Chapter Three: Research Problem and Hypotheses

Research problem

The first step in the research process is the choice of suitable problem for investigation. Problem is any
question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty. Problem also denotes here a question
proposed for solution or discussion. On the other hand research problem refers to a problem that someone
would like to investigate; a situation that needs to be changed or addressed. These problems usually consist
of area of concern, condition to be improved, difficulties to be eliminated, and questions seeking answer. A
research problem also defined as an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in research
study.

The identification of research problem is difficult, but it is an important phase of the entire research
process. It requires a great deal of patience and logical thinking on the part of the researcher. Beginners
find the tasks of identifying a research problem a difficult one. Most of the time researchers select a
problem because of his own unique needs and purposes. There are, however, some important sources which
are helpful to a researcher for selecting problem to be investigated.

Sources of a research problem

Research problem / Idea originate from many sources. We discuss four of these sources for the time being:
Every day life, practical issue, past research (literature), and Inference from theory.

1. Every day life: is one common source of research problem / idea, Based on Questioning and
inquisitive approach, you can draw from your experiences, and come up with many research
problems. For example think about what type of management practices in cooperatives you
believe work well or do not work well. Would you be interested in doing a research study on one
or more of those practices?

2. Practical Issue: this is one of most important source of research problem especially when you are
practitioner. What are some current problem facing cooperatives developments? What research
topic do you think can address some of these problems? By such types of inquisitive approach
with regard to the practical issue you can come up with research problem.

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 3. Past research (literature): Among the sources of research problems one has to be very familiar
with the literature in the field of one’s interest. Past research is probably the most important source
of research idea / problem. That is because, importantly research usually generate more questions
that it answers. This also the best way to come with a specific idea that will fit in to and extend the
research literature.

4. Theory (Explanations of phenomenon): inference from theory can be a source of research

problem. The application of general principles involved in various theories to specific situation
makes an excellent starting point for research. The following question gives illustration how
theory can be a source of research problem.
- Can you summarized and integrate a set of post studies in to a theory?
- Are there any theoretical predictions needing empirical testing?
- Do you have any theories that you believe have merit? Test them.
- If there is little or no theory in the area of interest to you, then think about collecting data
to help you to generate a theory.
Selecting and Defining a research problem
Selecting a research problem
The research problem undertaken for the study must be carefully selected. The task is difficult one,
although it may not appear to be so. The research problem as identified and defined for the purpose of
inquiry should be an amenable to scientific research. As such every research problem selected for research
must satisfy the following criteria.

1. The problem selected for the purpose of research should be original. It should be problem that is
being inquired for the first time. It should not be a problem of repeated nature and should not have
been already probed with some valid reasons. For this purpose the researcher must attempt a
thorough review of the existing literature. It is useful for identification of specific problems,
eliminating the duplication of works, improving the research techniques over those used earlier in
similar research, avoiding the hounding points of earlier researchers, identification of gaps, and
gathering knowledge of new concepts and technical aspects.

2. The problem taken for the research should not be too general or too specific. It should be a
problem of less general nature and most of specific treatment. In other word research problem
should be moderate and compromising between the spaces sets out above. A problem of general
nature may lead to vague treatment and too specific problem may end in narrow focus without any
consequence.

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 3. The research problem must be operational and should not be too subjective and non-measurable. It
should be solvable or researchable. Sometimes the problem may be significant but may not be a
single enquiry. A solvable problem improves the conditions immediately. A problem remains
insolvable for two reasons. They are:
(a) That it may concern supernatural or amorphous phenomena. For example a research
problem to know who is responsible to the creation of the world is beyond one’s research
exercise.
(b) That it cannot be operationally defined. The problem may not be possible for
measurement. For instance measurement of anxiety, creativity etc, are too difficult to
measure.

4. The research problem undertaken should be feasible for implementation. The feasibility of
completing the research project should be checked by taking into consideration the study design,
access to organizations and respondents, sample and universe to be studied must be with in the
reach; time and cost required and so on.

5. The selection of a problem must be proceeding by preliminary study. This may not be necessary
when the problem requires the conduct of research closely similar to one that has already been
done. But when the field of enquiry is relatively new and does not have available set of well
developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.

If the problem for research selected properly by observing the above mentioned points and fulfill the
features of good research problem indicated in the box here under, the research will not be difficult to
implement.

Features of suitable Research problem

Features of a suitable research problem
1 It should be of great interest to you: You will have to spend many months investigating the problem. A
lively interest in the subject will be an invaluable incentive to persevere.
2 The problem should be significant: It is not worth time and effort investigating a trivial problem or
repeating work which has already been done elsewhere.
3 It should be delineated Consider the time you have to complete the work, and the depth to which the
problem will be addressed. You can cover a wide field only superficially, and the more you restrict the
field, the more detailed the study can be. You should also consider the cost of necessary travel and other
expenses.

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4 You should be able to obtain the information required You cannot carry out research if you fail to collect
the relevant information needed to tackle your problem, either because you lack access to documents or
other sources, and/or because you have not obtained the co-operation of individuals or organizations
essential to your research.
5 You should be able to draw conclusions related to the problem: The point of asking a question is to find
an answer. The problem should be one to which the research can offer some solution, or at least the
elimination of some false ‘solutions’.
6 You should be able to state the problem clearly and concisely A precise, well thought out and fully
articulated sentence, understandable by anyone, should normally clearly be able to explain just what the
problem is.

Necessity of Defining the Problem

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the
need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for
that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem
will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions
like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What
relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other questions
crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions
only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a
prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often
more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out
the research design and can smoothly carry on all he consequential steps involved while doing research.

Technique Involved In Defining a Problem

Let us start with the questions: What does one mean when he / she want to define a research problem? The
answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied.
In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher
shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.

How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a phenomenal task. However, it is a task that must be
tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that
the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on
research, the concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher)
and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for formulating or

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defining the research problem. But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results because
the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form
suitable for testing.

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case
be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems
later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weight age to
all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally
one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii) understanding the nature of the
problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and (v)
rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.

(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered
advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of
preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the
problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from
an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a
broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and
rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.

(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it
with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with
what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once
again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a
better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those
who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher
should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood.

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(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports
and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of
research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other
materials, if any, are available for operational purpose. “Knowing what data are available often
serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.” This would also
help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories
applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of
the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e.,
he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for
indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible
analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of
approach to the present problem.

(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a
researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience
in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience
survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different
aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the
researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field.
Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific
problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem,
techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood,
the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions
over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined,
rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through
rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible to that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.

In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem.

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  Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
 A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem
HYPOTHESIS and HYPOTHESIS TESTING
The entire investigation is carried out by the research team according to the hypothesis formulated for the
study. It is the basis for the statement of the objectives of the study. It helps in the decision making with
regard to the research design. Hypothesis formulation is not an end itself. The researchers must test the
hypothesis in appropriate manner viz, by statistical techniques or by an in depth field enquires. In lay man’s
parlance, hypothesis is a kind of assumption that motivates or guides the researcher to proceed with the
research design and its implementation.
Hypothesis is the statistical statement about the characteristics of population made on the basis of sample
evidence. A statistical hypothesis is some assumption or statement, which may or may not be true, about a
population or equivalently about the probability distribution characterizing the given population which we
want to test on the basis of the evidence from a random sample. Hypothesis can be formulated in either of
the following two ways:
(i) Null Hypothesis (Ho): It states that there is no much (significant) difference between the
parameter and statistic. In other words, H  states that the difference between sample statistic and
the claimed population parameter is due to chance variation in sampling. Null hypothesis is
normally preferred in testing process. It enables the researcher to test it. The random selection of
the samples from the given population makes the tests of significance valid for us. For applying
any test of significance we first set up a hypothesis - a define statement about the population
parameter(s). Such a statistical hypothesis, which is under test, is usually a hypothesis of no
difference between statistical and parameter. Hence it is called Null hypothesis. In the words of
R.A. Fisher null hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the
assumption that it is true.
(ii) Alternative Hypothesis (H1): It is true when H is false. It is the statement about the population
that must be true if null hypothesis is false. Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null
hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It is important to explicitly state the alternative

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 hypothesis in respect of any null hypothesis, because the acceptance or rejection of H  is
meaningful only it is being tested against a rival hypothesis
Some of the important sources are given below:
1. A hypothesis arises from intuition. These hypotheses have no clear connection with the large body
of theory. The intuition is associated with an individual, who is influenced by environment.
2. A hypothesis also arises from other studies. The findings of our study may be formulated as
hypotheses. The hypotheses followed in one study previously can be used in the present study.
3. Theory is a fertile seed-bed of hypotheses. For example, individuals who are rising in status are
likely to be favorably inclined towards individual and objects that are helping their uplift in life.
4. Personal happiness provides scope for hypotheses. Happiness is correlated with income,
education, occupation, social class and so on.
The characteristics of good hypotheses are: (i) it should be empirically testable; (ii) it should be possible to
draw certain inferences, which in turn can be tested by observation in the field; (iii) it should be
conceptually clear; (iv) the hypothesis must be specific; and (v) it must be related to a study of theory of
some theoretical orientation.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
The first and foremost problem in any testing procedure is the setting up of the null hypothesis. As the
name suggests, it is always taken as a hypothesis of no difference. The decision maker or researcher should
always adopt the neutral or null attitude on the part of the researcher before drawing the sample is the basis
of the null hypothesis. The following points may be borne in mind in setting the hypothesis.

1. If we want to test significance of the difference between a statistic and the parameter or between
two sample statistics then we set up the null hypothesis, that the difference is not significant. This
means that the difference is just due to fluctuations of sampling.
2. Setting the level of significance: The hypothesis is examined on a predetermined level of
significance. In other words the level of significance can be either 5% or 1% depending upon the
purpose, nature of enquiry and size of the sample.
In hypothesis testing, two kinds of errors are possible viz., Type I error and Type II error.
Type I error means rejection the null hypothesis when it happens to be true. Type II error means
accepting null hypothesis when it is false.
The following tables being explain the type of error
Position of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis-Accept Null hypothesis-Reject
H TRUE Correct Decision Type: I Error

H FALSE Type II Error Correct Decision

For instance the level of significance is 5%. It means that five cases of out of 100 are rejecting the H  which
is true. It is possible to reduce type I error by lowering down the level of significance. Both the type of
errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. We have to balance between them.

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3. The next step in the testing of hypothesis is calculation of Standard Error (SE). The standard
deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is known as Standard Error. The concept of
standard error (SE) is extremely useful in the testing of statistical hypothesis. Note that the SE is
calculated differently for different statistical value.
4. Calculation of Significance ratio: Significance ratio is symbolically described as‘t’. It is calculated
by dividing the difference between parameter and statistic by the standard error
5. Deriving the inference: Compare the calculated value with critical value (table value). If the
observed value is less it is insignificant and vice-versa.