Predictions of tumble and turbulence in
four-valve pentroof spark ignition
engines
M Achuth and P S Mehta
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Indian
Institute of Technology, Madras, India
Received 18 July 2001
Abstract: A predictive model for tumble charge motion
and turbulence in four-valve pentroof engines has been
developed. The model formulation is based on a mean flow
analysis of tumble motion in conjunction with k-å turbu-
lence equations. All major phenomena, including fluid
shear, affecting mean vortex behaviour and turbulence
generation are included. The predictions are made for both
intake and compression periods of the engine cycle. The
model predictions have been compared with earlier analyt-
ical investigations in two engines and are found to be in
good qualitative and quantitative agreement. The distinct
stages characterizing mean vortex and its turbulence have
been identified in this work. Further, the mechanism
responsible for turbulence enhancement through tumble
has been synthesized and related to these stages.
A preliminary parametric study with intake valve lifts
and pentroof angles is carried out to demonstrate the capa-
bility of the model in design studies. It is revealed that a
large-angled pentroof retains significant vortex structures
even at top dead centre. In an optimized geometry, these
structures may play a role in improving overall mass burn
rates. The chamber geometry is found to have a significant
influence on bulk motion and turbulence levels at ignition.
The intake system, however, influences the formation of
tumble vortices during the intake stroke.
Key words: four-valve, pentroof spark ignition (SI)
engine, tumble, turbulence
1. Introduction
The contribution of charge motion in internal com-
bustion engines [1] towards improving their per-
formance and emission characteristics is well
recognized. Tumble motion is a rather recently ident-
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ified [2] organized rotary charge motion occurring in
an axial plane. A tumble plane is parallel to the plane
containing the cylinder axis and that containing the
centres of inlet and exhaust valves, while a cross
tumble plane is an axial plane orthogonal to the
tumble plane. Though tumble is observable in pan-
cake chambers with either a shrouded intake valve
[2] or a properly oriented intake port [3], its real
application is in the case of four-valve pentroof
engines with suitably designed intake ports, which
have an inherently tumble conducive chamber
geometry. Through the production of a well-timed
turbulence, which is more intense than swirl-gener-
ated turbulence [3, 4], an optimized tumble charge
motion can enable better combustion in spark
ignition (SI) engines, even at high levels of charge
dilution. This is beneficial for part-load engine oper-
ation and also finds wide use in lean burn engine
concepts [5-10]. The production of tumble during
intake is emerging as an important consideration in
the design of modern automotive SI engines [11, 12].
Several experimental investigations have been
reported in the literature concerning a predomi-
nantly ‘tumbling’ intake flow in four-valve pentroof
engines. These investigations employed techniques
that vary in their degree of sophistication from a
simple tumble meter [7] to the more recent flow vis-
ualization techniques such as particle tracking veloci-
metry (PTV) in a water analogue rig [13-15] or laser
sheet particle tracking/imaging velocimetry (PIV)
studies with tracer particles in the intake air [10, 16].
Some of the investigations also concern compression
tumble [6, 17-19], where the tumble vortex is
deformed and destroyed by the upward-moving
piston and turbulence is enhanced. From these
investigations, useful insight into the mechanism of
209
M Achuth and P S Mehta
tumble generation during induction and its conver-
sion to turbulence during compression were
obtained. The important observations include:
1. A strong tumble can be generated by the separa-
tion of flow near the exit of intake ports, thereby
generating an unsymmetric flow distribution
about the intake valves. The bulk of the flow
passes to the exhaust valve side of the combustion
chamber and becomes properly directed by the
pentroof geometry.
2. The intake process and tumble breakdown are the
major sources of turbulence inside the combustion
chamber.
Hence it is perceived that the intake system and com-
bustion chamber geometry considerations are quite
important in affecting tumble air motion and its
turbulence.
Though some multi-dimensional computational
studies with limited comparison with experimental
data are reported in the literature to model tumble
and its turbulence [17, 20-22], the phenomenological
modelling attempts are quite limited because of the
highly transient and complex nature of this phenom-
enon. Nevertheless, phenomenological models can
serve as fast and economical complementary tools
for combustion system design if the critical physical
processes are incorporated properly.
Benjamin [23] was the first to propose a simple
phenomenological description of tumble motion. He
later on improved his earlier description of the turbu-
lence process using a k-å model [24]. In his work,
many useful observations are made regarding the
tumble vortex and turbulence behaviour, but analy-
sis was restricted to the compression period in a pan-
cake chamber. Subsequently, Dai et al. [25] proposed
a quasi-dimensional model for the predictions of
tumble and turbulence in a multi-valve engine in
conjunction with their combustion model. Their
model seems to lack generality in calculating the
intake flow and the tumble-generated turbulence.
Much of the available experimental data on tumble
and turbulence are based on single location velocity
measuring techniques such as laser Doppler veloci-
metry (LDV) and hot wire anemometry (HWA). These
are suitable for validating a computational fluid dy-
namic (CFD) model (see reference [20]), where the
velocities can be calculated at different spatial loca-
tions inside the chamber. In phenomenological models,
where spatial homogeneity of thermodynamic proper-
ties and fluid dynamic variables are assumed, the use
of location-specific experimental data for the purpose
210
of validation will be highly erroneous. It has been pro-
posed that dynamic flow visualization techniques,
such as PTV/PIV, will be better tools to explore and
quantify a tumble field [14, 16]. These techniques pro-
duce the results in terms of gross quantities like tumble
ratio and for which successful correlations with com-
bustion parameters are reported [13, 15]. Therefore,
these data are well suited for comparisons with the
predictions of phenomenological models. Because of
the high cost and complexity of these techniques, only
limited quantitative data are available in the literature.
Even combined experimental–CFD studies [22] have
to be content with a single point validation. Perhaps
due to this, the earlier phenomenological models
[24, 25] could not go beyond a qualitative validation
of mean flow predictions.
In this paper, a predictive model is developed for
tumble motion and turbulence in a pentroof chamber
SI engine following Benjamin [24]. Further, the
model predictions are made from the beginning of
intake to the end of compression in order to under-
stand and identify the stages of tumble and turbu-
lence behaviour more clearly. Then, after comparing
the qualitative and quantitative predictions of the
model with CFD/quasi-dimensional model data
[21, 25], preliminary parametric studies are conduc-
ted with an emphasis on intake system and combus-
tion chamber designs, to demonstrate the capability
of this model in design studies.
2. Model Formulation
The present model has been formulated based on a
mean flow analysis of tumble motion in conjunction
with k-å equations for turbulence. An approach of
separating the mean flow field from the fluctuating
component is adopted in modelling tumble and
its turbulence. The major assumptions made in the
formulation of the present model are listed below:
1. The mean flow field spins in a two-dimensional
plane (the xy plane in Fig. 1). This assumption is
valid in both two-valve pancake [2, 3] and four-
valve pentroof geometries [15, 21].
Fig. 1 Coordinate system used in the model.
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 Predictions of tumble and turbulence

2. A tumble vortex is assumed to have an elliptical
shape in two-dimensional tumble planes as pro-
posed by Benjamin [23, 24]. The velocity vari-
ations ux and uy along the x and y directions in
the tumble plane xy are represented respectively
as
where Jin is intake angular momentum, T is the
torque owing to external couples calculated based on
fluid shearing stresses acting on the surface of the
vortex (Ts ) and the wall shear stresses from the cylin-
der walls, piston and head faces (Tw ). The angular
momentum of cylinder contents ( J) is given by

A B
z2 y

P
ux =2U 1
(1)
R2 L J= (ux y
uy x) dx dy dz
vol

A B
z2 x
uy =
2U 1
(2) mc U
R2 W = (L +1.81R) (4)
8
where U is instantaneous tumble velocity, R is
cylinder radius, L is instantaneous chamber height where mc is cumulative cylinder charge mass at
and W the width of the elemental vortex. any instant.
3. The external torques acting on the tumble vortex The intake-generated flux (dJin /dt) is expressed as
are estimated through a step-by-step approach
[24]. First, the fluid shear torque is evaluated dJin
Ç U0h
=m (5)
assuming a no-slip condition at the walls and then dt
the wall shear torque is estimated using flat plate
where m Ç is mass flowrate at intake, U0 is the tumble
approximation.
component of velocity at intake and h is the perpen-
4. Exhaust flow and back-flow fluxes are neglected
dicular distance of instantaneous tumble component
in the mean vortex analysis.
of velocity at intake from the instantaneous centre C
5. The wall shear stress is the sole mechanism of
along the cylinder axis (refer to Fig. 2a). From geo-
angular momentum loss during intake. Because
metrical considerations the distance h is expressed in
of this assumption, the mean vortex rotation
terms of chamber height (L) and instantaneous valve
during that period is implied to be a solid-body
lift (Lv ) as
rotation.
6. Turbulence generation from tumble flow is owing
h= 12(L
Lv cos ö) (6)
to the energy loss of the tumble vortex during the
compression stroke. Further, during compression,
The torque due to fluid shear stresses (Ts ) is
the fluid shear in the mean vortex also contributes
to tumble arrestment. Ts =Ts1+Ts2 (7)

2.1 Mean flow field

where suffix 1 is for cylinder wall and 2 is for the
The law of conservation of angular momentum for
cylinder head–piston crown surfaces. The torque Ts1
the mean vortex is expressed as
resulting from shear stresses acting on both sides of
dJ dJin the vortex in contact with the cylinder wall (see
=
T (3)
dt dt Fig. 3) is

Fig. 2 Schematic arrangement and definition of geometrical parameters concerning pentroof chamber geometry.

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M Achuth and P S Mehta

torque due to the fluid shear stresses acting on the

vortex surface is expressed as

3Umc ît 1
A B
8
Ts = + (12)
2 L 9ðR

The torque due to wall shear stresses (Tw ) is

represented by

Tw =Tw1+Tw2 (13)

The shear stress due to flow over a wall (ôw ) is

ôw = 12ru2wall cf (14)

where cf is the coefficient of friction evaluated based

on flat plate considerations [26] as

cf =0.074 ReÕ 0.2 for 5×105<Re<107 (15)

where Re is the Reynolds number with engine bore

and tumble velocity as characteristic length and vel-
ocity respectively. The torque owing to cylinder
walls (Tw1) is given as

Tw1= 21rcf
Psurf
u2y WL ds (16)

The torque from head and piston faces Tw2 is

P
Fig. 3 The elemental vortex.
Tw2= 21rcf u2x WL dz (17)
surf

Ts1=
P
surf
W (ôs L ds) By combining equations (16) and (17), the total
torque due to wall shear stresses becomes
=
P
surf
(ôxy dz+ ôyz dx)WL (8) Tw =0.72cf mc U 2 (18)

On substituting equations (4), (5), (12) and (18) in

where ds is an elemental circumferential length along
equation (3), the mean flow equation becomes
the cylinder wall,

C D
d mc U
(L +1.81R)
A B
quy qux
ôxy =rît + (9) dt 8
qx qy
3Umc ît 1
A B
8
and =m
Ç U0h
+
0.72cf mc U 2 (19)
2 L 9ðR
quy
ôyz =rît (10) where U0 is the tumble component of velocity at
qz intake.
where ît is the turbulent kinematic viscosity. Simplifying and expressing the above equation in
Because of the pentroof geometry, the evaluation terms of crank angle (õ ) gives
of the stresses acting on the vortex is rather complex.
G
dU 1
A simplification is made in obtaining these quantities =

dõ ö e (L +1.81R)
by assuming that the effective shear area at the cylin-

C D
der head is equivalent to the piston crown area. The Ç
8m Ç
m
× U 0h
U(L +1.81R)
torque Ts2 resulting from the shear stresses ôxy due mc mc
to the cylinder head and piston face is given by

A B
dL 1 8
+ öe U +12Uît +
õ ð
P
d L 9 R
Ts2= L(ôxy W dz) (11)

H
surf
+5.76cf U 2 (20)
After evaluating equations (8) and (11), the total

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 Predictions of tumble and turbulence

where öe is engine angular speed. The above dk 2 dL 5ît 2

=
k+ U
expression is applicable to both intake and com- dõ 3L d õ 2öe
å
A B
pression processes. 1 7 256
× 2+


L 15R 2
75ðRL ö e
î î
C t,eq2(k
keq2)
D
2.2 Turbulence model 2 t,eq l (k
keq 1)
A two-parameter k-å model has been used for turbu-
+
öe Ryeq1 Lyeq2
lence predictions [24, 27]. For any turbulent structure Ç
m
s, the general rate equation is + (kin
k) (26)
Vröe
ds då 4 dL 5î
=Ps
Ds +Js (21) =
å+ t U2
dt dõ 3L dõ 2öe
cå1 å å2
A B
1 7 256
where Ps is rate of production, Ds is rate of destruc- × 2+

c
L 15R 2 75ðRL k öe k å2
tion and Js is rate of diffusion arising from random
2 ît,eq l (å
åeq1) ît,eq2(å
åeq2)
convection of the turbulent structure.
The rate equations for turbulent kinetic energy (k)


öe C
Ryeq1
+
Lyeq2 D
and its dissipation rate (å) are integrated over the Ç
m
+ (åin
å) (27)
chamber volume and the diffusion flux over the Vröe
vortex surface and are represented as where kin and åin are intake-generated kinetic energy
and dissipation rate terms which are evaluated from

P
dk
r dV
vol dt kin =(c k uin )2 (28)

cd k3in/2
P A B P
2 dr qui åin =
= k + ôij
rå dV + FK ds cl Lî,max
(29)
vol 3 dt qxj surf

where cd , cl and ck are empirical constants and their

P C D
Ç
m
+ (kin
k) dV (22) chosen values, along with other empirical constants,
vol V
are given in Table 1.
då
P
The non-linear coupled differential equations (20),
r dV
vol dt (26) and (27) are simultaneously solved from the start
of intake to the end of compression using a fourth-
å qui
P A B
4 dr order Runge–Kutta method.
= å +cå1 ôij
rcå2 dV
vol 3 dt k qxj

P P C D
Ç
m
+ Få ds+ (kin
k) dV (23) 3. Computational Procedure
surf vol V
The computational elements of this model concern
where iëj, V is the chamber volume and FK and Få
analysis of intake flow, the changes in the flow
are the respective boundary fluxes for k and å which
during compression owing to interaction with the
are approximated by
engine geometry, turbulence production from the
mean flow and its dissipation. During intake, the
P
k
keq
FK ds=
rît,eq surface area (24) instantaneous values of pressure, temperature and
surf yeq
density are computed from the gas exchange analysis
å
åeq
P surf
Få ds=
rît,eq
yeq
surface area (25)

Constants Chosen values

The individual terms in equations (22) and (23) rep-
resent the contributions of piston motion, shear cd 0.09
stresses, dissipation, wall flux and intake processes ck 0.47
cl 0.30
respectively. c e1 1.44
The rate equations are integrated over the chamber c e2 1.92
c0 0.10
volume, the boundary fluxes integrated over the
vortex surface and finally expressed in terms of crank Table 1 Values of empirical constants for k–e model
angle (õ ) as [equations (26) to (37)].

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M Achuth and P S Mehta
using an emptying and filling model [27]. Initial
pressure and temperature are taken to be the mani-
fold values. The flow is assumed to be compressible
and the relevant equations for mass flowrate under
choked or unchoked conditions, as applicable, are
employed. The instantaneous valve area is estimated
based on a procedure suggested by Heywood [28].
At low valve lifts, the mass inflow becomes sym-
metrically distributed about the intake valves, while
at high lifts, most of the flow passes directly towards
the exhaust valve side of the combustion chamber
[14, 16, 18]. To account for this dependence of tumble
velocity on the valve lift, an effective mass flow coef-
ficient (f) is introduced. Thus the tumble component
of velocity at intake is expressed as
U 0=fuin cos(ö
â) (30)
where uin is total velocity of the incoming charge, ö is
the pentroof angle, â is the valve seat angle and f has a
value of 0.5 at low lift and 1.0 at medium and high lifts.
The effect of the pentroof configuration is incor-
porated through the top dead centre (TDC) chamber
height (LTDC ), defined as a function of engine cylin-
der radius (R) and pentroof angle (ö) as
LTDC =cg R tan ö (31)
where cg is a geometry specific constant which
accounts for the difference in a calculated value of
clearance chamber height and its actual value in a
production engine if the TDC chamber height is
available as an engine specification; otherwise it
assumes a value of unity.
Due to non-availability of the details of the cam, a
sinusoidal profile is chosen over a duration of 180°
CA (crank angle), starting at intake TDC. It has been
noted from earlier CFD investigations [17, 20] that
no significant error has been introduced in the accu-
racy of results by not taking the actual valve timing
and valve overlap period into consideration; rather,
it helped in reducing computational complexities.
The complicated flow patterns resulting from the
interaction of exhaust and intake flows during the
overlap period are not easily amenable to a quasi-
dimensional analysis.
The initial (intake TDC) values of the parameters
such as kinetic energy (k 0), length scale (l 0) and dissi-
pation rate (å 0) required in k–å equations (24) and
(25) are respectively given as
k 0= 12c 0u2p (32)
l 0 =cl Lv,max (33)
cd k30/2
å 0= (34)
l0
214
where up is mean piston speed, Lv,max is maximum
valve lift and c 0, cl and cd are empirical constants
whose chosen values are included in Table 1.
The instantaneous values of turbulence length
scale (l ), turbulence intensity (uê) and turbulent kine-
matic viscosity (ît ) are estimated using the relations
k3/2
l=cd (35)
å
uê=c1d/3k1/2 (36)
ît =lk1/2 (37)
where k and å are the instantaneous values of turbu-
lent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate deter-
mined from the turbulence model.
4. Results and Discussion
Since the present model is developed for predicting
in-cylinder mean flow and turbulence behaviour
owing to tumble motion in an engine during intake
and compression processes, the results of the analy-
sis are presented in terms of the tumble ratio for the
mean vortex [15], and the turbulent kinetic energy
(or turbulent intensity) and turbulence length scale
for the turbulence characteristics. Results concerning
the assessment of the predictive capability of the
model are presented. The various stages of tumble
charge motion have been identified and their bases
discussed. Further, a couple of preliminary para-
metric studies are undertaken to demonstrate the use
of the model in design studies.
4.1 Model assessment for mean flow predictions
It is attempted to assess the capability of the present
model to give acceptable qualitative and quantitative
predictions. The predictions of the present model are
compared with two well-tested earlier models of Das
and Dent [21] and Dai et al. [25]. The specifications
of the four-valve pentroof spark ignition engines
used in these two studies are given in Table 2 as
engines 1 and 2 respectively.
To compare the mean flow predictions, the compu-
tational fluid dynamic data of Das and Dent [21] are
chosen. The results of their model are reported to
have good agreement with PIV and HWA data. On
account of this fact and the availability of predicted
results during intake and compression periods, the
quantitative comparison with them can be more
meaningful here than a single point comparison.
The validation of turbulence characteristics is
understandably more difficult, even more so when
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 Predictions of tumble and turbulence

Engine 1 [21] Engine 2 [25]

Engine bore (mm) 84.45 78

Engine stroke (mm) 89 83.6
Connecting rod length (mm) 155.4 133
Compression ratio 10.5:1 9.8:1
Speed (r/min) 1000 1500
Intake valve diameter (mm) 27 27.6
Exhaust valve diameter (mm) 22.50 24.90
Maximum valve lift (mm) 10.16 9 (assumed)
Valve seat angle (deg) (assumed) 30 30
Pentroof angle (deg) (assumed) 30 25
IVO (ATDC) (deg)
10
15
IVC (ATDC) (deg) 230 223
EVO (ATDC) (deg)
230
239
EVC (ATDC) (deg) 10 9
Tumble ratio (at BDC) 0.72 (approx.) 1.01 (measured using
PTV technique)

Table 2 Specifications of engines.

they are in terms of gross quantities. A preferred
method may be to use the turbulence predictions in
a combustion model and then to check the validity
of combustion duration predictions. The turbulence
predictions of the quasi-dimensional model of Dai
et al. [25] have been used in a combustion model to
yield acceptable predictions of combustion duration.
Therefore, the turbulence predictions of the present
model are compared with their predictions. Finally,
for the sake of completeness in the qualitative
description, which was not possible with limited
CFD data, the tumble ratio predictions of these
models have also been compared.
Figures 4 and 5 show comparisons of the model
predictions of the instantaneous tumble ratio with
the predictions of earlier investigations [21, 25].
These comparisons show a fairly good agreement
between them.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of predictions made
from the present model with those of the CFD model
of Das and Dent [21]. For a quantitative comparison
of the tumble motion, the calculated value of tumble
ratio at bottom dead centre (BDC) is calibrated with
respect to the available experimental values. The pro-
cedure adopted includes estimation of the tumble
ratio at BDC from the model and its comparison with
the experimental value obtained by Trigui et al. [15]
using the PTV technique. From this comparison, a
scale factor is established by taking the ratio of calcu-
lated and experimental values of the tumble ratios.

Fig. 4 Comparison of tumble ratio predictions with the CFD model predictions of Das and Dent [21].

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M Achuth and P S Mehta

Fig. 5 Comparison of tumble ratio predictions with the quasi-dimensional model predictions of Dai et al. [25].

This factor has been employed throughout the cycle

to demonstrate the comparison of trends between
model predictions and experimental tumble ratios.
This procedure is usually adopted in quasi-dimen-
sional models to overcome the uncertainties in the
description of intake flow, when the flow patterns
are quite complex [25]. In the comparison shown in
Fig. 4, the occurrence of the peak tumble ratio in the
present model seems to be about 25–30° CA earlier
than that shown by the CFD model. This difference
can be attributed to the simplifying assumptions of
opening and closing of the valves at dead centres
and of no overlap during the gas exchange process.
Beside this, the available CFD data during the intake
process are quite limited; hence it is not very certain
as to where the peak would have appeared in the
data of Das and Dent [21]. A comparison of predicted Fig. 6 Typical comparison of mass flowrate predictions during
mass flowrate variations during intake from the pre- the gas exchange process.
sent model and that from the earlier CFD model
explained this fact to some extent (refer to Fig. 6).
Undoubtedly, the CFD model is in a better position ratio variation during intake and compression, which
to consider an acceptable flow distribution about the is not attempted earlier in limited CFD data. There
valve planes and can be considered better in its accu- is good qualitative agreement between the two
racy. However, it may be noted that there is good models. The occurrence of the peak tumble ratio dif-
agreement in the peak value of the tumble ratio and fers somewhat, possibly owing to the differences in
its variation after intake BDC as the total mass flow the approach used for intake flow modelling in the
estimates in both the models seem to be the same. two cases. In the present work, the intake tumble is
Figure 5 shows a similar comparison of tumble modelled on geometric and fluid dynamic consider-
ratio predictions of the present model with that of a ations and the vortex is then calibrated at BDC by a
quasi-dimensional model of Dai et al. [25]. The inten- scaling procedure, discussed earlier. However, Dai
tion is to have a qualitative comparison of the tumble et al. used an adjustable intake angular momentum

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flux coefficient to model the intake flow and then
calibrated the vortex at BDC. The reason for a quanti-
tative difference during compression may be owing
to the difference in modelling external torques.
4.2 Stages of tumble charge motion
Mean vortex behaviour can be comprehended more
easily by identifying certain features of tumble
charge motion as depicted in the present and earlier
investigations. This aspect is discussed in the follow-
ing paragraphs and an attempt is made to identify
certain stages in tumble motion. The following four
distinct stages can be identified, as shown in Fig. 7,
based on mean tumble vortex behaviour.
4.2.1 Stage I: vortex generation phase
This phase extends from intake TDC to intake BDC.
The intake jet flow orientation is mainly controlled
by port geometry and the combustion chamber
shape. Initially, the centre of vortex formation is on
the exhaust valve side of the chamber. Then, the vor-
tices grow gradually in size and the vortex centre
becomes slightly offset towards intake valve [14, 21].
The instant of a peak angular speed for the vortex is
dependent upon the valve geometry and in-cylinder
flow conditions. A large single vortex is formed
towards the end of this phase with its centre on the
intake side of the chamber [3, 14, 15, 21]. By this time,
the angular velocity has decayed considerably.
4.2.2 Stage II: vortex stabilization phase
This phase exists between intake BDC and intake
valve closure. In this phase, the rate of decay of
the vortex tends to decrease considerably [21, 22].
Fig. 7 Stages of mean vortex flow.
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Predictions of tumble and turbulence
This is attributed to the restriction in its growth
posed by the upward movement of the piston. This
feature results in a stabilizing action on the vortex.
Moreover, the vortex is not well contained owing to
a continuous flow of energy. The intake valve tim-
ings seem to be a controlling factor for this phase.
4.2.3 Stage III: vortex spin-up phase
This phase extends between intake valve closure and
the instant of occurrence of peak tumble. Since the
vortex patterns are exposed to compressive forces by
the upward-moving piston, the axis of rotation
moves more towards the exhaust valve side through
the cylinder axis. The compression of vortex results
in reduction of its size, thus increasing the vortex
angular speed while conserving the angular momen-
tum. A rapid increase in tumble ratio culminates in
its peak value. This ‘spin-up’ action is well recog-
nized in the literature [2, 3, 21, 22] and is typically
between 60° and 90° before compression TDC. The
combustion chamber and piston geometries seem to
be controlling this phase.
4.2.4 Stage IV : vortex decay phase
The occurrence of the peak tumble ratio marks the
onset of this phase, which extends until compression
TDC. The vortex is squeezed by the piston and cylin-
der head, causing its breakdown to the smaller vorti-
ces. Initially the vortex decays gradually over about
30° crank angle duration, which subsequently
becomes rapid [3, 21]. This is the mechanism of tur-
bulence generation as the stored energy of the vortex
is released, as seen from a decrease in the tumble
ratio.
4.3 Model assessment for turbulence predictions
Figure 8 shows a comparison of the turbulence
characteristics predicted from the present model and
the model of Dai et al. [25]. They seem to follow the
same trend. However, the present model predicts
lower values than its CFD counterpart during the
later part of the intake stroke. This is attributed to
the difficulty of ascertaining the intake flow charac-
teristics in the data of Dai et al. [25] with that of the
present model. The approach of evaluating the
instantaneous turbulent kinetic energies and turbu-
lence length scales is also different in the two models.
Because of these reasons, the empirical constants
chosen in the two models could be quite different.
Even then, the agreement is reasonable. In the pre-
sent model, another observable fact is the sudden
increase in turbulence from 180° ATDC (after TDC)
onwards. This is more of a computational artefact of
217
M Achuth and P S Mehta
Fig. 8 Comparison of turbulence intensity predictions with the
quasi-dimensional model predictions of Dai et al. [25].
the assumption that the shear-generated turbulence
starts from the commencement of compression.
However, these differences are minor as the main
objective of these calculations is to obtain the value
of turbulent intensity near TDC affecting combus-
tion. Dai et al. have successfully used their turbulent
intensity predictions in a combustion model. It can
be seen that both the models predict nearly the same
turbulent intensity (of about 3 m/s) at TDC. Further,
both show the peak turbulent intensity at about 25°
BTDC (before TDC).
Fig. 9 Stages of turbulence.
218
4.4 Stages of turbulence
Destruction of the mean vortex gives rise to turbu-
lence enhancement, by supplying the mean flow
energy contained in the vortex for the purpose. The
various stages for the turbulence behaviour have
been identified in Fig. 9. There is difficulty in ident-
ifying the exact starting point of each of these stages.
However, the distinctness of these stages suggests
their importance in contributing to turbulence in the
engine flow through different phases.
4.4.1 Stage I: intake- generated turbulence phase
This phase exists between the intake TDC and the
start of compression. The intake flow turbulence is a
major source for this turbulence phase. Beyond BDC,
some turbulence enhancement may be present owing
to shear deformation of the mean vortex. However,
it may not be very significant. It may be observed
that the turbulent kinetic energy reaches a peak
depending upon valve geometry and in-cylinder
flow conditions and then decreases.
4.4.2 Stage II: tumble-enhanced turbulence phase
This phase is from the end of the intake-generated
turbulence phase to a point where turbulent kinetic
energy reaches a peak. The peak occurs typically
between 20° and 30° before compression TDC,
depending upon the geometry of the combustion
chamber [3, 6]. In this phase, the increase in turbu-
lence is attributed to shear deformation and spin-up
of the vortex and the eventual vortex breakdown
[3, 17]. The vortex breakdown seems to be a major
source of tumble-generated turbulence, enhancing
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the intake-generated turbulence present during this
phase. Combustion chamber geometry has a very
significant influence over the turbulence levels
attained in this phase.
4.4.3 Stage III: turbulence decay phase
This is from the end of the tumble-enhanced turbu-
lence phase to compression TDC. As mean vortex
destruction is nearly completed, there is no source
of turbulence generation. Therefore, the turbulence
decays with the passage of time.
From these distinct stages observable in tumble
and turbulence behaviour, a better understanding of
the mechanism of turbulence generation from tumble
is possible. A schematic showing the mechanism of
turbulence enhancement owing to tumble is shown
in Fig. 10.
4.5 Parametric investigations
In order to demonstrate the capability of the present
phenomenological model in design optimization, the
effects of two major engine design parameters on
tumble and its turbulence are studied. It is found
that the intake system and the chamber geometry are
very important in determining tumble and turbu-
lence levels in an engine and hence the maximum
inlet valve lift and the pentroof angle can be con-
sidered as important design parameters. The vari-
ations of unscaled predicted tumble ratio, turbulent
kinetic energy and turbulence length scale at various
Fig. 10 Mechanistic representation of turbulence enhancement due to tumble.
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Predictions of tumble and turbulence
maximum valve lifts and pentroof angles are studied.
The details of the test conditions chosen for this pur-
pose are given in Table 3. The values underlined in
the table indicate the reference conditions.
4.5.1 Effect of valve lift
As the formation of the tumble vortex is highly sensi-
tive to intake system design, the maximum valve lift
is expected to be an important design parameter for
the intake system in all four-valve engines. Further,
in the current concepts of inlet valve de-activation
(to reduce the pumping losses), the effects of valve
lift on the in-cylinder flow field becomes more
important.
Due to a decrease in the maximum valve lift and
hence the instantaneous lift, there is a decrease in the
valve curtain area. A decrease in the valve area
increases the intake flow velocity and in turn the
tumble velocity and turbulent kinetic energy during
intake, as shown in Figs 11 and 12 respectively. The
occurrence of the peak tumble ratio during intake
retards at lower maximum valve lifts.
Parameters Chosen values
Pentroof angle (deg) 20, 30, 40
Maximum valve lift (mm) 8, 10, 11
Table 3 Test conditions for parametric studies
based on Engine 1.
219
M Achuth and P S Mehta
Fig. 11 Effect of maximum valve lift on the tumble ratio.
Fig. 12 Effect of maximum valve lift on turbulent kinetic energy.
During compression, the spin-up process further
augments tumble velocity. Because of a continuously
decreasing chamber height and an increasing tumble
velocity, during the upward piston movement the
compression and shear components of turbulence
increase. This leads to an increased overall turbulent
kinetic energy and turbulent kinematic viscosity. The
higher turbulent kinematic viscosity causes an
increase in the magnitudes of the shear stresses,
which tends to arrest the tumble vortex. The larger
220
arresting torque acting on the vortex owing to the
higher turbulence levels is responsible for a rapid
decay of tumble ratio in the low valve lift case, as
shown in Fig. 11. Consequently, the tumble ratio at
compression TDC is slightly lower in this case, as
shown in Fig. 13. Further, the peak tumble ratio
occurs earlier during the compression stroke, sug-
gesting an early vortex breakdown in the low valve
lift case. Figure 12 shows the variation of turbulent
kinetic energy at various maximum valve lifts. The
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Fig. 13 Effect of maximum valve lift on the tumble ratio and turbulence length scale at compression TDC.
peak turbulence is higher but occurs earlier during
compression in the low valve lift case. This indicates
that the decay in turbulence intensity before reaching
TDC will be more in this case as compared to the
high valve lift case. Due to the higher values of peak
turbulence intensities and the conversion of more
mean vortices to turbulence, the turbulence intensity
levels at TDC are higher in the low valve lift case.
The turbulence length scales are found to be higher
in the low valve lift case, as shown in Figs 13 and 14.
Fig. 14 Effect of maximum valve lift on turbulence length scale.
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Predictions of tumble and turbulence
4.5.2 Effect of pentroof angle
The role of combustion chamber geometry may be
prominent in the formation of the tumble vortex
during intake, and especially in its restructuring
during compression. The variation of the tumble
ratio for three pentroof angles is shown in Fig. 15.
The peak value of the tumble ratio during intake is
found to increase with an increase in pentroof angle.
This peak value occurs earlier in the intake stroke
for a larger pentroof angle. The rate of increase in
221
M Achuth and P S Mehta
Fig. 15 Effect of pentroof angle on the tumble ratio.
the peak value decreases as the pentroof angle
increases. Though a large angled pentroof is more
suited to directing the incoming jet to follow the cyl-
inder head geometry, the magnitude of the tumble
component of velocity at entry during intake
decreases with an increase in the pentroof angle. In
fact, this may suggest that there is an optimum pent-
roof angle for a given engine configuration. Figure 16
shows that the turbulence during intake is not very
sensitive to chamber geometry. This is possibly
Fig. 16 Effect of pentroof angle on turbulent kinetic energy.
222
owing to the fact that the total velocity at the exit of
the intake valve is not affected much by the chamber
geometry, as it is a dominant function of the valve
geometry and the fluid dynamic conditions prevail-
ing in the intake ports and the cylinder.
During compression, the tumble velocity and tur-
bulent kinetic energy both become enhanced (Figs 15
and 16). The lower pentroof angle geometry facili-
tates faster spin-up, which along with a lower
chamber height gives rise to higher turbulence inten-
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sities at small pentroof angles. Since the turbulent
kinematic viscosity will be higher for a small pent-
roof angle, the vortex arrestment brought by shear
stresses will be quite rapid (Fig. 15). Consequently,
a large-angled pentroof chamber retains more bulk
structures at compression TDC, and hence the turbu-
lence intensity at TDC is lower. Figure 17 shows that
the turbulence length scales at TDC are higher for a
large angled pentroof, suggesting large-sized eddies.
An effect of the chamber geometry is that there is a
significant difference between the turbulence length
scales for the three geometries during compression,
as compared to their variations during intake.
In order to correlate the mean vortex character-
istics with turbulence behaviour during com-
pression, the variations in the tumble ratio at TDC
and certain turbulence characteristics are investi-
gated. The turbulence characteristics are in terms of
the magnitude and the location of peak turbulent
kinetic energy, turbulent kinetic energy and turbu-
lence length scale at TDC. The location of peak turbu-
lent kinetic energy is expressed as ‘TDC offset’,
which can be defined as a temporal difference
between the location of peak turbulent kinetic energy
and the TDC position expressed in terms of crank
angle. With a lower TDC offset, the turbulence decay
up to TDC will be lower. As most of the experimental
studies on tumble and its turbulence [13, 15] present
their results in terms of the tumble ratio at BDC as
the independent variable, this is selected as a
common independent variable in this study.
Fig. 17 Effect of pentroof angle on turbulence length scale.
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Predictions of tumble and turbulence
Figure 18a shows the effect of inlet valve lift and
pentroof angle on vortex structure at TDC. Though
the effect of inlet valve lift is quite prominent in the
vortex generation stage, it does not show a signifi-
cant influence over the vortex structure at the end of
compression. During the compression stroke both
chamber and piston geometries play a prominent
role in restructuring and destroying the vortex. The
combined experimental and CFD studies of Khalighi
et al. [22] have also shown that a reduced valve lift
may not significantly affect the TDC vortex structure.
The effect of chamber geometry is more pronounced
as it affects both intake and compression processes.
The pentroof geometry has the ability to preserve
mean vortex structures even near TDC, thereby
avoiding its complete conversion into turbulence. It
is observed in experimental studies that the pre-
ignition turbulence enhancement brought by the
vortex breakdown before TDC affects only the early
part of combustion [6, 10]. Perhaps the retained bulk
structures can be used to improve the combustion
further. These retained vortices can be used to
enhance the burning rates either through the post-
ignition turbulence enhancements through vortex
breakdown or by its direct influence on the flame
propagation through the bulk tumble motion if it is
efficacious. This is a direction in which the investi-
gations on optimizing the pentroof geometry should
proceed.
The effect of parametric changes on turbulent kin-
etic energy at compression TDC is shown in Fig. 18b.
223
M Achuth and P S Mehta
Fig. 18 Relationship of the tumble ratio at BDC with the tumble ratio, turbulent kinetic energy and turbulence length scales at TDC
for different valve lifts and pentroof angles.
The variation in TDC turbulence is found to be more
sensitive to a change in pentroof angle than the
change in valve lift. As stated earlier, turbulence at
ignition is an important factor owing to its effect on
the early part of combustion. It is influenced by both
these parameters.
The turbulence length scale at TDC, which rep-
resents the size of eddies, has an effect on combus-
tion and it is generally known that small eddies burn
faster. Figure 18c shows that the effect of combustion
chamber geometry on turbulence length scale at TDC
is greater than the effect of maximum valve lift.
Figure 19 shows the variations of the peak turbu-
lent kinetic energy and TDC offset with tumble
ratio at BDC. These two parameters together influ-
ence the magnitude of turbulence intensity at
ignition, which in most cases is slightly advanced
from compression TDC. A high peak turbulent
224
intensity and a low TDC offset are desirable in
order to obtain higher turbulence near TDC. The
effects of the pentroof angle and the maximum
valve lift are significant in deciding the peak turbu-
lence, as shown in Fig. 19b. However, the effect of
valve lift on TDC offset is much less as compared
to the effect of the pentroof angle, which is shown
in Fig. 19a. The magnitude and timing of turbu-
lence generation owing to the mean vortex destruc-
tion is closely related to the chamber geometry, as
observed in these figures.
The results of these preliminary investigations
show that the chamber geometry is a significant par-
ameter in deciding tumble vortex and turbulent
levels at TDC. The effects of chamber geometry on
turbulence are more prominent during compression,
while during intake the effects mainly influence the
vortex formation. On the other hand, the effect of
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Fig. 19 Relationship of the tumble ratio at BDC with TDC offset and peak turbulent kinetic energy for different valve lifts and
pentroof angles.
intake geometry is quite prominent during the intake
phase when tumble vortices are being formed in axial
planes. This means that the vortex structure then
becomes modified during compression.
The present model demonstrates its ability to
respond to the parametric changes quite satisfac-
torily. A more detailed parametric investigation can
be carried out to aid in the development of fluid
dynamically optimized four-valve pentroof engines.
5. Conclusions
The predictive model presented here is able to cap-
ture the gross features of tumble charge motion and
turbulence in four-valve pentroof engines. In spite of
some simplifying assumptions, it provides reason-
ably accurate quantitative predictions, as its formu-
lation encompasses the major physical phenomena
relating to tumble motion and turbulence generation
in engines.
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Predictions of tumble and turbulence
The salient stages of mean vortex and turbulence
behaviour are identified and their bases are dis-
cussed. This improves understanding of the mechan-
ism of energy transfer taking place through tumble.
The preliminary parametric investigations re-
vealed the importance of chamber geometry and
intake system design in controlling tumble and
turbulence levels. The major conclusions are:
1. The effect of pentroof geometry is more significant
during the compression stroke than during intake.
A large-angle pentroof retains more bulk vortex
structures near compression TDC and hence tur-
bulence intensity is less at TDC. Turbulence length
scales at TDC are higher in a larger-angle
pentroof.
2. The effect of intake valve lift is understandably
predominant during intake while its effect on
TDC vortex structure may not be significant. The
TDC turbulence intensities are somewhat higher
in a small valve lift case.
225
M Achuth and P S Mehta

3. The location of peak turbulence intensity, which up mean piston speed (m/s)
will dictate the decay suffered by the turbulence U maximum tumble velocity at periphery
before reaching the ignition timing, is very much of the vortex (tumble velocity) (m/s)
dependent upon the pentroof chamber design. U0 tumble component of velocity at intake
(m/s)
Perhaps in an optimized combustion chamber, the
W width of elemental vortex (m)
vortices retained at TDC can be made to improve the
x, y, z coordinate axes
combustion process using the post-ignition turbu- â valve seat angle (deg)
lence enhancements achievable through vortex å dissipation rate (m2/s3)
break-up. Another possibility is the use of retained õ crank angle (deg)
bulk motion to affect the flame propagation directly í fluid dynamic viscosity (kg m2/s)
and hence improve the burning rate, if it is ît turbulent kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
efficacious.
r fluid density (kg/m3)
Though the chamber design is seen to be more ô shear stress (N/m2)
important in determining the values of relevant fluid
ö pentroof angle (deg)
dynamic parameters at TDC, the importance of the öe engine angular speed (rad/s)
intake system design should not be underestimated.
It dictates the characteristics of the initial tumble
Subscripts
vortex, which is then modified by the chamber
1 cylinder wall surface
geometry. These two parametric groups are in fact
2 cylinder head–piston crown surfaces
complementary to each other in developing a fluid
eq equilibrium values near the wall
dynamically optimized four-valve pentroof engine
i, j x, y and z axes, as applicable
that gives better performance and emission charac-
in intake
teristics. A detailed parametric study is possible with
max maximum value
the present model, which can aid in the prescription
s fluid shear
of guidelines for such a design, and this is being
w wallshear
carried out.

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