post-tensioning
Tendon Ducts
Tendon Ducts
Tendon ducts can be made of corrugated steel or plastic. Plastic ducts offer better
corrosion protection, and provide reduced duct friction. However, they are more
expensive.
Although the ducts can be made to very long length, normally they are supplied in
standard lengths. Special care should be taken when joining ducts to ensure that no
mortar can get into the duct during concreting.
Anchor Casting Tendon Ducts
8 / 15
Anchorage
Anchorages are units used in post-tensioning for the transfer of the prestressing
forces to the concrete. They can be further subdivided into stressing anchorages and
dead-end anchorages.
Stressing Anchorage Dead-end Anchorage
9 / 15
In most cases stressing an anchorage is installed at one end of the concrete member
while at the opposite end a dead end anchorage is used. In very long structures
especially with ducts with multiple curvatures stressing anchorages are installed at
both ends of the concrete member.
Tendon Ducts Profile
10 / 15
Procedure of Post-tensioning
Placing tendons
 Tendons are housed in tendon ducts and the ducts are fixed in their
predetermined alignment, level and profile. (Sometimes the tendons are
threaded through the ducts after concreting.)
 The tendon ducts shall be securely tied to the reinforcement to prevent
dislodgment during concreting.
Installing Anchorages Tendons in Position
Concreting
 In situ concrete is cast. It is then cured as normal reinforced concrete.
Stressing (Tensioning)
11 / 15
 The total force is gradually imposed to concrete without inducing secondary

stresses in the steel, anchorages or concrete.
 Stressing can be carried out when the concrete has achieved sufficient strength
(as confirmed by cube test at specified ages). Stressing is performed by using a
hydraulic jack.
 50-300kN/50-500 mm strokes for single-strand jack and up to 10000 kN cable
stressing jacks, 700-1600kN for bar jacks.
 Forces applied must be kept as symmetrical as possible about the centroid of
tendons to prevent uneven distribution of forces and to avoid tensile cracking.
 Either individual strands are being stressed one by one or simultaneous cable
(multiple strands) stressing in one go.
Stressing
 During stressing, the readings of load and extension Load
are recorded. When about one-half of the designed
stressing load has been reached, a graph of load
against extension is plotted. An extension correction
correction Extension
is obtained from the plot by extrapolation method.
 Stressing is continued until the designed load has been reached. Check if the
corrected extension matches with the theoretical value. If it does, the tendon
can be wedged to the anchorage. Otherwise, remedial action shall be taken.
4.2.4 Grouting
 Sheathing is flushed with water before grout injection and the remaining water to
be removed by oil free compressed air. The ducts are grouted with cement
grout through the grout holes/tubes to protect the tendons from corrosion.
12 / 15
Precautions during tendon tensioning

 Check all equipments before use and replace any malfunctioning ones.
 Use hydraulic equipment with relief valve with the max. safety load pre-set.
 Install a check valve between hydraulic hose and the jack.
 Calibrate the stressing device periodically.
 Monitor the condition of concrete around the bearing plate and the anchorage.
 Keep anchorage components and stressing devices in good order and free from
dirt.
 Monitor the stressing operation throughout.
 Wear Safety goggles when cutting tendons.
 DO NOT STAND BEHIND THE STRESSING DEVICES.
Precautions during grouting

 Looking into grouting nozzle or exhaust air hoses.
 Avoid direct contact between human skin and grouting materials. Any
dampened clothing must be removed and skin washed with water immediately.
 Wear safety goggles throughout grouting operation.
 All ducts, equipments and hoses must be inspected and cleaned if necessary to
avoid dangerous grout blockage before and for future uses.
13 / 15
Application of Post-tensioning
Post-tensioning has wide range of applications. It is particular suitable for bridges

of large and complicated spans (such as nonlinear alignment) as in the following
situations:
 stressing is to be carried out on site,
 curved tendons are required, and
 jointing a series of precast concrete units.
14 / 15
Some examples of post-tensioning are shown bellows:
Post-tensioning in Buildings
i) Post-tensioning in transfer plate and raft foundation

Post-tensioning in building slab Post-tensioning in raft founation
Post-tensioning in Bridges
Ground anchor
Ground Anchor
15 / 15
Chapter 6 Bridge and Tunnel Construction
Bridge components:
Type of Bridges:
Bridges can be classified by many ways:
Classified by: Example of bridges
Spanning structural form Beam bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges
Purpose Foot bridges, highway bridges, rail bridges.
Materials Stone bridges, timber bridges, concrete bridges, steel

bridges
Deck structure Solid slab bridges, truss, deck-girder bridges: I beam,
inverted T beam, box beam, M beam, U beam, box
girder, etc.
Construction method Precast bridges, casting insitu bridges, balanced
cantilever bridges, segmental launching bridges,
incremental launching bridges.
Beam Bridge Arch Bridge Suspended Bridge
Beam Bridge
A beam bridge is a horizontal beam supported by piers. The vertical dead load and
vehicular traffic pushes down the beam with top edge under compression and bottom edge
in tension.
Single span beam bridges rarely span more than 100 m whereas a continuous beam could
span over multiple spans for crossing a larger horizontal distance.
Steel Deck-girder Bridge
The steel girders run longitudinally and supported

on piers with or without transverse secondary
Different types of steel girders

Page 1 of 41
beams. On top of the beams is a road deck made

of steel plates, precast or insitu R.C. slabs.
Construction and maintenance cost of steel bridges and higher than R.C. ones in Hong Kong,
they are not very commonly found in Hong Kong.
Concrete Deck-Girder Bridge
Different types concrete deck girder bridges had been used in Hong Kong. Their designs
are now obsolete but many bridges are still servicing us. They include:
1. Solid slab bridge with inverted T beam
2. Box beam bridge
3. Pseudo-Box M beam bridge
4. M beam bridge with top slab construction
Solid slab bridge with inverted T beam Box Beam Bridge
Pseudo-Box M beam Bridge M beam bridge with top slab construction

(Source: Jurfi & Wellman)
Page 2 of 41
Since 1980s, U-beam Bridge has become the prevailing one used in Hong Kong. The U-
beams are lifted by cranes and supported longitudinally between piers. The beams are
placed parallel to each other with suitable spacing to suit wide carriageway width of multi-
traffic lanes.
U Beam Bridge (Source: Jufri & Wellman)
Route 3 Kwai Chung Section U-beam with Extended Dowels
The decks are usually simply supported on piers. They can also be made continuous by
exposed reinforcement connection or post-tensioning.
The limitations in the length and weight of precast units under transportation will only allow
spans of not more than 30m in use.
Page 3 of 41
Concrete Box Girder Bridges
A concrete box girder bridge consists of Top slab / road deck
longitudinal girders with top and bottom slabs Web slab /

Inclined slab
linked with inclined web slabs which form a
Bottom slab
hollow or box girder. Continuous spanning box
girders of prestressed concrete have been built
Typical Section of Box Girder Bridge
with span lengths of approximately 100 m.
There are various kinds of methods for constructing box girder bridges.
Cast Insitu on Falsework and Formwork Method
This is a traditional method. Falsework is erected between piers and abutments. Formwork
is placed on top the falsework and the bridge is cast insitu. When the entire girder (or one
span) is complete, the temporary supports can be removed.
The temporary support requires that the locations for the supports be clear and stable.
Often the ground is not sufficiently stable and it is necessary to construct foundations for the
temporary supports. The assembly and removal of temporary supports requires lots of
equipment and labour. Therefore, it is economical for low level bridges.
Kap Shui Mun Bridge Viaduct
Page 4 of 41
Incremental Launching Method
This method is suitable for bridges with constant depth and straight alignment or bridges
with constant circular alignment and superelevation.
Kap Shui Mun Bridge Lantau Side Span
The construction method
1. Set up a fabrication yard behind the abutment of the bridge.

2. Assemble a set of formwork for casting bridge segments.
3. Cast a segment with the forms in position.
4. After sufficient curing, strip the formwork apply post-tensioning to prestress the
segment and fix a launching nose to the front end of the segment.
5. Jack the segment forward, sliding on temporary Teflon bearing seats. (Teflon is a very
tough, smooth and with low friction material.)
6. Cast a new segment is immediately adjoining the rear end of the pervious one.
7. After sufficient curing and stripping, apply prestressing to prestress and to join the
segments.
8. Jack the whole structure forward again.
9. This casting and jacking process are repeated and repeated until the full length of the
bridge deck has been erected and extended to the opposite abutment.
10. After launching, a second stage prestress is installed against the design cable profile
along the deck span for the final bridge positioning.
11. Once the bridge is in place, the bearing seats may be jacked up to remove the Teflon
and then permanent bearings can be installed.
Page 5 of 41
Incremental Launching – pulling by jacks and stands
Cantilevering
The forward end of the bridge will be in cantilever. A light truss of steel or aluminium is
affixed to the forward end as a ‘launching nose’ to reduce the cantilever length before it
reaches the next pier. In addition, temporary props between piers can also be employed to
reduce the span of temporary cantilevering
Incremental Launching Method
Page 6 of 41
Cast insitu Balanced Cantilever Method
In this method, a travelling form is employed. It is a

reusable form suspended on a movable frame which
called traveler. The sequence of erection is chosen to
keep the partially completed superstructure balanced
about the pier, in double cantilever.
Bridge of Tuen Mun Road
under construction
The construction sequence:
1. Construct the first pier-cap segment and temporarily lock it to the pier shaft by vertical
post-tensioned bars
2. With the formwork in place, a new bridge segment (often 3-5 m in length is cast.
3. After sufficient curing (often 1 – 3 days) , it is locked to the previous segment by post-
tensioning.
4. Do the same step 2 and step 3 for the segment on the other side of pier.
5. Typical cycle for step 2 to step 4 takes 4 – 7 days for each pair of segment.
6. The traveller is then pushed forward and anchored to the newly formed structure.
7. With closing of the formwork, the next cycle is started.
8. The process is repeated and repeated until the span reaches the opposite abutment or
closes up with the opposite span.
Balancing
Since it is not feasible to cast the two segments exactly simultaneously, a step-by-step
sequence is adopted, in which one segment is cast on one side, then the next one on the
other side. This puts bending moments in the pier; the unbalanced load is the load of the
segment plus any construction equipment. Temporary towers with vertical prestressing or
counterweights can provided the balancing.
Page 7 of 41
This method is commonly employed for large span bridges such as bridges crossing rivers
or channels.
Precast Segmental Launching Method
In this scheme, the bridges are formed by joining precast segments. Launching girders are
used which are large trusses that are placed longitudinally over the bridge structure.
Working Scheme of Segmental Launching Construction
The construction method

1. Segments are match cast in a casting yard to ensure perfect fitting each other.
2. A launching girder is used to place the segments by balanced cantilever erection.
3. Precast segments are lifted up one by one by the crane devices which run along the
launching girder.
4. With epoxy spread over the jointing surfaces (1 – 3 mm thick), the segments are joined
to the previous ones by post-tensioning. (Epoxy offers structural continuity, lubrication,
positioning and sealing of two adjoining segments during and after erection)
5. The launching girder crawls along the alignment incrementally to complete the whole
bridge deck.
Page 8 of 41
A flyover constructed by Temporary support

Segmental Launching Method by post-tensioning
Full Span Erection Method
For Full Span Erection Method, the depths of the box girders are in constant depth. The
actual construction procedures can have several variants:
1. All the segments of a span are be assembled on the ground and joined by post-
tensioning. The whole group is lifted up by a heavy-duty crane then placed on top of
the bridge piers.
2. Erection girders are placed on top of the piers. Bridge segments are hung beneath the
girders or placed on top of them. The segments are aligned and joined together by
post-tensioning to form a complete span. The girders are then set forward for the
construction of the next span.
Page 9 of 41
Full Span erection
Truss Bridges
A truss is an open structure comprising many small rods joined together. They can support
a large amount of weight and span great distances. Most truss bridges have one set of truss
on each side of the roadway. Typical Span Length of a truss bridge ranges from 40m -
500m.
Warren Truss
A Warren truss can be identified by the presence of many equilateral or isosceles triangles
formed by the web members which connect the top and bottom chords. For smaller spans,
no vertical members are used lending the structure a simple look. For longer spans vertical
members are added providing extra strength.
Warren Truss Stiffened Warren Truss

with deck through (Through Truss) with top deck (Deck Truss)
Page 10 of 41
A typical Warren Truss A truss bridge with

precast concrete deck
Pratt Truss
Pratt trusses are identified by their diagonal members which, except for the very end ones,
all slant down and toward the center of the span. Except for those diagonal members near
the center, all the diagonal members are subject to tension forces only while the shorter
vertical members handle the compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal members
resulting in a more economic design.
Pratt Truss Howe Truss
Howe Truss
The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss. The diagonal members face in the
opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This makes it very uneconomic design
for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen
Erection methods of trussed bridges:

 Temporary support method
 Prefabrication and placing method
(The methods are similar to that of arch bridges and will be discussed later.)
Page 11 of 41
Arch Bridges
The arch profile is aesthetically pleasing and it provides a structure which eliminates tensile
stresses in spanning an open space. This is useful because several of the available building
materials such as stone, cast iron and concrete are strong in compression but are weak when
tension.
Concrete arches
 Spandrel-filled arch bridge - The arch spandrel is closed by two retaining walls and the
interior is filled with earth. The roadway is placed directly on the fill. It is obsolete
now due to its heavy masonry structure self weight and short span limitation. However,
many spandrel-filled arch bridge are still serving us.
Spandrel-filled arch bridge
 Open spandrel arch - The roadway is supported above the arch by columns and girders.
This type of bridges is best suited to deep gorges with steep rocky banks which
provides efficient natural abutment to receive the heavy thrust exerted by the arch.
Open Spandrel Arch

Steel Arches
Page 12 of 41
Steel arches can be in the following forms:

 Open spandrel arch – similar to concrete one.
 Deck-through arch – The middle span of the bridge deck is hung under the arch by
hangers while both ends of the bridge deck are support by columns above the arch.
 Tied arch –The road deck serviced as a tie, it is used where horizontal reaction not
available from the abutments.
Open Spandrel Arch Deck Through Arch
Tied Arch
Erection methods of arch bridges
Constructing an arch bridge can be tricky, since the structure is completely unstable until
the two spans meet in the middle.
Erection on Falsework
Falsework below the spans are built to

support the voussoirs until they are closed.
After completion, the temporary supports are
removed.
Falsework for Arch Bridge

Cantilever Method
Page 13 of 41
Usually, the side spans of the bridge on land are

erected first on temporary falsework. These side
spans then serve as counter weights as the girder is
assembled toward the center.
Alternatively, the temporary cantilever load of the
bridge girder can be supported by cables. The
cables shall be fixed the massive anchorages at the
other end.
Cantilever Method
Full span erection
Often conditions under the bridge are not suitable for the use of temporary supports. This
can happen when the valley or ravine is too deep, the flow of a river is too rapid, or
environmental reasons prevent the use of temporary supports under the bridge. The whole
span of an arch can be prefabricated in a fabrication yard. It is then moved to the site, lifted
up and put in place by heavy-duty cranes.
Full Span erection Method

Cable Stayed Bridges
Page 14 of 41
The cable stayed bridge is specially suited in the span range of 400 to 1000 m. The main
components of a cable stayed bridge are:
 towers or pylons
 inclined cables, and
 deck.
Bridge pylon / tower Inclined cable
Bridge deck
The Bridge deck
The bridge decks are often of steel or composite materials (concrete deck + steel girders).
Concrete decks are heavy but have the advantage of resisting the compressive load induced
by the sloping cables and against the heavy wheel loads of the road traffic. Steel decks are
much lighter but requires expensive stiffening parts to resist compressive load and wheel
loads.
The Kap Shui Mun Bridge The Stone Cutter Island Bridge
(Source: Highways Department)
Page 15 of 41
Prefabrication of Bridge Deck A Bridge Segment (Source: Highway Department)
Prefabrication also gives economy. Each unit is prefabricated in a fabrication workshop

built in the waterfront and then shipped progressively to the bridge construction site
The Stay cables and staying
Each stay cable is made up of about 50 to 110 nos. of 7-wire strands. The strands are in
turn wrapped externally with a HDPE coating. They may made up on site from drums of
wire strand, or delivered to site as complete factory produced stays.
Construction Procedures
Page 16 of 41
1. Construct foundations and piers for both back spans

2. Erect falsework and formwork to cast the bridge deck in each back span before main
span construction. The falsework will only be removed until permanent stay cables
are completed.
3. Construct the bridge decks of the back spans.
4. Construct the two concrete pylon by jump-form system.
5. Deliver deck segments prefabricated elsewhere to bridge location.
6. Lift individual deck segments by a lift gear seating on the end of the completed bridge
section.
7. Weld two steel segments together.
8. Lift stay cables by mobile cranes/tower cranes and fix one end to the tower anchorages.
9. Install deck anchorages and stress the cables.
10. Install the other segments in the same way and finally the last closing deck segment in
the middle of the bridge.
The Special Carne Erection of Bridge Deck Segment
Page 17 of 41
Installation of Stay Cables
Suspension Bridges
The suspension bridge is currently the solution for spans in excess of 1000 m.
The components of a suspension bridge are
1. Bridge Pylons Bridge pylon / tower
2. Anchorages Suspender
(Source: Highways Department)
3. Main cables
4. Suspenders Bridge deck
5. Bridge deck Anchorage Main cable
A Successful Suspension Bridge - The Tsing Ma Bridge
Page 18 of 41
Bridge Pylon
A bridge pylon may be made of steel or reinforced concrete. A cable saddle is installed on
the top of the pylon to support the main cable.
The Pylon and the Saddles – Tsing Ma Bridge A Steel Pylon

`
The Anchorage
An anchorage is very massive concrete block at which the end of the main cable is securely
anchored.
Tsing Yi Anchorage – Tsing Ma Bridge
The Main Cable and the Suspenders
The overall diameter of the main cable may be over 1 m. Clearly, a cable of this size cannot
be delivered and strung from anchorage to anchorage across the tower tops in one piece.
Page 19 of 41
The cable may be installed strand by strand. Each strand is taken across the sea by barge
and then lifted to tower top. The strands are then finally compressed and clamped together
to form the main cable.
Alternatively, the main cable can be installed by aerial spinning method. The initial strands
were taken across the sea channel by barge and lifted to the tower top. Later strands were
placed by ‘high lining’ based on the previously installed strands. Main cable of Tsing Ma
Bridge, for example, is divided into 97 strands each composed of 368 high tensile steel
wires. Each cable was further compacted into a circular shape and bound with temporary
strapping.
.
Trial Preparation for the Main Cable - Tsing Ma Bridge
Page 20 of 41
Aerial Spinning Process – Tsing Ma Bridge
Spinning in Progress – Tsing Ma Bridge The Main Cable – Tsing Ma Bridge
Page 21 of 41
Grouping Wires into Strand Compacting Strands into Cable
Cast steel cable bands are then fitted, clamped into position by tightening bolts. The cable
bands were placed at about 20m interval, which served also as the support for the suspender
cable that hanged the bridge deck underneath.
The Bridge Deck
The most common method of forming the deck for a suspension bridge is by joining
prefabricated steel truss segments. Each segment is prefabricated in workshop and
transported by barge to right beneath the main cable. It is then lifted up and hung by the
suspenders. Segment to segment is jointed by welding and bolting and eventually a
continuous deck is formed.
Page 22 of 41
Erection of the Deck
Jointing of the Segments by Welding Artist Impression of the Deck Section
Page 23 of 41
Tunnel Construction
Introduction
Tunnels can be defined as underground passages constructed for the purpose of

transportation connection between two points.
Type of Tunnels
There are many types of tunnels and can be classified in many ways:
Classified by Example of tunnels
Purpose Railway tunnels, metro system, highway

tunnels, pedestrian tunnels, water tunnels,
sewage tunnels, services tunnels, storage
tunnels.
Geological location / condition Rock tunnels, earth tunnels, and submerged

tunnels.
Cross-sectional shapes Rectangular shape, circular shape, elliptical

shape, egg shape, horse shoe shape, and
segmental shape.
Shapes of Tunnel Lining
The shapes of tunnel linings are usually determined by their purpose, ground
conditions, construction method and/or lining materials.
Page 24 of 41
Rectangular shape
Rectangular shaped tunnels are usually adopted by the cut and cover method. It is
particular suitable for pedestrian and highway tunnels. Precast concrete box units
may be used to speed up the construction works. On the other hand, multi-lane
submerged highway tunnels are often in rectangular shape.
Elliptical shape / Egg shape

Elliptical shape tunnels have the advantages for the transportation of sewer. The
smaller cross section at the bottom maintains the flow at the required self-cleaning
velocity. However, due to the difficulty in construction, circular shape ones are more
common.
Circular shape
A circular shape tunnel has the greatest cross-sectional area to perimeter ratio. They
are often associated with TBM or the shield tunnelling methods.
Horseshoe / segmental shape

They are commonly used for rock tunnelling. It has the advantages of utilising the
compressive strength of concrete in resisting the loading by means of arch action and
the base is wide enough for traffic.
Different Shapes of Tunnels
Page 25 of 41
Tunnel lining materials
Permanent linings are required in most tunnels, always in soft ground and frequently
in rock. They are required for two purposes: structurally to retain the earth and water
pressure, and operationally to provide an internal surface appropriate to the function
of the tunnel.
The principal materials for permanent lining of bored tunnels are:
Brickwork, blockwork and masonry
Brickwork, blockwork and masonry had been used for tunnel lining but now they are
obsolete.
Insitu concrete
Insitu concrete lining is frequently in rock tunnelling where the roof is able to stay
unsupported temporary. Specially designed travelling formwork is used for casting
the concrete.
Travelling Form for Tunnel Lining Construction
Page 26 of 41
Tunnel Lining Reinforcement Concreting for Tunnel Lining
Preformed segments
Preformed segments may be made of cast iron, steel or normal reinforced concrete.
This type of lining usually comes with TBM or shield tunnelling methods.
The segments are jointed together by bolting and the joints are sealed with neoprene
gasket. Sometimes the joints are also caulked with rubberised bituminous strips.
Voids behind the preformed segments are filled by bentonite cement grout.
Page 27 of 41
Preformed Segments for Tunnel Lining
Sprayed Concrete
Sprayed concrete linings usually compose of rock bolts, wire mesh, steel ribs and a
thin layer or sprayed concrete. This kind of lining is rather flexible than other types
of linings. The use of sprayed concrete lining is usually associated with the Drill &
Blast method.
Sprayed Concrete for Tunnel Lining
Page 28 of 41
Tunnelling Methods on Land
Open Cut
Open cut method often refers to excavation with battered sides such that no lateral
support is required. In its simplest form, a trench is excavated, the tunnel structure is
built, the trench is backfilled and the surface is restored. Precast tunnel units can also
be employed to speed up to construction process.
The major problem of this method is the procession of land so that it is not too
suitable in urban areas. Moreover, it is only suitable for shallow tunnels only because
with increased depth, direct costs of trench excavation and backfilling increase
rapidly.
Open cut tunnelling
Cut and Cover Method
The construction process of cut and cover method is very similar to that of open cut
method except that the excavation sides are vertical and temporary supported are
provided.
The main problems associated with cut and cover method are the stability of the soft
ground, impact on the existing underground services & utilities and traffic disruption
in urban areas.
Page 29 of 41
Temporary steel decks may be used to maintain the traffic while the construction
works proceeds underneath. This method is also only suitable for high level tunnels.
Shoring for Tunnel Trench Temporary Steel Deck for Traffic
Pre-Deck Method
Same as the open-cut method, the pre-deck method is suitable for high level tunnels.
The tunnel walls are constructed by the diaphragm walling method first and then the
upper surface of the ground is removed. The upper deck of the tunnel is cast
supported on the diaphragms. It is then backfilled and the road surface is reinstated.
Now the tunnel excavation can started from both ends of the tunnel without the fear
of collapse and with minimum disturbance to traffic and services.
Pre-deck method of tunneling (R. Holmes)
Page 30 of 41
Pipe jacking Method
This method can be used for the installation of pipes from 150 mm to 4 m diameter,
or box section up to 7 x 4 m, but it is mainly employed on the larger diameter pipes of
over 1 m.
This method is very suitable for installing services under roads and railway
embankments without creating disturbance to traffic.
The method consists of forming pits at both ends of the proposed tunnel. A thrust
wall is constructed to provide jacking reaction and pipe segments are jacked into the
soil.
Pipe Jacking
For small diameter pipes, bullet-shaped solid metal heads are fixed to the leading end
of the pipe, which is jacked into the ground displacing the earth.
For tunnels of diameter 1 m or above, the leading pipe is fitted with a steel shield to
aid the driving process. The shield provides protection under which the workers
Page 31 of 41
excavate the tunnel face. New pipe segments are added from the starting pit and
jacked forward one by one until the pipe length reaches the opposite pit.
Micro TBM
Another modern method of boring the

tunnel shaft is by using micro TBM. The
excavated spoil is Pipe Jacking Method
liquefied by mixing with bentonite slurry and removed by pump and pipeline.
For large diameter pipes or for long pipes, the friction will be very great and it creates
problems in providing suitable jacking reaction. A method to counteract the friction
is the introduction of intermediate jacks. The intermediate jacks are fixed on steel
sleeves which are installed at suitable intervals along the pipe length. The line is then
jacked forward in a caterpillar fashion. In addition, bentonite slurry can be
introduced from the rear of the driving shield as lubricant to reduce the friction.
Hydraulic Jacks at Starting Pit Intermediate Jacks
Page 32 of 41
Shield Tunnelling Method
The technique of shield tunnelling method is very similar to pipe jacking method,
except that prefabricated segments are used for lining and are installed right behind
the shield.
Shield Tunnelling Method
Use of Compressed Air in Tunneling
When tunnelling in water bearing ground, ground water infiltration will create
problems. The ground water can be excluded by the introduction of compressed air.
This method is especially suitable for excluding water from fine silts or soft clays.
Compressed air also provides a counterbalancing force against the inward pressure
thus reducing risk of collapsing of the tunnel face.
A great deal of air may leak through the tunnel wall and face. To prevent excessive
loss of pressure, caulking should be done. One method is to cover the tunnel face
with polythene sheeting when the exaction is not carrying out. An alternative method
is to spray the tunnel face with bentonite slurry. The method is more convenience
and more effective for fine soil.
The appropriate working pressure is about 200 kN/m2 (2 bar), but sometimes as high
as 3.4 bar is used. When working compressed air environment, air will dissolved into
Page 33 of 41
our blood. . Air bubble may form and block our blood stream if decompression
procedure is not strictly followed before leaving the compressive air environment
after work.
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
To avoid the need of miners working in compressed air and to eliminate the risk of
collapse of tunnel face, tunnel boring machines (TBM) are developed for such
purpose.
By definition, all machines used for

boring tunnels are tunnel boring
machines. However, a TBM often refers
to a large diameter cylindrical shield,
equipped with a rotating cutterhead at the
front, a mucking device, and frequently
an automatic segment erector.
TBM
Advantages of using TBM
1. Fast rate of advance in producing a round, smooth and un-shattered bores.

2. Overbreak is less than 5% which is much less than other methods.
3. Excavation formation is not weakened by the operation hence less ground support
is required.
4. Eliminate the need to work compressed air.
5. No risk of collapse of the excavation face.
6. Cost reduction for long tunnels (over 2 km).
Page 34 of 41
Limitations of using TBM are
1. High initial cost renders it expensive for short tunnels.

2. High cost for wear and tear when driving tunnels in hard rock.
3. It is limited to driving circular tunnels and cannot be used for other cross section.
4. Small curvature radius cannot be entertained.
Drill and Blast Method for Rock Tunnelling
This method is suitable in medium to strong rock. By jack hammers, blast holes are
drilled on the tunnel face. Explosives are loaded in the blast holes and then blasting
is taken place.
R.C. tunnel lining can be cast by using travelling formwork, or more often, the tunnel
lining is formed by sprayed concrete.
Rock Drilling by Jack Hammer Drill and Blast Method
There are various methods of attacking the rock face. The choice depends on the size
and shape of tunnel and the available equipment.
Page 35 of 41
Submerged Tunnel
A submerged tunnel is a sub-aqueous tunnel constructed by the prefabrication of

tunnel units and then submerged and jointed on the seabed. It is usually
advantageous to construct submerged tunnel rather than bored tunnel below seabed
because a cover of at least 10 m is required for the safe construction of a bored tunnel
under seabed.
The first cross harbour tunnel in Hong Kong is made of steel but reinforced concrete
ones are preferred now. Reinforced concrete tubes are not only cheaper than steel
ones, but can be more easily made in rectangular cross sections, which were more
suitable for multi-lane road tunnels. In addition, they can be constructed rather long
to reduce the numbers of sinking and jointing operation.
The principal operations in construction of submerged tunnels are:

1. Initial fabrication
2. Trench preparation
3. Launching and sinking
4. Jointing
5. Sand jetting
6. Backfilling
Shek O Casting Basin for Submerged Tunnel

Initial Fabrication
Tunnels units are pre-fabricated in a dry dock. The dry dock is usually an excavated
basin beside seashore at a depth several meters below water level.
Besides the structural frame, fittings and accessories are installed onto the units.
These include: lifting lugs, temporary support jacks, bearing plates & gaskets, ballast
tanks, bulkheads, locating nibs, a control tower and a survey tower.
Page 36 of 41
Trench preparation
While the tunnel units are pre-fabricated in the dry dock, a trench on the seabed for
laying the tunnels units will be prepared at the same time. The trench may be
excavated by dredging or by grabbing. The sides of the trench are usually sloped
back to a stable angle.
To ensure the stability of the tunnel units on the seabed, the foundation of the tunnel
units shall be prepared. There are two methods for the preparation of the foundation:
 Screeding method, and
 Sand jetting method
Screeding Method
Seabed leveller
Granular trench bedding materials are laid on the trench bed and then smoothed by a
leveller.
Sand Jetting Method

Concrete pads are constructed at suitable locations on the trench bed for supporting
hydraulic jacks. The tunnel bedding will be prepared by sand jetting method after the
tunnel segment has been placed.
Page 37 of 41
Control
Transit
Survey Tower
Winch
Tower
Floating
Pontoon
Trench on
Seabed
Concrete
Jacking
Pad
Sinking of Submerged Tunnel Unit
Launching and sinking
The open ends of the units will be closed with watertight temporary steel bulkheads
to enable them to float. The floodgate of the casting basin is opened to let the
seawater flowing in. The unit is then floated and towed to its final position.
The unit can be laid by fixed-leg platform, or more often nowadays by floating
pontoons. In the later case, two pontoons are placed on top of the tunnel unit to be
sunk. There are transit winches on the pontoons for adjusting the position of the
pontoons. The wires from the winches are tied to heavy concrete block anchors on
the seabed. The sinking operation starts with water ballasting of the unit so that 2%
negative buoyancy is established for sinking. Its position under water is carefully
controlled by means of the surveying tower.
Page 38 of 41
Jointing
At an end of each tunnel units, there are a bulkhead with a locating nib, and a Gina
gasket or a steel bearing plate installed. The unit is lowered slowly until the locating
nibs are engaged. Now the moving of the unit is taken over by hydraulic jacks.
The jacks pulled the newly sunk unit towards its neighbour until sufficient contact
pressure is established between the Gina gasket and the bearing plate. This initial
compression provides an isolation of the water inside the gap from the outside.
Page 39 of 41
Thereafter the water is discharged from the joint. The unbalanced hydrostatic
pressure on the further end of the new unit will press the units tightly together.
The bulkheads at the joints are then removed. The waterproofing of the joint is
further reinforced by installing an omega seal and covered with a steel plate by
welding. Finally the joint is filled with concrete or cement grout.
Sand Jetting
If the tunnel bedding is placed by sand jetting, the sand and water are mixed and
pumped down from a barge through deliver pipes to nozzles beneath the tunnel unit
which are placed at 4 to 8 m intervals. Following the sand jetting bentonite/cement
grout may be injected into the sand foundation for additional reinforcement.
Page 40 of 41
Sand Jetting for Submerged Tunnel
Backfilling
Selected backfill comprising of granular material which will compact naturally under
water is placed to mid-way of the tunnel depth.
General fill or granular fill material which would not cause damages to the tunnel
waterproofing is placed on top until a cover of at least 2 m for the tunnel unit is
attained. Rock armour should also be provided near the shore for protection of tunnel
from damages by vessels.
Page 41 of 41

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Chapter 1.

There are various types of construction materials, among which reinforced

 Concrete is a mixture of cement, aggregate and water. Concrete sets to a

simply supported plain concrete beam

Tension in The beam will crack

Loading a plain Concrete Beam

Simply supported R.C. beam

Tension in The reinforcement

Loading a Reinforced Concrete Beam

Plain round steel bar

Plain round steel bar Deformed high tensile steel bar

Deformed high tensile steel bars

Reinforced concrete structures

A typical reinforced concrete building 3 of 18

Main beam Span

Typical R.C. Framed Structure

Since concrete is strong in compression, it may be concluded that no reinforcement

 Buckling of slender column when subject to axial load (a column is considered

Buckling of Reaction to beam Wind Loading acting on

 To prevent the slender main bars from buckling

Main bar link

Main bars Top reinforcement

Canopy Main bars of slab

Typical Slab Reinforcement

Beam and slab system Beam and

 In this system the slab are supported on beams.

Flat slab system

 A flat slab is a slab supported on columns directly without beams.

beam, is eliminated which makes the construction much easier.

Column strip Columns

Minimum thickness of a R.C. wall as an external wall is 100 mm.

Horizontal bar Vertical bar

Typical wall reinforcement (plan view)

The floor plan of a typical domestic building in Hong Kong

Non-load bearing walls

 Most partitions are non-load bearing.

Basic construction process of R.C. structures

Namely, the basic construction process of R.C, structures are:

A lot of materials can be used as formwork materials, such as timber, steel,

Advantages if using timber as formwork material

Disadvantages if using timber as formwork material

in large scale projects.

 Column forms are commonly formed by using

A Front view Section A-A

Wall forms are constructed from the following basic parts:

Floor level Kicker

3.2.1 Reinforcement Schedules and detailing

Reinforcement on detail drawings is annotated by a coding system to simplify

Typical R.C. Beam Reinforcement Details

plain round steel diameter in mm bar mark number

Typical R.C. Beam Bending Schedule

Reshaping of land profile - cut and fill

A site may be leveled by: cutting, filling, or both.

original ground level battered face

original ground level

original ground level

Leveling slopping sites

The major functions of a backactor:

Backactor (Source: HKSAR Government) Loader Shovel

2.2 Loader Shovel

Bulldozer Face Shovel

Face Shovel (Front Shovel)

 Designed for digging above track level.