The Institution of Engineers (India)

AN ISO 9001: 2015 CERTIFIED ORGANISATION

(ESTABLISHED 1920, INCORPORATED BY ROYAL CHARTER 1935)
8 GOKHALE ROAD, KOLKATA – 700 020
“99 years of Relentless Journey towards
Engineering Advancement for Nation-building”

V B Singh, FIE
Chairman, Civil Engg. Division Board, IEI

MESSAGE

MESSAGE

It gives me immense pleasure to note that The Institution of

Engineers(India),Gujarat State Centre is going to organize 35th National
Convention of Civil Engineers along with the National Conference on ‘Restoration
and Maintenance of Structures and Water Bodies for
Sustainability’ at Ahmedabad during September 01-02, 2019.

On behalf of the Civil Engineering Division Board, I would like to congratulate the
organizers for choosing a very apt theme as with increasing awareness and
understanding, sustainable thinking demands that we consider repairing and
preserving existing structures & water bodies wherever possible, rather than
building a new one. Environmental impact due to ‘repairs and restoration’
is much less than a ‘demolish and rebuild’ approach that is often required for
structures that have been allowed to deteriorate. While carrying out restoration,
adherence to norms, specifications and best practices also enhances the
sustainability of structures especially those which are used for restoration of
water bodies like masonry structures for canals, flood embankments, dykes etc.

I am confident that the National Conference will be addressing the

pertinent issues in a holistic manner. I extend best wishes to all the participants
and compliment Gujarat State Centre of IEI for hosting the event. I do thank the
organizing team for taking lot of pains in planning & organizing the Conference.

(V B Singh)
Chairman,
Civil Engg. Division Board
 Future of Civil Engineering
By Prof. Amit Prashnt, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of
Technology, Gandhinagar
Dr Jai Krishna Memorial Lecture
By Dr. Anupam K Singh, Director, INDUS University, Ahmedabad
on “Greening Strategies for Restoration, Renovation of Water
Bodies for Sustainability
State of the Art Lecture
By Dr. S. R. Gandhi, Director , SVNIT, Surat
Keynote Lecture – 1
“River Front Protection Work around Statue of Unity”
By Er. Saurabha Vyas, Head Technical Services, Tech Feb India
Industries Ltd. Vadodara
Keynote Lecture – 2
Er. By Ashokkumar Basa, Past President, The Institution of Engineers (India)
 Technical Session I
Restoration and Maintenance of Structures: Case Studies
Session Chair: Er. S.K.Patel, Chief Engineer & Add. Sec.,STC, Gandhinagar
 The Restoration &Up-gradation of more than 60 years old
Jawaharlal Tunnel in J&k State of India (for 35th National
Convention by IEI)
RAGHU G.C JE (Civil) AM185405-7
Department of BORDER ROADS ORGANISATION (BRO),Ministry of Defence
HQ 760 BRTF C/O 56 APO PIN 930760
email: raghugc73@gmail.com

TITLE:
The Restoration &Up-gradation of more than 60 years old Jawaharlal Tunnel in J&k State of India.
INTRODUCTION:
JAWAHAR TUNNEL is a road tunnel in Indian state of Jammu. Named after the first prime minister of
India Sh.Jawaharlal Nehru Constr during 1954-1960 by a German Firm M/S Alfred Kunz and C.Baresal.
The JT has been operational since 22 December 1956, is at km 204.6 on NH-1A (now NH-44), with highest
elevation of 2,800 m (9,200 ft) Dec to Mar sub zero temperature. It has one lane road in either direction. It is
situated b/w Banihāl & Quazigund. Provides an all-weather link through “pir-panjal” Mtn ranges .The tunnel
facilitates round-the-year road connectivity between Srinagar & Jammu.

Image: JT Tunnel constructed horse shoe shape

A. AIM & OBJECTIVES:
The scope is restoration & up-gradation of JT in respect of Seepage inside badly effect the Tunnel, Pavement,
Drainage, Painting, Electro-Mechanical Facilities, Tunnel Monitoring and Communication inside the existing
tunnel.
The work is to be carried out in the premises/outside of the existing tunnel. The road construction/ Up
gradation work is required to be taken up adjacent to many of the existing working units.
B. Civil Restoration &Up-Gradation Works involves:
a. Carrying out Grouting work for seepage within the tunnel
b. Replacement of existing Flexible pavement by Rigid Pavement at Eastern Tube and Rehabilitation
of existing Rigid Pavement in Western Tube
c. Drainage system inside the tunnel and outside the tunnel Approach Road
d. Painting of tunnel inside
e. Installation of Service Duct and shifting along with Relaying of DI Pipe
f. Display board and Road Signage

C. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF WORKS

The scope of the road work consists of laying around 2.5 km of Rigid Pavement by replacing
Flexible road inside the Tunnel area and Approach road of both entry and exit location with Rigid Type
Pavement.
For diverting surface water from approach road, a transverse trench Drain covered with steel grating in
Combination with sump for collecting water from longitudinal side drain is proposed at both the Approach
road as shown in attached sketch
Installation of precast duct of the specified dimension fitted with requisite number of cable tray to
accommodate cables as shown in the drawing.
 The existing fire hydrant pipe are to be removed from the existing alignment and the old pipe are to be re-
laid along the proposed alignment on the other side of the roadway as per the requirement of fire
protection system.
To prevent leakage, Field investigation, permeability testing and grouting behind the tunnel lining
Painting the JT inside walls and roofs preferably with Photo luminescent paint or tapes.
D. Results & Conclusion/ Recommendations:
The Restoration & Upgradion work is very essential to protect heritage like Jawaharlal Tunnel.
E. Abbreviations and Acronyms:
JT- Jawaharlal tunnel, Mtn- Mountains
F. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
―R.B.G. thanks to HQ 760 BRTF/HQ CE (P) Beacon/DGBR and Ministry of Defence‖
G.REFERENCES
HQ 760 BORDER ROADS TASK FORCE WORKS PLAN (GREF)
 CONSERVATION OF PONDS AND WETLANDS IN UNCHAHAR
BLOCK OF RAE BARELI DISTRICT (UTTAR PRADESH)
HIMANSHU CHAUBE
Visiting Faculty, 9, Sun City, Nipania, Indore-452010
SHIVAM CHATURVEDI
Assistant Professor, SVITS, SVVV, Sanwer Road, Indore.
UMESH C CHAUBE
Professor Emeritus, SVITS, SVVV, Sanwer Road, Indore.
ABSTRACT
As part of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) industries and utilities such as thermal power plants are
required to conserve surface and ground water resources for the benefit of the population within the area
directly affected by project activities A thermal power plant is situated in Unchahar block of Rae Bareli
district of Uttar Pradesh. There are several ponds and wetlands in vicinity of the plant (figure 1). Literature
review and field survey was carried out to investigate the status of these ponds and wetlands and identify
specific problems in restoration of these water bodies. The study area for this study consists of area within 10
km distance from periphery of the power plant (403 sq km). Area covered under water body (ponds, wetlands,
canal and Ganga River) is about 2100 Ha (5% of the study area).
Unchahar literally means high land (uncha means high and har means grazing land). Therefore, problem of
flooding is not expected in this block. But the present study shows that part of study area suffers flooding due
to manmade causes. Whereas some of the ponds have become dry and are heavily encroached and converted
into agricultural land, there are other ponds (wetlands) which submerge agricultural land in vicinity due to
discharge of irrigation water in the ponds and broken lengths of natural drains. Following are the main
recommendations
i) Natural as well as agriculture drains should be interconnected and their carrying capacity should be
maintained to reduce flooding and waterlogging.
ii) The carrying capacity of the Ahiyari Nala should be maintained.
iii) Shallow depth of water is required as feeding area for the birds. Therefore, depth of water in the wetland
should be kept within 1.5 to 2 m (as was existing earlier) so that Samaspur wetlands continue to serve as bird
sanctuary. Inflow of canal water into wetlands should be accordingly regulated.
iv) Weed growth, siltation, dumping of solid and liquid wastes in the ponds are common problems which need
to addressed as part of regular maintenance and not as an adhoc activity.
An Eco-sensitive zone for the Samaspur wetlands has been notified by MoEF & CC, Government of India.
Government of Uttar Pradesh has to implement the proposed Zonal Master Plan. An independent agency
should monitor the implementation of the Master Plan for development and maintenance of the Eco-
sensitive zone.
Key Words: Pond, Wetland, Drains, Flooding, Encroachment

INTRODUCTION
Village ponds are one of the most important water source on which the rural communities depend for domestic
use, agriculture and for use by domestic cattle. Ponds serve the purpose of water conservation and rain water
harvesting. Multipurpose demand for fresh water is continuously rising in urban and rural areas due to growth
in population and its living standard making it a scarce resource day by day. Industrial water requirements are
usually met from the surface water sources, which may affect the surface water hydrology of the area. As part
of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) industries and utilities such as thermal power plants are required to
conserve surface and ground water resources for the benefit of the population within the area directly affected
by project activities. The project affected area is usually considered as area within 10 km. from the boundary
of the project.
A thermal power plant (stage I, II, III) of National Thermal Power Corporation (total 1550 MW) is situated in
Unchahar block of Rae Bareli district of Uttar Pradesh. This study deals with status of the ponds and wetlands
in the vicinity of the power plant and need for restoration.
The study is based on review of available literature and field survey of the study area carried out by the first
author. Whereas some of the ponds have become dry and are heavily encroached and converted into
agricultural land, there are other ponds which submerge agricultural land in vicinity due to discharge of
irrigation water in the ponds and absence of natural drains. Drainage in the study area needs to be improved to
control flooding and waterlogging.
The study area for this study consists of area within 10 km distance from periphery of plant( 403 sq km).The
study area located in the Gomti-Gangadoab, is endowed with an abundant supply of water resource. The
average annual rainfall in the area is about 950 mm of which nearly 91 percent occurs during the period June
to October. The agricultural land is served by the Purwa Branch (Dalamau Pump Canal) and Allahabad branch
canal of the Sharda Sahayak Feeder irrigation system. In addition, the deep alluvial plain in the area offer
ample opportunity for soil moisture storage and ground water recharge. There is abundant ground water which
can be harnessed through deep tube wells, shallow tube wells and open wells. This field survey based study
was taken up with the objective to identify the status of natural drainage, ponds and wetlands in vicinity of a
power utility and suggest some improvement measures.

DRAINAGE PATTERN IN STUDY AREA

The Raebareli district suffers from problems of waterlogging both as a result of flooding by the natural drains
and drainage congestion due to network of roads, railway lines and canal network. Unchahar block of Rae
Bareli district, wherein the study area is located, is expected to be less affected by flood. Unchahar literally
means high land (uncha means high and har means grazing land). Therefore, problem of flooding is not
expected in this block. But the present study shows that part of study area suffers flooding due to manmade
causes
Natural drainage in the study area (10 km radius from periphery of plant) is shown in figure 1. Ahiyari is a
natural drain which carries municipal and agricultural effluents from a large area including storm runoff and
waste water from the FGUTPP plant area and the township. After crossing the railway bridge, the Ahiyari
Nala flows through Unchahar town in south direction to join the Ganga River (figure 1).
Railway line divides the study area into two drainage segments. The area south of it has small drains joining
Ganga along its course. The area to north and east of the railway line has several ponds and small drains with
broken lengths. Ganga River flows in north- south direction near the west side boundary of study area and then
changes direction by 120 degrees to flow in east-south direction leaving the study area at southern point.

LAND USE/LAND COVER (LULC) IN THE STUDY AREA

Land use/land cover (LULC) map of the study area (10 km radius) has been carried out by M/S Vimata labs
Hyderabad [1]. LULC map was prepared using Landsat-8 Optical Land Imager (OLI) data (spatial resolution
30m) pertaining to May 30, 2014. Satellite imagery was obtained from the GloV (http://glovis.usgs.gov/).
Further, it was processed using ERDAS Imagine-2014 software. LULC of the study area is presented in Table
1. Area under water body (ponds, canal and Ganga River) is about 2100 Ha (5%) of the study area.
 Figure.1 Drainage pattern, canal network, ponds and wetland in study area
Table 1: Land Use/Land Cover in the study area

Sl. No Land Cover Area (Ha) Area (%)

1 Water bodies 2100 5
2 Vegetation 6200 15
3 Scrubs 7600 19
4 Agriculture 14000 35
5 Settlement 3300 8
6 Fallow Land 3700 9
7 Barren Land 3300 8
Total 40300 100

SURFACE WATER BODIES IN STUDY AREA

Water bodies in the study area mainly consist of ponds (Tal), wetlands, perennial canals and manmade/natural
drains. Many of the ponds are interconnected such as Samaspur wetlands. Some of the natural and manmade
drains end in the ponds instead of joining the larger streams (figure 1). The study area is nearly flat with poor
drainage. A large number of ponds exist in the study area. A Reconnaissance survey and visual inspection of
some of the ponds was carried out. Status of these ponds is discussed below.
Barna Tal, Panhi Tal, Garhai Tal: These are natural ponds, located in north-east part of study area (figure 1).
The ponds are interconnected and are part of Samaspur bird sanctuary; thus being the most important water
body of study area. This water body is well maintained and protected. Fishing is not allowed in the water
body. However, during visit to this water body, it was found that a small fish net was hidden in water body and
fish were found trapped in the fish net.
Khair Tal: This pond is adjacent to the Barna Tal and at present it is also connected with it.
All these ponds named Khair Tal, Barna Tal, Panhai Tal and Garhai Tal are at tail end of Allahabad Branch
Canal network and receive water from the irrigation canals also.
Majhihar Tal: The pond (photo 1) has been partitioned in two parts by a bund and allocated to two villages
Gram Sabha (Paksharama and Usraina villages) for the purpose of fishery and aquaculture. The ponds are
auctioned to contractors by the Gram Sabhas for revenue from fishery.The ponds has heavy weed growth.

Photo 1: Majhihar Tal; a part of Samaspur Bird Sanctuary

Umran Tal: It is a large size pond near village Umran. An old Shiva temple exists on its bank. The pond was
earlier used for boating, bathing and religious functions. At present, the bathing ghats are damaged, large part
of pond is occupied by heavy weed growth and the temple idols are lying in broken, neglected condition.
Bara Tal: The pond is located near village Savaia Hasan. The pond was in dry condition on 12 July, 2015.
Cattles were found grazing in the tank bed area.
Matrauli Tal: It is located near village Matrauli. During the field survey, tank bed was found to be dry with
cattle grazing in the area. Land in the tank bed has been leased out to farmers and one farmer is constructing
bund to create his own pond within the Matrauli Tal.
Bharda Tal: It is located near Hanuman Bir Baba Temple. The pond is nearly dry. Earlier it used to be a large
pond with sufficient storage of rain water. But now catchment runoff is reduced due to bunding of fields for
paddy cultivation. Within the tank bed, there are two small rectangular ponds (Bharda Tal 1 and Bharda Tal 2)
constructed by bunding the area and providing inlet for water from irrigation canal (photo 2). These ponds are
not rainfed.

Photo 2: Bharda Tal on the dry bed of Bharda Tal (fed by canal water)

Bakwa Tal: It is located near village Gangauli. It is mostly dry. A road passes through the pond, dividing it
into two parts with interconnection through a culvert. Bakwatal pond on other side of road culvert (near village
Gangauli) is full of water.
Pure Gulab Tal: It is located near village Pure Gulab. It is in dry condition with cattle grazing the land. Land
on the tank bed has been leased out to farmers. About ten years ago, the tank used to have sufficient quantity
of water. But now the water drains out through a nala. Some farmers feel that the nala should be closed.
Whereas those who have land in the tank bed do not want water pondage as it hinders cultivation of their
allotted land in the tank bed.
There is a dug well in Pure Talab which is dry. Nearby hand pump has poor quality of water yellow in colour.

Renovation of Ponds: Umran pond and Bakwa pond need to be rejuvenated.

Bakwa Tal: It is located near village Gangauli. It is mostly dry. A road passes through the pond, dividing it
into two parts with interconnection through a culvert. Solid waste is being disposed in one part of the pond
whereas other part is full of water. There is deliberate attempt to convert part of pond area into agricultural
land and for other uses.
Umran Tal: It is a large size pond near village Umran. An old Shiva temple in dilapidated condition exists on
its bank. The pond was earlier used for boating, bathing and religious functions. At present, the bathing ghats
are damaged, large part of pond is occupied by heavy weed growth and the temple idols are lying in broken,
neglected condition. The pond needs to be rejuvenated so that it could continue to serve its intended social
purpose in efficient manner.

CONTROL OF FLOODING AND WATERLOGGING IN NORTH EAST PART

North East part of study area suffers from problems of waterlogging both as a result of flooding by the natural
drains and drainage congestion due to network of roads, railway lines and canal network. In addition more and
more area is becoming impervious due to development works resulting in increased storm runoff. The problem
of drainage is essentially one of removal of excess surface water during the monsoon season. Govt. of U.P. has
constructed a drainage network but it is not maintained properly.Following measures are recommended for
efficient drainage of waterlogged areas.
i) Ponds (particularly in north east part) should be connected to natural channels for safe discharge of flood
water. Natural as well as agriculture drains should be interconnected and their carrying capacity should be
maintained.
ii) Ahiyari Nala carries municipal and agricultural effluents from a large area including storm runoff and waste
water from the thermal power plant and its township. The carrying capacity of the Ahiyari Nala should be
maintained by removing weed growth, bank stabilization and providing aesthetic look.

SAMASPUR WETLANDS/PONDS:
Wetlands have been variously defined, but most definitions include three main components [2].
i). wetlands are characterized by the presence of water, either permanently or periodically.
ii). wetlands have unique waterlogged soils.
iii). wetlands support vegetation specific to wet conditions.
Sam Varghese [3] has carried out a study of changes (between 1972 and 2004) in areal extent of the wetlands of
Rae Bareli, Hardoi, Barabanki, Sitapur and Baharaich districts in Uttar Pradesh. This study is based on
application of remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study shows a considerable reduction in the areal
extent of wetlands. The maximum reduction occurred in Rae Bareli (89.6 %). Such reduction in wetlands has
harmfully affected the resident and migratory avifauna, including threatened species such as Sarus Crane,
Painted Stork. Infestation of various invasive alien weeds and introduction of exotic fish species as part of
aquaculture practices are further deteriorating the health of the wetlands.
Samaspur wetland consists of five ponds. This wetland was declared as Samaspur Bird Sanctuary in 1987
(figure 2). Four ponds namely Bharda Tal, Panhi Tal, Garhi Tal and Manjhihar Tal come together to form the
main S shaped water body. The fifth pond i.e. Kher Tal is situated at about two-two and a half kilometers
away from these ponds. Out of the 800 Ha of total area of wetland, about 370 Ha is private and community
lands. Due to this, the management and conservation of the sanctuary has become a complex issue. Study by
Sam Varghese et al (2008) shows that the percentage of visiting birds has reduced to just one-fourth in last two
decades.
 Figure 2: Samaspur Wetlands (bird sanctuary)
Problems
i) Samaspur Wetland or Ponds? Since 1970s the water from Sharada Canal (built on the Sharada River) started
flowing in the wetland. At present, there are ten tailend escapes of the canal namely Pahadganj, Gopalganj,
Rohaniya, Ghamauli, Umarpur, Riwali, Waremuan, Gamani, Samaspur and Bhagwanpur. The water level in
wetland has increased from 1.2-1.5 meters to 5 meters since the water from canal started flowing in the lakes.
Wetlands are usually characterized by shallow depth of water. Shallow depth of water is required as feeding
area for the birds. A larger depth of water defeats this purpose. Therefore, depth of water in the area should be
kept within 1.5 to 2 m so that Samaspur ponds or wetlands continue to serve as bird sanctuary. Canal water
should be accordingly regulated.
ii) A village road runs through the Samaspur wetland connecting about 20 villages to the market place at Salon
and Unchahar. When the wetlands were declared as sanctuary, the forest department decided to raze this road
to eliminate the human disturbance to the birds (and poaching) due to movement on the road. The villagers
protested strongly against this and as a result the plan to raze the road was abandoned.Road should be
realigned Human interference needs to be minimized
iii) For the drainage of water from the wetland, there are two natural drains namely Bakulai and Mamani.
Bakulai falls in Ganga river and Mamani drain falls in Sai river but due to lack of proper maintenance,
drainage of water from the lakes are not effective. Both the drains have extensive growth of water hyacinth as
well as other grasses.
iv) Four ponds (Kher Tal, Barna Tal, Panhi Tal and Garhai Tal) are at tail end of distributary and minor of
Allahabad Branch Canal. These ponds receive water from canal escapes and from rainfall and sometimes
waterlogging/flooding occurs in vicinity. Villagers informed that village road gets flooded causing disruption
in transport. No survey has been conducted so far to reveal the exact extent of submergence. A rough estimate
suggests that about 180 Ha of land is submerged at present.
Area of flooding and water logging situation should be annually reviewed.
Creation of Eco Sensitive Zone for Samaspur Wetland
Besides being habitat for a large number and variety of migratory and resident birds, the wetland is also home
to a variety of trees, shrubs, hydrophytes and the faunal species. Ministry of Environment and Forest &
Climate Change of Government of India has issued a Gazette Notification[4] for creation of Eco-sensitive zone
to conserve and protect the area from ecological and environmental point of view and to prohibit industries,
their operations and processes in the Eco-sensitive Zone. The Eco-sensitive Zone is spread over an area of
3.085 square kilometres with an extent varying from 1 to 2 kilometres around the boundary of the bird
sanctuary (figure 2). The State Government shall, for the purpose of the Eco-sensitive Zone prepare a Zonal
Master Plan, within a period of two years from the date of publication of final notification in the Official
Gazette, in consultation with local people and adhering to the stipulations given in this notification. This
notification proposes preparation of a master plan by UP Government for the purpose of Eco-sensitive zone.

The Zonal Master plan covers restoration of denuded areas, conservation of existing water bodies,
management of catchment areas, watershed management, groundwater management, soil and moisture
conservation, needs of local community and such other aspects of the ecology and environment that needs
attention.

CONCLUSIONS
Ponds and wetlands have their unique problems related to conservation. Whereas some of the ponds have
become dry and are heavily encroached and converted into agricultural land, there are other ponds which
submerge agricultural land in vicinity due to discharge of irrigation water in the ponds and water logging due
to broken lengths of natural drains.
i) Ponds (particularly in north east part) should be connected to natural channels for safe discharge of flood
water. Natural as well as agriculture drains should be interconnected and their carrying capacity should be
maintained.
ii) The carrying capacity of the Ahiyari Nala should be maintained by removing weed growth, bank
stabilization and providing aesthetic look.
iii) Shallow depth of water is required as feeding area for the birds. Therefore, depth of water in the wetland
should be kept within 1.5 to 2 m (as was existing earlier) so that Samaspur wetlands continue to serve as bird
sanctuary. Inflow of canal water into wetlands should be accordingly regulated.
iv) Natural drains have broken lengths. Waterlogging and flooding can be avoided by providing making these
continuous with outfall higher order streams natural streams.
v) Weed growth, siltation, dumping of solid and liquid wastes in the ponds are common problems which need
to addressed as part of regular maintenance. Cost effective technologies are available in the country and have
been successfully demonstrated in conservation of ponds.
vi) The Eco-sensitive zone has been notified by MoEF&CC Government of India. Government of Uttar
Pradesh has to implement the proposed Zonal Master Plan. An independent agency should monitor the
implementation of the Master Plan for development and maintenance of the Eco-sensitive zone.

REFERENCES

1. Vimta Labs (2011): Final EIA Report for the Expansion of FGUTPP Stage IV; Report prepared by M/S
Vimta Labs Hyderabad, October, 2011
2. Coughanowr, C. (1998), ’Wetlands of the Humid Tropics,’ UNESCO, IHP, Humid Tropic Programme
Series no.12.
3. Sam Varghese et al (2008): Analyses of Wetland Habitat Changes and its Impacts on Avifauna in Select
Districts of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of Uttar Pradesh, India, Between 1972 and 2004, Proceedings of
Taal 2007: The 12th World Lake Conference: 2045-2055
4. MoEF&CC(2016): Draft of Gazette Notification dated 18 January,2016 of Ministry of Environment
&Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi on Samaspur Bird Sanctuary Eco-sensitive Zone
“Himanshu Chaube graduated in Science from the Kurukshetra University of Haryana in 1996. He completed
Two Years Post Graduate Diploma in Management from Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad in 1998. He
has been involved in water related consultancy projects for various thermal power plants. He is Life Member
of Indian Water Resource Society‖.
“Shivam Chaturvedi done his graduation in Civil Engineering from Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki
Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal in 2013 and Master of Engineering in Construction Technology & Management
from Samrat Ashok Technological Institute, Vidisha in 2015 then He completed his MBA in Entrepreneurship
& Leadership from AMITY University, Noida. Currently he has worked as Assistant Professor in Civil
Engineering Department of Shri Vaishnav Institute of Technology & Science, Indore (M.P.). He is Associate
Member in IEI and Life Member of ICI, ISTE, IRC, IBC, IAENG‖.

“Umesh C Chaube graduated and post graduated in Civil Engineering from IIT Kanpur in 1969 and 1971
respectively. He worked in Central Water Commission as Assistant Director and Deputy Director from 1971
to 1983. He obtained Doctoral degree in Water Resources from IIT Delhi in 1984. From 1983 to 2016 he
worked in IIT Roorkee as Associate Professor, Professor, Emeritus Fellow. From 2016 to 2018 he worked as
Visiting Professor at IIT Indore.From 2018 to till date, he is Professor Emeritus at Shri Vaishnav Vidyapeeth
Vishwavidyalaya, Indore‖.
 CASE STUDIES OF EARTHEN DAM FAILURES DUE TO
EARTHQUAKE AT BHUJ
DR SANSKRITI MUJUMDAR

Asssociate Professor in Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology & Engineering, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara
Email: ssmujumdar-ced@msubaroda.ac.in

ABSTRACT

A disastrous earthquake of magnitude (ML)6.9 struck Bhuj and adjoining areas of Kachchh district in Gujarat
in the morning of January, 26, 2001 which took a toll of human lives exceeding 18000 and caused extensive
damage to over 6 lakh houses. The damage was maximum in Bhachau, Bhuj, Anjar, Gandhidham and Rapar
talukas of Gujarat and in faraway places like Ahmedabad.

Besides loss of human lives and damages to civil engineering structures, this shallow focus seismic activity
has also caused damages to several medium and minor irrigation schemes in Kachchh and in parts of
Saurashtra region. Most of the dams were earthen dams.

The paper attempts to discuss the effect of earthquake on few such dams. It includes the study of how the
different dams were damaged based on the distance from the epicentre and what mechanism was adopted to
restore the earthen dams. Amongst the most affected dams were Rudramata, Kaswati, Kaila and Fatehgadh
which are domestic water storage as well as irrigation schemes.

The study is part of the research project which was given to the author by International Commission on
Irrigation and Drainage (ICID-CIID) immediately after the earthquake to assess the effect of earthquake on
earthen dams and the impact of the damages to the drinking water supply of the region.

Keywords: earthern dams, failure of dams, restoration of dams

STUDY AREA

Kutch is an ancient land possessed of great antiquity, which takes its name from its geographical
characteristics and topographical features resembling a tortoise. This crescent shaped region forms part of the
northwest Gujarat. The district stretches roughly from 224411 (approx.) to 244125 (approx.) north
latitudes and 680946 (approx.) and 715447 (approx.) east longitudes. There are 20 medium irrigation
schemes located in Kutch district. (Gujarat tourism.com)
Bhuj is the administrative capital of Kutch district. It is geographically located roughly at the centre of the
taluka. It has an average elevation of 110 metres. On the eastern side of the city is a hill known as that
separates Bhuj city and town. There are four dams in the vicinity of Bhuj namely Rudramata, Kaswati,
Fatehgadh and Kaila which are domestic water storage as well as irrigation schemes.

ABOUT THE BHUJ EARTHQUAKE

A disastrous earthquake of a magnitude (ML) 6.9 struck Bhuj and adjoining areas of Kutch district of Gujarat
in the wee hours on 26th January, 2001. It‘s severity was so high that thousands of people were killed and
several thousand injured. It also caused extensive damage to civil engineering structures including the earthen
dams located in Kutch.

DAMAGES TO EARTHERN DAMS IN VICINITY OF BHUJ

There are 20 medium and 165 minor irrigation schemes in Kutch district. These are embankment dams (some
of minor schemes are more than 15 m high) with chute spillway or Ground Bar Waste Weir. The reservoirs of
majority of these earthfill dams were below the sill level, i.e. below minimum draw down level and few were
almost empty due to the successive drought conditions. A large number of them had suffered severe to
moderate damages. The details of the dams are given as follows:

Table 1 Heavily Damaged Medium Irrigation Schemes in Kutch District

Sr.no Name of Max. Length in m Gross Completion Approx. Direction
 Scheme height in storage year distance from
m Mm3 km epicentre
1 Kasawati 8.81 1455 8.20 1976 38 WSW
2 Fatehgadh 11.28 4130 7.95 1987 67 ENE
3 Rudramata 27.58 1217 61.53 1959 57 WSW
4 Kalia 23.47 1066 8.95 1955 69 WSW

Fatehgadh Irrigation Scheme

The damages to the earth dam, spillway portion and head regulator were as follows:
Earth Dam Portion
 Longitudinal and transverse cracks at intervals on crest of dam starting from chainage 650m onwards.
 Extensive and large scale settlement in the top and upstream slope of the dam in the reach 3350 to 3700m.
 Settlement in the upstream and downstream slope pitching at many places.
 Very deep rain cuts on d/s slope of dam aggravated further by climbing of animals like buffaloes etc.
 Settlement around right side key-wall of wing wall of spillway.
Spillway Portion
 Cracks in left wing wall of spillway in the downstream reach.
 Parapet wall over both wing walls of spillway damaged.
Intake well / Head regulator
 Surface cracks in the stone masonry structure of the left side.
 Super-structure of right side head regulator damaged.

Kaila Irrigation Scheme

The damages to the earth dam, spillway portion and head regulator are as follows:
Earth dam portion
 Fissures are noticed at many places along the upstream slope of the earth dam.
 Settlement of pitching and earthwork has taken place at many places on the u/s slope.
 Longitudinal cracks have been noticed on the top of the dam in 50m length.
 Transverse cracks have been found at many places along the body of the dam.
 Slippage of earthwork is noticed on the downstream slope of the earth dam.
 Settlement of the top of the dam has taken place at some places.
 Cracks have been noticed on the d/s slope of the dam along with settlement of the earthwork and the
pitching.
Spillway Portion
 Certain cracks are noticed in the body of the walls of the spillway.
 Cracks are also noticed in the wing walls on u/s as well as on the d/s .
 End sill is also damaged at certain locations.
 Construction joints in the downstream wall have opened out.
Intake Well / Head regulator
 The super structure of the intake well cabin has been badly damaged.
 Wide cracks are noticed in the cabin of the head regulator.
 Foot bridge piers have been crushed and seperated.

Kaswati Irrigation Scheme

The damages to the earth dam, spillway portion and head regulator were as follows:
Earth Dam Portion
 Longitudinal cracks and transverse cracks in the crest of the dam were found for almost the entire length
of the dam in different patches.
 Major deep crack running longitudinally along the centre of the crest in the chainage 650 to 920m with
depth of the crack more than 5m was noticed.
 Differential settlement of the upstream portion of the fill of the dam was noticed.
 Sliding of the slopes has taken place near the top of the dam around chainage 740m and near the lower
level around 880m.
 Longitudinal cracks were noticed near the upper portion of the downstream slope running parallel to the
central longitudinal crack were noticed in some reaches.
 Settlement of upstream pitching in different patches along the length of the dam.
Spillway Portion
 No significant damages to the spillway portion of the dam was noticed.
Intake well / head Regulator
 Diagonal crack noticed around circumference of the circular intake well.
 Reinforcement of longitudianl beams of approach structure exposed at some places with minor cracks at
the bottom of beam.
 Crack in wing walls of approach channel to intake gate.
 Cracks in columns of superstructure near the top.

Rudramata Irrigation Scheme

The damages to the earth dam, spillway portion and head regulator were as follows:
Earth Dam Portion
 Longitudinal and transverse cracks at dam top near the head regulator.
 Longitudinal cracks (2 to 3) running parallel near downstream crest/ slope region.
 Transverse cracks noticed at the top of the dam.
 Settlement in patches in pitching of the upstream slope from 90 to 400 m chainage with severely affected
portion between 250 to 410m. Very deep cracks with depth more than 3 m and width more than 5‖ to 6‖
were seen in the portion just above the MDDL.
 Settlement in downstream slope of the earth dam with prominent settlement in portion between chainage
410 to 435m.
 Seepage observed downstream of the d/s toe around chainage 350m after the occurance of the earthquake.
Spillway Portion
 There was no significant damage to the Ogee spillway and the stilling basin area.
 The top portion of the left abutment wall adjoining the stairs had collapsed.
Intake Well / Head Regulator
 Parapet walls of the approach bridge had collapsed in the initial reach.
 Super structure of the intake well had developed severe cracks in the columns.
 Cracks had developed in the approach channel walls running diagonally around 15m from the emergency
gate.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DAMAGES

The damage to the earthern dams due to the earthquake was noticed in various types. Looking to the
types of damages, various parameters attributing to the damage were mainly classified as:
1. The type of soil strata – i.e the geological formations.
2. The type of dam section.
3. Orientation of the dam.
4. Age of the dam.
5. Level of water in reservoir at the time of earthquake.
6. Connectivity between various body materials of the dam.
7. Zone of the isosiesmal in which the dam lies and the distance from the epicentre.

The influence of the above factors has been discussed in detail as follows.

Type of the soil strata – i.e geological formations

The type of soil strata and the type of the bed rock in the foundation of the dam have played a major role in the
extent of damages to the dams. It has been observed that the dams located in the areas where there was a major
part of sandstone e.g Kaswati, Fatehgadh had damage to a greater extent as compared to those situated in other
types of foundation rocks. Table 2 shows shows the type of the bed rock on which the dams have been
constructed.
 Table 2 Type of Bedrock and Extent of damages
Sr.No. Name of Dam Type of Bedrock
1 Fatehgadh Sandstone + Limestone
2 Kaila Sandstone + Limestone
3 Kasvati Sandstone
4 Rudramata Sandstone

Type of Dam Section

In the Kutch region, mainly sandy clay or medium black soil with fine sand is found. This type of soil has less
cohesive power, high permeability and less plasticity. Therefore, homogeneous sections of earthern dams are
not possible in this region. So all earthern dams in the Kutch region have been constructed as non-
homogeneous type dams. As the impervious hearting material is not available nearby the site, the cost of
transporting the hearting material is very high. So in many of the dams, the slope provided in the hearting
material is inadequate as economy in cost of construction could have been a reason.

Orientation of the body of Dam

The orientation of the body of dam in the layout has played a key role in the type of damage to the body of the
dam. The portions of the dams which are parallel to the east-west direction have longitudinal cracks along the
top as well as on the slopes of the dams. The part of the body of the dam which is perpendicular to the east-
west direction has transverse cracks in the body of the dam. If the extent of the transverse cracks is very large,
seepage has been large.

Age of the dam

Some of the dams of the medium irrigation schemes of Kutch were constructed about 40-50 years ago when
the technology was not so advanced. In case of earth dams, actually age acts as a beneficial factor but in this
case it has played adversely as most of the dams have been built with the locally available soil which has very
little cohesive power. Also, they may not have been compacted properly at the time of construction. The
hearting material used in these dams is also of inferior quality resulting in cracks in the body of dam.

Table 3 Age of the dams of medium irrigation schemes

Sr No Damages
Name of Scheme Age in years
1 Fatehgadh 22 Major
2 Kaila 49 Major
3 Kasvati 28 Major
4 Rudramata 42 Major

Level of water in the reservoir

Monsoon is observed mainly in the months of June, July and August in Kutch region. In this region, the height
of dams is less as compared to the other regions. Depth of water in the reservoir is also less. So the water in
the reservoirs is mainly observed upto the month of March. The earthquake had occurred in the month of
January. Due to the successive drought condition, the water level in most of the dams was below the minimum
drawdown level and was almost less in some of the dams. But those dams which were to cater to the water
supply demand in the coming summer, some water level was observed and therefore their soil was in a
saturated condition. This saturated condition of soil has also played a role in the damage of the dams.
As a result, dams having water in the reservoir portion have developed slope failures or settlement on the
upstream faces. Settlement of pitching has also been observed on the upstream slope in such cases. E.g
Rudramata, Kaswati

Connectivity between various body materials of the dam.

It has been observed that dams which have a combination of corewall and hearting material with the casing
material have been damaged to a greater extent. This may have occurred due to the uneven settlement of the
different types of the materials and the non-uniform transfer of the shocks of earthquake to the body of the
dam. e.g. Kaila have more damages as compared to those having no core wall but flatter slope of hearting.
Distance from epicentre
It has been observed that dams closer to the epicentre have more damages as compared to those situated at a
greater distance from the epicentre. E.g. Rudramata, Kaswati, Kaila. On an average, the variation of extent of
damages from major to medium is observed in a radius of 90 km from the epicentre.
The intensity of the damages reduces with the change in the isoseismals zones, i.e the damages to the
dams situated in the isoseismal zone X is maximum, to those situated in isoseismal zone IX ranges
from major to medium and to those situated in isoseismal zone VIII is of minor scale.

Table 4 Distance of the dams from the epicentre.

Sr No Name of Scheme
Distance from Damages
Epicentre in km
1 Fatehgadh 110 Major
2 Kaila 33 Major
3 Kasvati 28 Major
4 Rudramata 28 Major

OBSERVATIONS & CONCLUSIONS

A team of experts in various fields have accompanied me during my three phase visit to the earthen dams in
Kutch region after earthquake and during the restoration and repair work.
We had discussed with the local engineers in charge of the medium irrigation schemes, Director of Gujarat
Engineering Research Institure, Managing Director of Gujarat Water Resources Development Corporation etc.
The following conclusions were drawn as a result of our observations, analysis and discussions.
*Orientation
Main damages to the structures are observed in the east-west direction. The dams in east-west direction have
longitudinal cracks about 5-15 cm wide, 1-3 m deep and 10-100 m long cracks. E.g. Rudramata, Kaswati,
Fatehgadh.
The portion of the dams in the north-south direction has transverse cracks in the body of the dam. E.g
Fatehgadh and Kaswati.
*Geology
The geology of the area has played a major role in the extent of the damages to the dams – dams
located in the sandy strata have been damaged to a greater extent.
Majorities of the dams lie on sandy strata. So the casing material is containing high sand. Hearting material
has to be transported from a long distance. So nearby soil containing fine sand is used as a hearting material.
The soils containing sands have less plasticity and cohesion. So dams on sandy strata show major damage.
E.g. Don, Rudramata, Kaswati, Kaila.
*Development of Cracks
Mainly cracks are observed at the junctions of casing and hearting material or hearting material and
diaphragm. As a result of cummulative action of a series of shocks, vibrations have had different types of
effects on different types of soils. Soils containing sand have settled more as compared to soils containing
more clay. So due to uneven settlement of soil, cracks are found in the body of the dams.
*Level of water in the reservoir.
The dams having higher water level in the reservoir have major failures on the upstream side of the dam. This
is due to the settlement of the saturated soil. In such dams, upstream heel portion has settled.
*Distance from the epicentre
It has been noted that the dams nearer to the epicentre have incurred more damages. The entire Kutch region
lies in the isoseismal zones X, XI and VIII from the epicentre. Those dams located in the isoseismal zone X
i.e Rudramata, Kaswati, Kaila have been damaged the most
*Seepage
Seepage was noticed on the downstream side of the Rudramata dam. This was due to the transverse cracks in
the body of the dam.
*Effect on related structures
Cracks have been found on the intake well, valve operation cabin on the head regulator of the canals , on pipe
culverts of transportation system. Some of the structures have collapsed and some have developed severe
cracks. Majority of these structures have been constructed in rubble masonry.
 Photographs of Damages to Dams Visited

Cracks on top of dam in Fatehgadh dam Upstream slope failure in Fatehgadh dam

Downstream slope failure in Fatehgadh dam Settlement on upstream slope in Kaswati dam

Cracks on top of dam in Kaswati dam Cracks on top of dam in Rudramata dam
Settlement near upstream toe in Rudramata dam Cracks on Kaswati dam

Cracks on top of Kaswati dam Reservoir of Kaswati dam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author highly acknowledges the contribution of the office bearers of Kutch Irrigation Circle Gujarat
Engineering Research Institute Vadodara and in terms of data sharing. This study would not have been
possible without the financial support of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID-CIID)
and Dr. Chandrakant Thatte Hon. Director General ICID-CIID as well as Shri V.S.Bhrahmabhatt Director
GERI during 2001 who motivated me to take up this challenging task. I am indebted to Prof. P.N.Sutaria and
late Prof. A.S.Patel who guided me through this study.
REFERENCES

 R. P. Sharma BIT, India Ali Kumar Govt. of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India, Case Histories of Earthen Dam
Failures International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, Missouri University of
Science and Technology (2013)
 Ismeet Singh Saluja ZHCET, AMU, ALIGARH Mohammad Athar ZHCET, AMU, ALIGARH Sarfaraz
A. Ansari ZHCET, AMU, ALIGARH Causes of Failure of Earthen Dams and Suggested Remedial
Measures International Journal of Computer & Mathematical Sciences IJCMS ISSN 2347 – 8527 Volume
7, Issue 3 March 2018
 L. M. Zhang， Y. Xu The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, HKSAR, China J. S. Jia
The China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing, China Analysis of earth dam
failures: A database approach ISGSR2007 First International Symposium on Geotechnical Safety & Risk
Oct. 18~19, 2007 Shanghai Tongji University, China
 International Conference on Scour and Erosion (ICSE-5) 2010 Earth Dam Failure by Erosion: A Case
History
 Rajeeth Ambikaipahan Failure of an Earth Dam An analysis of earth dam break – Årbogen dam, Nedre
Eiker municiplity, Norway Master Thesis in Geosciences Discipline: Environmental Geology and
Geohazards Department of Geosciences Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences University of Oslo
(2011)
 Umaru A Ogedengbe K And Omobowale M. Structural Failures Of Earth Dams In Nigeria: A Case Study
Of Cham Dam In Gombe State. ARPN Journal Of Engineering And Applied Sciences (2010)
 Zang et al Analysis of earth dam failures: A database approach journal of georisk assessment and
management for engineered system and geo hazards vol 3 2009
 Athani et al Seepage and Stability Analyses of Earth Dam Using Finite Element Method Aquatic Procedia
vol 4 (2015)
 Website of Gujarat Narmada, Water Resources, Water Supply and Kalpasar Department
 Website of Kachchh district
PAPER TOPIC:-“MACHCHU-2 DAM FAILURE-AN EYE OPENER FLASH
FLOOD DISASTER
PAPER BY:-ER. KIRIT B.TRIVEDI,

B.E.(M.),MBA(Mark),MIE, FIV. DEE (Mech.), Rtd, Government of Gujarat-Gandhingar

ABSTRACT

Dam can be simply defined as “an artificial barrier placed on bodies of water that holds
back the flow of water. They may have many purposes, which includes hydro electrical
power generation, safe river navigation, and agricultural irrigation, creating recreation
areas, water supplies and flood reduction”

In India as there are about 5264 large dams in service and other 437 dams are under
construction at present. It is important to note that a majority of existing dams are more
than half a century old and have thus outlived their designed life and they may be unsafe
in some way. As per a report, 36 dam failures have been reported so far. It is very interesting
to know that out of these failures 44% were because of breaching failure due to flooding,
25% overtopping due to inadequate spillway capacity, 14% piping/bed workmanship and
17% other distress. The worst dam disaster was the failure of Machchu-2 dam (Gujarat) in
1979.

The Machchu-2 dam failure or Morvi disaster can be classified as a flash flood disaster
which occurred in the afternoon about 14.30 to 15.00 hrs, on 11 August 1979, in Gujarat-
India. The failure was caused by excessive rains and massive flooding leading to the
disintegration of the earthen walls of the four-kilometer-long Machchu-2 dam. As per the
reports, about 6157 houses were destroyed, 3900 were damaged, more than 1800 huts
were destroyed, about 13000 animals died and above all more than 2000 people lost their
lives, though for many people this figure is not correct and, in their view, this may be around
15000 or so. Total economic loss figure was about 29 crores.

There are some reports-findings which came out in public domain, which showed that the
failure was due to communication failure, warning system failure, delay in evacuating
people to safe places, last moment little bit failure in gate operation-not timely opened for
flood discharge, unexpected heavy rain, uncontrolled volume of water in Machchu basin
etc. which may be considered as reasons for dam failure, but these are the individual
observations at various levels and these are not authentic reports in many ways.

In this regard it is very interesting to know that the book, “No One Had a Tongue to Speak,”-
the untold story of one of the history’s deadliest floods, by Tom Wooten and Utpal
Sandesara, Harvard scholars- published in the year 2011, may be the first-ever
documentation of the enormous scale of devastation.

The very deep study on the “pattern of rainfall in the Machchu basin” made after the
disaster, shows that for duration of 1 to 3 days, pattern, Machchu basin experienced the
highest rain depth for 3-day duration during the August-1979 rainstorm. This is perhaps due
to the fact that the centre of the august 1979 rain storm was close to the basin. This revels
how the quantum of water was increased during the period of disaster.

Considering the various suggestions given in the various technical studies of dam/structure
failures, many modifications in the design criteria and other parameters which are to be
considered for selection of site and the construction work have been implemented and
have in fact given new birth to Dam Safety Organization at Central level as well as State
level Dam safety organizations.
Nature has its own rules, and it is important to carefully learn about them. There is nothing
more fun to walk along with nature but the penalty for running against it is also equally
drastic. Often nature's destructive events are actually able to move the city or community
forward to a new and prosperous future. People who have faced the wrath of nature for
many years, have received immense strengths that inspire the ability to cope with natural
disasters. In front of us is the 2001 Gujarat earthquake.

The failure of big dams in the recent past all over the world gave a wakening call for urgent
steps for the proper and timely repairing work for old dams and to make large mechanisms
to ensure safety of the people and structures. There is a dire need for clear legally binding
accountability mechanism in the case of dam failure or unsafe dam operations and for
determining what is to be done with old dams that become a threat to lives, livelihood and
environment. Here are some suggestions for the betterment of the society:
1) Planning for Natural Disaster Management, especially related to water-based disasters.
2) Remedial measures for the dams which have completed their stipulated life span.
3) Construction of small dams should be given priority and unnecessary construction of large dams should
be avoided.
4) Development of standard design criteria for the construction of big dams all over the country should be
proposed.
5) Constant and vigilant auditing of dam safety.
6) Use of latest technology for forecasting and early warning systems for floods.
7) Construction of major dams should be avoided as much as possible in the Earthquake prone zones.

Last but not the least, the construction of big dams is for improving the lives of people, so their lives should be
the priority in every safety measure.

I hope that such initiatives will certainly boost the engineers, technocrats, planners and political leaders of the
country and they may plan accordingly for the benefit of the people and surrounding area by considering
environmental values of the same for the betterment our motherland. Jai-Hind.

1. INTRODUCTION:

Dam can be simply defined as “an artificial barrier placed on bodies of water that holds
back the flow of water. They may have many purposes, which includes hydro electrical
power generation, safe river navigation, agricultural irrigation, creating recreation areas,
water supplies and flood reduction”. They may be categorized as minor, medium and
major according to their height or water storage capacity.

In India as there are about 5264 large dams in service and other 437 dams are under
construction at present. It is important to note that a majority of existing dams are more
than half a century old and have thus have outlived their designed life and they may be
unsafe in some way. Dams are considered "installations contain dangerous forces" under
International Humanitarian Law due to the massive impact of a possible destruction on the
civilian population and the environment. Dam failures are comparatively rare, but can
cause immense damage and loss of life when they occur. Dam failures become big Floods.

The failure of big dams in the recent past all over the world gave a wakening call for urgent
steps for the proper and timely repairing work for old dams and to make large mechanisms
to ensure safety of the people and structures. There is a dire need for clear legally binding
accountability mechanism in the case of dam failure or unsafe dam operations and for
determining what is to be done with old dams that become a threat to lives, livelihood and
environment.

2. REASONS FOR DAM FAILURE:

2.1 Over topping: Overtopping occurs when the level of a reservoir exceeds the capacity
or height of the dam. This can be caused by an inadequate or dysfunctional spillway or by
settlement of the dam crest. Over topping occurs when water level rises rapidly and
without adequate warning say for example due to flash floods, heavy rains or landslides in
the reservoir that creates a tsunami or a dam upstream collapse. The result can
compromise the structural integrity of the dam or it can quickly erode the land on either
side of the dam, in effect disengaging the dam from its river slope embankments. In
earthen dams the main cause of failure is erosion caused by overtopping or a failed
spillway. Example is failure of Morvi dam in Gujarat in the year 1979.

2.2 Piping and seepage: Embankment dams which are generally semi-permeable can be
compromised when too much water seeps or leaks through the structure. Dam failures can
occur when the structure becomes weakened from internal erosion, an effect referred to
as piping. This can occur along hydraulic structures, spillways, conduits or cracks. Example
of dam failure due to piping and seepage is Teton dam 5-6-1976 (USA)

2.3 Foundation defects: Defects can occur in the foundation supporting the dam. The
weight of dam structure has an impact on the ground underneath. If this weight is not
properly taken into account in the engineering of the dam, the ground underneath can
settle unequally and compromise the foundation. Similarly, dams built on slopes must be
properly engineered to avoid issues with instability or landslides. Any event causing the
movement of foundation, such as an earthquake, can also compromise a dam’s
foundation. The main cause of concrete dam failure is problem with the foundation, high
uplift pressures and uncontrolled foundation seepage can also compromise the dam’s
foundation. Example of catastrophic dam failure due to foundation defects of St. Francis
dam.

2.4 Inadequate maintenance and upkeep: Valdi Stava dam-19-7-1985 (Italy)

2.5 Substandard construction material and technique: Gleno Dam, 1-12-1923 (Italy)
2.6 Spill way design error: South fork dam, 31-5-1889 (USA)
2.7 Geological instability/poor surveying: Malpasset dam, 1-12-1959 (France)
2.8 Extreme inflow: Shakidor dam, 10-2-2005 (Pakistan)
2.9 Earthquakes
2.10 Human, computer or design error: Buffalo Creek flood

Many dams fail as a result of “the pilot project syndrome”, as called by withstand, thus
engineers assume that the technology used to build small scale dams can be used with
little or no modification, for putting up large dams. Sometimes, issues related to distribution
of reservoir water between two states or cities creates havoc in the vicinity and threatens
the security of the dam. Therefore, precautionary measure for dam safety is an urgent
need.

3. DAM FAILURES IN INDIA:

In India, the first failure was recorded in Madhya Pradesh during 1917 when the Tigra Dam failed due to
overtopping. 36 dam failure have been reported so far. Out of these, 3 were before Independence and 33 are
after Independence. The worst dam disaster was the failure of Machu dam (Gujarat) in 1979. It is very
interesting to know that out of these failures, 44% were because of breaching failure due to flooding, 25%
overtopping due to inadequate spillway capacity, 14% piping/bed workmanship and 17% other distress. If we
consider the type of the dams, there were 30 earth dams, 3 Composite dams and 3 Masonry dams that failed.
One may be surprised to know that majority of Indian dams have failed immediately after construction or at
the time of first full load, which can be clearly attributed to factors of either inadequate design or poor quality
of construction. The figure is about 16 Nos. of dams which failed with in the first five years period itself and
about 7 Nos. of dams within the period of 5-10 years.

3.1 KADDAM PROJECT - (A.P., India):

Built in Adilabad in 1957-58, the dam was a composite structure, earth fill and/or rock fill and gravity dam. It
was 30.18 m. high and 3.28 m. wide at its crest. The dam was overtopped by 46 cm of water above the crest,
despite a free board allowance of 2.4 m. that was provided, causing a major breach of 137.2 m. wide that
occurred on the left bank. Two more breaches developed on the right section of the dam. The dam failed in
August 1958.

3.2 KODAGANAR DAM - (Tamil Nadu, India):

This dam in the India was constructed in 1977 on a tributary of Cauvery River as an earthen dam with five
vertical lift shutters each 3.05 m. wide. The dam was 15.75 m. high above the deepest foundation having 11.15
m. height above the river bed. The dam failed due to overtopping by flood water which flowed over the
downstream slopes of the embankment and breached the dam along various reaches. There was an earthquake
registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong.

3.3 TETON DAM - TETON RIVE, USA:

The construction of Teton dam began in April, 1972 and dam was completed on November 26, 1975. The dam
was designed as a zoned earth and gravel fill embankment, which was having height above the bed rock of
126m. And a 945 m long crest. The dam failed on June 5, 1976, releasing 308 million m3 of reservoir water. A
flood at an estimated peak discharge in excess of 28,300 m3/s had occurred. The peak outflow discharge at the
time of failure was very high in volume. A breach 46 m. wide at its bottom and 79 m deep had formed. The
time of failure was recorded as four hours. The cause of failure was attributed to piping progressing at a rapid
rate through the body of the embankment.

4. DISASTER OF MACHCHU-2 DAM – MORVI, GUJARAT:

The machchu river, whose total length is about 140 km rises in the hills of northern Saurashtra and flows into
the Rann of Kachchh. It‘s total catchment area up to Machchu-2 dam is of the order of about 1900 km2. The
Machchu-2 dam was built near Rajkot on the River Machchu in August 1972 as a composite structure. It
consisted of a masonry spillway in the river section and earthen embankments on both sides. The dam was
meant to serve as an irrigation scheme. Its storage capacity was of 1.1 x 10 8 m3. The dam had a height of 22.56
m above the river bed, a 164.5 m of crest length of overflow section, and a total of 3742 m of crest length for
the earthen dam. Total 18 Nos. Radial gates of the size 9.144 X6.096 m were provided on the spillway, which
was having the capacity of discharge of flood about 5663 m³/s.

The Machchhu-2, dam failure or Morvi disaster can be classified as a flood disaster which occurred in the
afternoon about 14.30 to 15.00 hrs on, 11 August 1979, in Gujarat-India. The failure was caused by excessive
rain and massive flooding leading to the disintegration of the earthen walls of the four-kilometre long
Machchu-2 dam. As mentioned above, the spillway capacity was 5663 m³/s but due to heavy rain during the
last many days, the actual observed flow reached 16307 m³/s, thrice of what the dam was designed for,
resulting in its collapse. Within 20 minutes, the floods of 12 to 30 ft (3.7 to 9.1 m) height inundated the low-
lying areas of Morvi industrial town located 5 km below the dam. It is estimated that this flash flood caused
the loss of thousands of lives, irreparable damage of livestock and property in this town, which till then had
been known as the ―Paris of the east.‖

5. THE INVESTIGATION - STUDY FOR CAUSES OF FAILURE:

The unpredictable failure-disaster- of Machchu-2 dam caused vast destruction of almost all
types of infrastructure. These include about 6157 houses destroyed, 3900 damaged, more
than 1800 huts were destroyed, about 13000 animals died and above all more than 2000
people lost their lives, though for many people this figure is not correct and in their view this
may be around 15000 or so. Total loss to the economy was figured about 29 crores.

Investigation of dam failure was carried out by many agencies of the then government and
other individuals, they studied the salient features of complete tragedy in many respects
and gave their views in various means of publications in public domain, while outcome of
other investigations and of judicial investigation made is yet to come out in public domain.

As engineers and technocrats, we must think for the various reasons due to which the dams
are prone to any failure. In my view there are basically the following points which may be
considered while studying in depth about the disasters or failures of any Dam:
(1) Weather forecasting system,
(2) Communication system for emergency situation,
(3) Warning system in emergency situation,
(4) The Gate structure and operation & maintenance of the gates,
(5) Real time operation of the gates,
(6) Survey & Investigation made before construction of any structure,
(7) Salient features and technique of the Construction,
(8) Disaster management plan if any, and its implementation,
(9) Rescue and Relief operations, etc.

There are some reports/findings which came out in public domain, which showed that the failure was due to
communication failure, warning system failure, delay in evacuating people to safe place, last moment little bit
failure in gate operation-not timely opened for flood discharge, unexpected heavy rain, uncontrolled volume of
water in Machchu basin, etc. which may be considered as reasons for dam failure, but these are the individual
observations at various levels and these are not authentic reports in many ways.

In this regard it is very interesting to know that the book, “No One Had a Tongue to Speak,”-the untold story
of one of the history‘s deadliest floods, by Tom Wooten and Utpal Sandesara – Harvard scholars – published
in the year 2011, may be the first-ever documentation of the enormous scale of devastation. This book presents
the disaster in the words of those who lived through it and based on the interviews of about 148 persons and
many other relevant documents and research. The main conclusion as per the authors made in the book is that
the Machchu-2 dam disaster was not only an ―Act of God‖ but something more as well.

5.1 DID THE GATE OPERATION FAIL?

There are many things narrated in this book, but it is not possible to go through it in this paper, due to
copyright issues. There is a brief story about gate operations which informs us that - when it began to rain in
Morvi on the late afternoon of August 10, the concerned officer-in-charge of Machchu I & II dams was at
Wankaner - a city near the dam site, when it began to rain heavily on the evening of August 10 he sent a
wireless message to the dam site of Machchu-II to open the 18 sluice gates of the dam by six feet each and
control the water level.

He is apparently also said to have issued instructions to the section officer that the mamlatadar of Morvi town
should be asked to warn the people with sirens. After sending the wireless message from Wankaner, the
officer-in-charge rushed back to Machchu-ll to find the water level risen to 187 feet by 11.30 p.m., when the
danger level was 189 feet. Deciding to stay the night on the dam site, he started opening the sluice gates fully,
with power from the dam's generator, since each sluice gate is 30 feet high and rises only two feet at the single
press of a button, by the time the engineer-in-charge got to the sixteenth gate, an electrical fuse blew. At that
time 15 gates stood open, the sixteenth was open by 16 feet, and the seventeenth and eighteenth gates by four
and six feet respectively.

All this time through the night of August 10, the water level was rising dangerously. It rained furiously
throughout the operation, and at one point in the early hours of the morning, the engineer with his few
mechanics and handful of labourers brought in for the job, tried desperately to operate a hand generator near
the sluice gates on top of the dam to open the gates fully. It was no more possible. By morning the level had
risen to 190 feet.
Authors of this book have tried to highlight not only human error and neglect, but also the compelling urge to
survive rebuild and fight for justice. Readers are free to attribute their views after reading it, but the real truths
are yet to be unveiled in many respects and that is the reality of this Disaster, which was counted as the worst
disaster of flash floods by the Guinness book of world records few years back.

SOME PICTURES OF MACHHU-II, DAM FAILURE @ Morbi-Gujarat-India, on Dt. 11-8-1979

5.2 STUDY OF THE RAINFALL PATTERN:

Here I would like to throw some light on the study of the rainfall pattern at machchu basin. In any basin the
rainfall should be studied before constructing any big dam along with many other standard aspects and
technical parameters for the same. There is one wonderful study on the “pattern of rainfall in the Machchu
basin” done by eminent professors of Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, in connection with the
Machchu-2 disaster. Let us see some basic points for understanding the exact rainfall pattern at this stage. It is
interesting to know that such type of investigation reports for dam failures or other structure failures are very
useful for the development of new irrigation projects or construction of other government buildings.

The flash flood caused the Machchu-2 disaster. The rainfall of August-1979 over and around
the Machchu basin has been analysed by both Depth-Area-Duration and Depth-Duration
methods. Important aspects of heavy rainfall distribution such as analysis of past severe
rainstorms, maximum point rainfall of different return periods and probable maximum
precipitation were also studied.

The case study is based on various calculations – the basic data of past rainfall for this
region from 1891 to 1970 which was available at Poona was used. Daily rainfall data for the
period 1-12 August 1979 for all available rainfall stations were obtained. Rainfall
characteristics of the Machchu-Basin, incidence of heavy rainfall in and around the basin,
analysis of past severe rainstorm (Depth-Area-Duration and comparison of Depth-Duration
(DD)) and other important aspects were calculated and analysed accordingly.
 Table No-1
Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) statistics of the 10-12 August, 1979 rainstorm over Machchu-
basin

Area (km2 ) 1 Day, 2 Day 3 Day,

11 Aug-79 (mm) 11-12, Aug-79 (mm) 10-12, Aug-79 (mm)
point 352 554 704
259 350 552 660
1295 336 535 624
1900 330 525 612
2590 326 518 600
12950 266 425 504
The above analysis has revealed that Machchu basin up to Machhu-2 dam could have
experienced 1-day, 2-day and 3-day rain depths of the order of 330, 525 and 612 mm
respectively, had the rainstorm centred over the basin in a critical pattern.

Table No-2
Depth-Duration (DD) rain depth for 3-day duration experienced by Machchu-basin up to
Machchu-2

Duration 21-23 July-1894, 25-27, July-1927 12-14,July-1950 10-12, Aug-1979,

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1-day 280 229 229 237
2-day 399 302 351 372
3-day 400 387 377 447

The average rain depth actually experienced by Machchu basin during the severe
rainstorms of 1894, 1927, 1950 and 1979 were also worked out for duration of 1 to 3 days and
these data are given in table-2. This shows that Machchu basin experienced the highest
rain depth for 3-day duration during the August-1979 rainstorm. This is perhaps due to the
fact that the centre of the august 1979 rain storm was close to the basin.

SUMMARY OF THIS STUDY:

Examination of rainfall data of past 80 years of stations in and around Machchu basin
revealed that (a) There have been instances when stations in this region received their
respective mean annual rainfall in just a single day, (b) Maximum 1-day rainfall at these
stations varied from 180 to 510 mm and 2-day from 330- to 680 mm, (c) PMP of 1-day
duration worked out to be the order of 450-1060 mm.

During the period 10-12 august, 1979, machchu basin up to machchu-2 dam received
about 4 times the normal basin rainfall for august. The mean rainfall for this basin is about
535 mm for the rainy season (June-September). Depth-Duration analysis of past rainstorm
over the basin revealed that the July-1894 rainstorm gave maximum rain depths for
duration 1 and 2-day while the 10-12, august, 1979 rainstorm gave maximum rain depths for
3-day duration. By and large the 1927 rainstorm was the most severe and the rain depths
measured in this storm were much higher than the 10-12, August-1979. Apparently, the large
volume of water generated during the rainstorm of August-1979 was mainly due to the
favourable antecedent basin conditions of moderate to heavy rain fall during the 10 days
before the dam failure.
5.3 SIMULATION MODEL STUDY:

One performance evaluation of three dam failure analysis models was carried out for the machchu-2 dam
failure by four eminent engineers and I think it is very useful to understand the real behaviour of the dam
structure during flash floods like that of 1979 Morvi. I will try to narrate the main points of this study.

Necessities: For pre-determination of the warning time and probable maximum water level downstream of
dam for various likely dam failure scenarios to plan evacuation measures. And, to simulate the flood
propagation of a recorded failed dam scenario

Approach followed for dam failure analysis: (1) Development or identification of the inflow hydrograph to
the reservoir at the time of failure, (2) Routing that hydrograph through the reservoir, (3) Development of
failure condition of the structure, (4) Calculating the outflow hydrograph from the failed structure, (5)
Modelling the propagation of the flood wave of the failed dam downstream to determine travel time,
maximum water level reached, inundated areas etc.

Objectives: (1) Reconstitute the flood wave resulting from the failure of Machhu-2 dam which happened on
11th August 1979 using the models NWS-DAMBRK(1990), MIKE11(2008) and HEC-RAS(2008), (2)
Compare the results of each of these models with the observed values and analyse the results, (3) Evaluate the
performances of the above mentioned dam failure analysis models.

Major Components of Analysis: (1) Reservoir routing - (a) Storage routing (b) Dynamic Routing, (2) Breach
simulation - (a) Overtopping failure (b) Piping failure, (3) River routing - (a) One-dimensional (b) two-
dimensional

Table No-3
Comparison of computed and observed peak flood water levels at d/s reach due to dam failure

Peak Flood Elevation (in m) d/s of dam at

1287 m 9364 m 17554 m 25454 m 33057 m
Observed Values 51.21 39.90 30.48 23.88 16.07
MIKE-II 51.27 40.32 29.96 23.44 16.71
HEC-RAS 53.2 40.35 31.60 24.32 17.20
DAMBRK 52.92 40.99 31.42 23.43 15.83

Conclusions of this study:

(a) On the basis of the simulated peak stage profiles with the observed values, the results from MIKE11 are
much closer to the observed values along the downstream channel than the other two models.
(b) DAMBRK model shows high rate of attenuation, while the MIKE11 shows the least rate of attenuation
and HEC-RAS shows moderate rate of attenuation.
(c) MIKE11 is more user friendly without involving trial and error approach in the use of spatial and
temporal step sizes in comparison with the HEC-RAS usage.
(d) In DAMBRK model the cross-sections at which discharge hydrographs can be displayed is limited to six.
(e) Results can be represented in a more user-friendly form such as by the use of animation both in MIKE11
and in HEC-RAS models.

6. USEFULNESS OF THE VARIOUS STUDIES:

Considering the various suggestions given in the various technical studies of dam/structure
failures, many modifications in the design criteria and other parameters which are to be
considered for selection of site and the construction work have been implemented in the
real word and gave new birth to Dam Safety Organization at Central level as well as State
level Dam safety organizations.

The Department of Water Resources, Government of Gujarat made some modifications in

various dams by taking into account the various studies and observations come out after
some dam failures in the country and thus put dams in Safe and Strong position to
withstand flash floods or other reasons by revised spillway design. Here are some examples
of revised design figures for some irrigation schemes.
 Table No-4
Design Floods, Observed Highest Floods and Revised Spillways for Some Projects, Gujarat

River Valley Total Catchment Area Spillway Design Highest observed Revised
Projects (sq.km) Flood as per Project flood (Cusecs) Spillway
in Gujarat Report (Cusecs) (Cusecs)

Dharoi 5485.84 11213.00 14150.00 21662.00

Dantiwada 2862.00 6654.00 11950.00 18123.00
Machhu-I 735.00 3313.00 9340.00 5947.00
Machhu-II 1928.71 5663.00 16307.00 20925.00
Damanganga 1813.00 11100.00 12900.00 12854.00

7. DAM SAFETY:

It is the art and science ensuring the integrity and viability of dams such that they do not
present unacceptable risks to the public, property and the environment. It requires the
collective application of engineering principles and experiences and a philosophy of risk
management that recognizes that dam is a structure whose safe functioning is not explicitly
defined by its original design and construction.
It also includes all actions taken to identify or predict deficiencies and consequences
related to failures and to document, publicize and reduce, eliminate or remediate to the
extent reasonably possible and any unacceptable risks.

7.1 DAM SAFETY BILL – 2018:

This bill introduced in the parliament, will empower the dam safety institutional setups in
both Centre and State and will also help in standardizing and improving dam safety
practices across the country. The Bill applies to all specified dams in the country. These are
dams with: (i) height more than 15 metres, or (ii) height between 10 metres to 15 metres and
subject to certain additional design and structural conditions. The Bill provides for the
constitution of a National Committee on Dam Safety, a National Dam Safety Authority
(NDSA) and establishment of State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs) by the state
governments as well.

7.2 OBLIGATIONS OF DAM OWNERS:

The Bill requires the owners of specified dams to provide a dam safety unit in each dam. This unit will inspect
the dams: (i) before and after the monsoon season, and (ii) during and after every earthquake, flood, or any
other calamity or sign of distress. Dam owners will be required to prepare an emergency action plan and carry
out risk assessment studies for each dam at specified regular intervals. They have to prepare a comprehensive
dam safety evaluation of each dam, at regular intervals, through a panel of experts. The evaluation will be
mandatory in certain cases such as major modification of the original structure, or an extreme hydrological or
seismic event.

7.3 OFFENCES AND PENALTIES:

The Bill provides for two types of offences. These are: (i) obstructing a person in the discharge of his
functions, and (ii) refusing to comply with directions issued under the Bill. Offenders will be punishable with
imprisonment of up to one year or a fine, or both. If the offence leads to loss of lives, the term of
imprisonment may be extended up to two years. Offences will be cognizable only when the complaint is made
by the government, or any authority constituted under the Bill.
8. DAM REHABILITATION AND IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (DRIP):

In April-2012, MOWR - through CWC with an objective to improve safety and operational
performance of selected dams, along with institutional strengthening with system wide
management approach, embarked upon the six years DRIP - with the World Bank’s
assistance. DRIP has been successful in bringing together dam owners, engineers, scientists,
academicians, industries, World Bank as well as renowned dam safety professionals. In
addition to rehabilitation of dams, other important activities include - design flood review,
publication of important guidelines as well as manuals dealing with dam safety
management, preparation of O&M manuals, emergency action plans etc. are also a part
of this program.

9. CONCLUSION:

We talked about a disaster here, which not only extended to the whole of Gujarat, but to
every person of India. People get teary-eyed when they are reminded of this horrible
tragedy. This destructive phenomenon is considered as one of the world's worst
catastrophe, and is recorded in the Guinness Book of World Records, which describes its
magnitude.

Having spent some time in this very city for engineering studies, I felt it will be a great
opportunity for me to present about this incident with all intellectuals through this paper.
Particularly this year, ie, in the year 2019, at the 40 th anniversary of the Morbi disaster, when
tributes are being paid to all the victims, this paper is also like a tribute by me, with some
known & unknown facts and some never-before presented facts that are not easily
available. Apart from the technical issues related to the disaster, it is also wise to learn
about the reasons behind it and how to be better prepared in the future.

Nature has its own rules, and it is important to carefully learn about them. There is nothing more fun to walk
along with nature but the penalty for running against it is also equally drastic. Often, nature's destructive
events are actually able to move the city or community forward to a new and prosperous future. People who
have faced the wrath of nature for many years, have received immense strengths that inspire the ability to cope
with natural disasters. In front of us is the 2001 Gujarat earthquake.

We have been able to revive Kutch and other disaster-affected regions in the true sense. In technical terms,
only after that we were able to create new rules related to construction and other factors, launched an action
plan for all types of action taken during and after disaster. In the same way, for the construction of the dams,
the Central Water Commission through the Central Government has issued a number of circulars and roadmap
about management and gate operations, according to which every state has to take action on small-scale
projects of its own.

Government of Gujarat has also issued circulars and road shows in connection with the Gate operation by its
various departments. Certain measures have also been taken regarding the safety of the dams and the physical
inspection of the big projects and the gates on it, and in the year 2018, two Dam Safety Review Panel (DSRP-
1 & 2) have also been formed according to the Central Government's instructions which very closely monitor
about 60 dams in Gujarat every year as per present situation. It will also give the necessary instructions to
resolve any errors. A very strict timeline has also been set for this important work.

Here I would like to share some suggestions for the betterment of the society:
1) Planning for Natural Disaster Management specially related to water-based disasters.
2) Remedial measures for the dams which have completed their stipulated life span.
3) Constructing small dams should be given priority and unnecessary construction of large dams should be
avoided.
4) Development of standard design criteria for the construction of big dams all over the country should be
proposed.
5) Constant and vigilant auditing of dam safety.
6) Use of latest technology for forecasting and early warning systems for floods.
7) Construction of major dams should be avoided as much as possible in the Earthquake prone zones.
Last but not the least, the construction of big dams is for improving the lives of people, so their lives should be
the priority in every safety measure.

I hope that such initiatives will certainly boost the engineers, technocrats and planners and political leaders of
the country and they may plan accordingly for the benefit of the people and surrounding area by considering
environmental values of the same for the betterment our motherland. Jai-Hind.

References:-

(i) Central Water Commission official website,

(ii) Article by Amita Bhaduri, posted on website on dt.27-9-2012
(iii) Article by Latha Anatha - posted on India water Portal,
(iv) Article by O.N.Dhar, P.R.Rakhecha, B.N.Mandal & R.B. Sangam, Indian Institute of Tropical
Meteorology, published in Hydrological Science-bulletin-des science hydrologiques, March-1981,
(v) Article published in India today magazine, 15-9-1979, updated 20-1-2015,
(vi) “No One Had a Tongue to Speak” - by Tom Wooten and Utpal Sandesara, - Harvard scholars - published
in the year 2011.
(vii) Paper presented during the Third National Dam Safety Conference - IIT Roorkee, on 18-19 February -
2017, by - Aravind V., Asst. Engineer, PWD, Govt. of Kerala, Muthiah Perumal, Professor, Dept. of
Hydrology, IIT Roorkee and N. N. Rai, Director, CWC, New Delhi
(viii) ―History of Dam failures‖ by Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara.
(ix) ―Dam failures‖ by John T. Christian & Gregory B. Beacher, 1999

Paper by: Er. Kirit B. Trivedi, 62, B.E. (Mech.) from the L.D. College of Engineering of Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad, M.B.A.(Marketing), Post Graduate Diploma in Disaster Management from IGNOU-New Delhi.
He joined as an Assistant Engineer (Mech.) in the Government of Gujarat in the year 1981 and retired as a
Deputy Executive Engineer (Mech.) in July-2019 from the N.W.R.W.S. & K. Department at Gandhinagar. He
has presented Papers at New Delhi during the ―International Conference on Habitat‖ in the year-1997 &
―World Congress on Natural Disaster Mitigation‖ in the year-2004. He has also presented total Eleven
Technical Papers during the India Water Week during the years - 2012, 2013 and 2015 held at New Delhi.
Presented papers on Disaster Management at various conferences. Recently presented technical papers at
International Conferences and National Level Conferences. He was also invited to deliver talks on various
subjects by All India Radio - Rajkot. Life member in Mechanical Division of the IEI-India, worked as an
Executive committee member at its Saurashtra Local Branch - Rajkot for 14 years. Fellow of the Institution of
Valuers - New Delhi.
 STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF CABLE STAYED
BRIDGE
ACROSS RIVER TAPI –A CASE STUDY

S. K. PATEL J. H. PATEL
Chief Engineer Executive Engineer
Road & Building Department Road & Building Department
Gandhinagar Gandhinagar

1. ABSTRACT
This paper highlights various features of structural health monitoring for cable stayed bridge and indicates
its importance for operation and maintenance of the bridge structure. A case study of structural health
monitoring system of existing cable stayed bridge across river Tapi in Surat city is presented in this paper.
This bridge is having total length 300m consisting of 150m main span and two side spans of 75m. It is having
cast in-situ prestressed concrete superstructure, which is supported by single plane cable system.
Superstructure total width is 23.4m. There are ten cables supported each side of the pylon. Pylon height is 35m
with rectangular cross section.
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a non-destructive in-situ structural sensing and evaluation method
thatuses a variety of sensors attached to, or embedded in a structure to monitor the structural response, analyze
the structural characteristics for the purpose of estimating the severity of damage or deterioration and
evaluating the consequences thereof on the structure in terms of response, capacity and service life.
Cable stayed bridges are a type of longspan bridges that have been extensively constructed throughout the
world. However, cable stayed bridges suffer from a variety of performance deteriorations and natural disasters
during their service life. Structural health monitoring, having emerged since the early 1990s, is regarded as an
in-situ field experimental technique to understand the behavior and performance of real, full scale bridges
under real loadings and environmental conditions and to further ensure the safety, serviceability, durability,
and sustainability of bridges.
The most common objectives for monitoring a bridge are to obtain quantitative data about the structural
behavior in order to confirm design assumptions and to provide real-time feedback during construction, and to
evaluate the real current condition of the bridge and allows the engineers to take informed decisions about
their future and to plan maintenance or repair actions. In the later, the monitoring system is used to increase
the safety of the structure and provide early warning of an acceleration of the known degradations that are
being monitored. And the application of structural health monitoring to existing bridges to perform a
controlled lifetime extension ofthe bridges with known problems has greatly increased in recent years.
In this paper, structural monitoring technologies for cable stayed bridge across river Tapi in Surat city is
discussed. The design approach of structural health monitoring systems for cable stayed bridge is presented.
The data analysis, modelling and safety evaluation of cable stayed bridge based on structural health
monitoring technology is addressed. The applications of structural health monitoring technology for cable
stayed bridges is summarized. Finally, this case study discusses the challenges and future trends in structural
health monitoring technologies for cable stayed bridges, particularly for data driven science and technology in
structural health monitoring field.
Key word: SHM-Structural Health Monitoring, PSC- Prestressed Concrete
2. INTRODUCTION
Structural health monitoring is regarded as an in-situ field experimental technique to understand the
behavior and performance of real, full scale bridges under real loadings and environmental conditions and to
further ensure the safety, serviceability, durability, and sustainability of bridges. Accurate condition
assessment is the basis of making rational decision and scientific maintenance to a bridge structure. It depends
on the comprehensiveness and the amount of information to accurately evaluate the bridge condition. And
these two aspects depend on the comprehensiveness of the monitoring content and the number of measuring
points respectively.
The cable stayed bridge across river Tapi was constructed in year 2018 and now it is used by road traffic
of Surat City. This bridge is having 150m main span and two side spans of 75m. Aerial view of Cable Styed
Bridge across river Tapi is presented at Figure 1. It is having cast in-situ prestressed concrete superstructure,
which is supported by single plane cable system located at median. The four lane superstructure is having total
width of 23.4m. There are ten cables supported each side of the pylon. Pylon height is 35m with rectangular
cross section.
As such the Cable stayed bridge is located in aggressive environmental exposure condition. River Tapi at
the bridge location is having perennial water and affected by tidal water. Considering the importance of the
structure and aggressive environment, it has been decided by the authority to go for structural health
monitoring system for this cable stayed bridge.

Figure 1: Photograph of cable stayed bridge across river Tapi

3. BRIDGE DESCRIPTION
Cable stayed bridge across river Tapi near Athwalines is important link connecting Athwalines area on
one side and Adajan Area on other side of the Surat city.This newly constructed four lane bridge has acquired
special importance due to its location and major city traffic is plying on this iconic bridge. This bridge location
falls under tidal zone and therefore exposed to aggressive environment. Cross section of superstructure of
cable stayed bridge across river Tapi is presented at Figure 2. Cast in situ PSC Superstructure is having total
depth of 3.0m.

Figure 2. Superstructure cross section of Tapi cable stayed bridge

Following general information have been used in the study of this bridge project:
1. Name of Bridge : Cable Stayed Bridge at Athwalines
2. Name of river : Tapi
3. Location : Athwalines Surat
4. Year of construction : Year 2018
5. Type of bridge : Single Plane Cable Stayed Bridge
6. Super structure cross section : Cast in-situ PSC section
7. Length of bridge : 300m
 8. Nos. of Spans : Main span 150m + Two side spans 75m each
9. Type of foundation : 1500mm diameter pile foundation
10. Total Carriageway : 23.4 m (Four lanes for traffic &Two pedestrian
footpaths)
11. Pylon height : 35m
12. Cable Pattern : Single plane semi harp system
13. Nos. of Cable : 10 Nos on each side of pylon
14. Bearings : Spherical bearings
15. Expansion Joint : Modular type

4. STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORINGSYSTEM FOR TAPI BRIDGE

In the SHM system for Tapi bridge, sensors are distributed to 4 sections of towers, 9 sections of girder and
16 sections of stay cables.Various sections are indicated in Figure 3. Table 1 shows location of sensors.

Table 1: Sensor Locations

Monitoring Sections Location

Monitoring Section 01 of Tower Main Bridge Tower Section at the Top of AP3

Monitoring Section 02 of Tower Main Bridge Tower Section at the Bottom of AP3

Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Main Bridge Tower Section at the Top of AP4

Monitoring Section 04 of Tower Main Bridge Tower Section at the Bottom of AP4

Monitoring Cables Main Bridge Stay Cable LC1, LC4, LC7, LC10, RC1, RC4, RC7, RC10

Monitoring Section 01 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at AP2

Monitoring Section 02 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at Mid-span from AP2 to AP3

Monitoring Section 03 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at AP3

Monitoring Section 04 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at 1/4 Span from AP3 to AP4

Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at Mid-span from AP3 to AP4

Monitoring Section 06 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at 3/4 Span from AP3 to AP4

Monitoring Section 07 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at AP4

Monitoring Section 08 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at Mid-span from AP4 to AP5

Monitoring Section 09 of Girder Main Bridge Girder Section at AP5

 Figure 3: 9 Sections of Girder, 16 Sections of Cables & 4 Sections of Pylons

4.1 Monitoring of Wind Load

Wind load is one of the crucial loads of long span bridges. The problems of flutter of girder, wind rain
induced vibration of cables, which pose a serious threat to the structural safety of cable stayed bridges, are
closely related to wind speed and direction. Wind load will also threaten the safety of passing vehicles.
Therefore, the changes of wind speed and direction in the bridge site should be monitored to provide the basic
information about the working environment of the bridge for safety evaluation of vehicles and the bridge
structure.
4.2 Monitoring of Air Temperature and Relative Humidity

Ambient temperature change is one of the important load sources for long span bridges. Temperature
variation has significant influence on the strain, deformation and dynamic characteristics of bridge structures.
Temperature monitoring is indispensable for understanding some of the structural behaviors. The temperature
load of the bridge includes two parts: uniform temperature change and temperature gradient. Therefore, the
uneven distribution of temperature in longitudinal, transverse and vertical direction should be considered when
monitoring the temperature load.
Air temperature and humidity sensors are considered at the top of AP3 and the mid-span of the main
bridge. Considering the influence of direct sunshine on the temperature load, two air temperature and humidity
sensors are considered above the deck and inside the box girder, respectively. 5 sections of the girder are
selected for the main bridge, and a temperature sensor is considered to monitor the structural temperature of
the bridge.
4.3 Traffic Load Monitoring
Traffic load is one of the most important operational loads of bridges. The vibration of bridge structures is
attributed to traffic load in most cases. The initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks is also directly related
to traffic load. Thus, traffic load is a decisive factor of the service life of a bridge. The traffic load of Tapi
bridge surges in terms of both traffic volume and weight of vehicles with the rapid development of local
economy. So acquiring information about vehicles passing through the bridge, such as speed, gross weight and
lane, and found out the relationship between traffic load and structural responses is crucial for the safety
assessment of the bridge structure.
There are two methods for monitoring the traffic loads: Weigh in Motion (WIM) and Bridge Weigh in
Motion (BWIM). WIM can obtain information such as axle load, wheelbase, vehicle speed, headway, and
driving lane of vehicles without any disturbance to traffic flow. It is the first choice for traffic load monitoring
in case of sufficient fund. BWIM is preferred when the funds is insufficient. BWIM utilizes the traffic load
effects, e.g. the strain response of the beam, to deduce the weight and speed of vehicles. No matter which
method is preferred, traffic video monitoring is often supplemented to improve the identification of traffic
scenes. BWIM option is considered for monitoring the traffic load of Tapi bridge. All strain sensors mounted
on the Girder Monitoring Section 05 are also utilized to obtain the traffic load effects. Besides strain sensors, a
HD camera is considered on Tower Monitoring Section 03 for traffic video monitoring.
4.4 Monitoring of Seismic and Ship-impacting Load
Although the probability that earthquake or ship collision breaks out in the service life of a bridge, the
consequence is often catastrophic to the bridge once such transient load was encountered. From worldwide
lessons it is learned that it is of vital importance that bridges keep functional after earthquake for saving lives
and economic loss. Therefore, it is of great economic and social significance to monitoring the seismic load,
which issues real-time warning during earthquake and provide variable information for safety evaluation
afternoon the disaster. Tapi River is a frequently used as waterway. Therefore, the risk of ship collision of
Tapi Bridge must be taken seriously.

A three directional accelerometer is considered at the cap of the towers beside the main navigation channel
to monitor the dynamic input at the bottom of the tower when earthquake or ship collision occurs. At the same
time, two cameras are considered on Tower Monitoring Section 03 to monitor the ships at the upstream and
downstream side, respectively.
4.5 Monitoring of Structural Displacement
The ideal state of a cable stayed bridge under dead load is that its girder has a bending moment distribution
close to that of a multi span continuous beam and its towers bear only axial forces. The most intuitive indicator
that manifests whether the cable stayed bridge is in its ideal state is the deflection including the displacement
& inclination at the top of towers and the deflection curve of the girder. Thus, monitoring the structural
displacement provides a comprehensive understanding of the structural system of a cable stayed bridge.
Because the structural displacement changes very slowly, real-time monitoring often seems excessive. A
combination of real-time monitoring and periodic inspection is recommended for structural displacement
observation on Tapi bridge. This approach has the following advantages: viz. (i) get immediate warning when
abnormal displacement happens; (ii) get more accurate deflection with more densemeasuring points without
notable change in cost;and (iii)the results from monitoring and inspection serve as verification for each other.
In the SHM system for Tapi bridge, the structural displacement is obtained in real-time monitoring manner are
viz. (i) the inclination of towers, (ii) the deflection curve of the girder and the uneven settlement of the
abutment, and (iii) the displacement of expansion joints; While, it is highly recommended that the structural
displacement should be observed in periodic inspections are (i) the horizontal displacement of the anchor, (ii)
the deflection curve of the main cable, and (iii) the deflection curve of the girder .
4.6 Monitoring of Tension of Cables
The cable system in cable stayed bridge transfers loads from the girder to the tower and plays an
indispensable role in load transferring. Thus, the safety of the whole bridge is tied to the safety of cable
system. Furthermore, cable force of suspension cables and hangers serves as a perfect indicator of the health
condition of a suspension bridge, for it is directly related to many crucial factors including the distribution of
bending moments of the girder, the bending at the bottom of the tower and the force in horizontal distribution
of anchorage. The measurement of cable force should be an important content of the SHM system for Tapi
bridge based on the above considerations.
16 stay cables are selected for tension monitoring. Besides these monitored cables, it is highly
recommended that the tension of all cables should be measured every one or two years. The tension of the
whole cable system can be obtained by combining the monitoring and inspection data.
4.7 Monitoring of Stress and Temperature Distribution at Typical Sections of the Girder
Strain is a direct indicator of the safety of structural components. The failure of local components,
especially key components, may lead to the failure of the whole structure. Therefore, the monitoring of the
strain of important structural components should be an essential content of structural health monitoring. The
distribution of strain reflects the cooperation between structural components, thus serves as a good indicator of
the structural health. Abnormal changes of strain distribution often are caused deficiency of some adjacent
component, and deserves close attention from supervisors.
It is impossible and unnecessary to monitor the strain of all components of a large scale structure. The
conventional practice is to comprehensively monitor some critical or typical sections selected from the
structure. The sensor arrangement in these sections should take into account both the location of stress
hotspots and the distribution of strain. Five sections are selected from each of the Tapi bridge and 40 strain
sensors are mounted on these sections.

4.8 Monitoring of ambient vibration

Each structure has its own typical dynamic behavior, known as its ‗vibrational signature‘. Changes in a
structure, such as all kinds of damage leading to a decrease in the load carrying capacity, have effects on the
dynamic response. This suggests that the measurement and monitoring of the dynamic response characteristics
can be used for evaluation of structural integrity.
Total 15 accelerometers are considered on the Tapi bridge. The 2 accelerometers mounted on the top of
each tower is to monitor the vibration in the longitudinal and transverse direction of the bridge. The 3
accelerometers mounted on the monitoring section 04, 05 and 06 of the girder is to monitoring the vibration in
vertical direction at upstream side of the girder, the vibration in vertical direction at downstream side of the
girder and the vibration in transverse direction, respectively. The purpose of such an arrangement is to capture
the torsional and lateral modes of the girder. All the other accelerometers is to monitoring the vibration in the
vertical direction at the downstream side of the girder.

4.9 Summary of Monitoring Contents

The SHM system for Tapi bridge consists of 145 sensors of various type mounted on 9 monitoring sections
of girder and 6 monitoring sections of towers.

4.10 Data Acquisition

The data acquisition technology in the SHM system application is mainly divided into two categories:
centralized data acquisition system and distributed data acquisition system. The centralized data acquisition
system is represented by a data acquisition system based on a local bus standard architecture such as PCI and
PXI. Due to its inherent defects (long distance analog signal transmission, poor anti-interference ability, high
cost, high power consumption, poor accommodation to harsh environments, etc.), its application in bridge
health monitoring system is limited to short or mid-span bridges. The distributed data acquisition system is
based on bus architectures such as Industrial Ethernet, RS485 and CAN. The data acquisition device can be
distributed and close to the position of the measuring point. Its advantage lies in the short analog signal
transmission distance, strong anti-interference ability, low energy consumption, strict industrial environment
adaptability, and long-term work in harsh environments.
The data acquisition system of Tapi bridge is composed of three independent sub-systems viz. (1) the video
monitoring subsystem, (2) the magnetic flux cable sensing subsystem, and (3) the distributed analog sensing
subsystem. The data acquisition devices are located at three stations. The sampling period of each sensor type
is listed in Table 2.

Table 2: Sampling Period of Each Sensor Type

Sensor Type Sampling Period

Wind Speed and Direction Sensor 100 ms

Air Temperature and Humidity Sensor 100 ms

Accelerometer 20 ms

Strain Sensor 20 ms

Temperature Strain 1s

Pressure Transmitter 1 min

Extensometer 1 min

Clinometer 1 min

4.11 Data Transmission

In considering of the security and reliability of data transmission, the data transmission scheme is
designed as follows:
a) The data acquisition controller, magnetic flux cable detector and other devices connect to the general
industrial Ethernet switch.
b) The industrial Ethernet switch in turn connects to the backbone management switch.
 Table 3: Details of Monitoring Contents

Monitoring Content Detail Content Monitoring Section DAQ Device Qty.

Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Anemoscope 1

Wind Load
Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Anemoscope 2

Air Thermometer and

Air Monitoring Section 03 of Tower 1
Hygroscope
Temperature
and Relative
Air Thermometer and
Humidity Monitoring Section 05 of Girder 2
Measurement of Hygroscope
Environmental and
Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Camera 1
Operational Load Highway Traffic
Load
Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Camera 2

Seismic and
Ship Impacting Monitoring Section 02 of Tower Accelerometer 3
Load
Monitoring Section 04 of Tower Accelerometer 3

Monitoring Section 01 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Differential
Monitoring Section 03 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1
Settlement
between
Monitoring Section 07 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1
Foundations
Monitoring Section 09 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Monitoring Section 02 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Differential Monitoring Section 04 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Vertical
Displacement Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1
between Girder
Sections Monitoring Section 06 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Monitoring Section 08 of Girder Pressure Transmitter 1

Measurement of
Structural Features
Longitudinal Monitoring Section 01 of Girder Extensometer 2
and Responses
Displacement
at Joints Monitoring Section 09 of Girder Extensometer 2

Monitoring Section 01 of Tower Clinometer 1

Tower
Inclination
Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Clinometer 1

Cable 1, 4, 7 and 10 (4 sides) EM Sensor 16

Cable Tension
10 Cables Accelerometer 4

Monitoring Section 01 of Tower Accelerometer 2

Structural
Monitoring Section 03 of Tower Accelerometer 2
Modal Features
Monitoring Section 02 of Girder Accelerometer 1
 Monitoring Section 04 of Girder Accelerometer 3

Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Accelerometer 3

Monitoring Section 06 of Girder Accelerometer 3

Monitoring Section 08 of Girder Accelerometer 1

Monitoring Section 02 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 04 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 06 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Strain at Typical Monitoring Section 08 of Girder Strain Sensor 8

Sections of
Girder Monitoring Section 02 of Girder Temperature Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 04 of Girder Temperature Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 05 of Girder Temperature Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 06 of Girder Temperature Sensor 8

Monitoring Section 08 of Girder Temperature Sensor 8

The optical fiber redundant ring network is constructed by the managed Ethernet switch for the data
transmission of the signal conditioner, and the real-time communication between the DAQ controller of the
bridge outfield and the computer of the monitoring center is realized. Industrial switches are characterized by
strong real-time performance and reliability. The general industrial Ethernet switch is selected as eight RJ45
ports, and the management industrial Ethernet switch is selected as two SFP ports and six RJ45 ports.

5. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The structural health monitoring (SHM) system for Tapi bridge is designed to carry out the works of
inspection, monitoring, evaluation, rating, enquire and management for bridges. To fulfill these functionalities,
system software is indispensable besides the hardware which has been specified in the above chapter. System
architecture of SHM system is shown in Figure 4. The system software for Tapi bridge SHM system shall be
composed of the following six sub-systems:
 Figure 4 : System architecture of SHM system
(1) Condition Inspection and Inventory System (CIIS), which shall be devised to process the results of
inspection works with the setup of an updatable condition rating system by visual inspection and an inventory
system for systematic storage and fast retrieval of inspection records and Inventory information of the viaduct
bridges.
(2) Structural Health Observation System (SHOS), which shall be devised to monitor (including the works
of data clean, processing, analysis and reporting) the structural and durability performance of the bridge in
terms of their designed performance criteria at serviceability limit state by the on structure instrumentation
systems and associated software tools.
(3) Structural Health Evaluation System (SHES), which shall be devised to evaluate the safety and/or
stability of bridges when their designed performance criteria at serviceability limit state are exceeded by pre-
built and calibrated finite element models and pre-configured analysis types or input load vectors.
(4) Structural Health Rating System (SHRS), which shall be devised to the synthetic rating of the results
of the inspection, monitoring and evaluation based on criticality, vulnerability and condition ratings and to set
the priority of inspection for structural components of the viaduct bridges.
(5) Structural Health Data Management System (SHDMS), which shall be devised to carry out the
operation and management works of data and information such as the systematic storage and fast retrieval of
data and information, data interfacing and analysis execution (including multiplatform manipulation
capabilities) and multi-dimensional view of data and information.
(6) User Enquiry and Communication System (UECS), which shall be devised to provide facilities and
security execution for (i) internal distribute relevant data and information to inspectors and maintenance
engineers for inspection and execution works; and (ii) external communication with others through
commercial cabling networks.

6. CONCLUSION
Accurate condition assessment is the basis of making decision and scientific maintenance to the bridge
structure. It depends on the comprehensiveness and the quantum of information to accurately evaluate the
bridge condition. These two aspects depend on the comprehensiveness of the monitoring content and the
number of measuring points respectively. The fundamental goal of structural health monitoring system is to
ensure safety of the structure by providing guidance to the management for maintenance & repair of the bridge
structure. The principal challenges that remain mainly related to data analysis, timely and effectively
interpretation, and information management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are grateful to Shri. S. B. Vasava, Secretary, R & B Department, Government of Gujarat for
providing inspiration to write this paper and giving opportunity to participate in such technical forum.

REFERENCES

1. Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges in Sweden , M. Enkell, The 3rd International Conference on
Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure - SHMII-3, November 13-16, 2007.
2. Vertical deflection of a pre-stressed concrete bridge obtained using deformation sensors and inclinometer
measurements , S. Vurpillot, G. Krueger, D. Benouaich,D. Clément, D. Inaudi, ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 95, No 5, p 518 – 526, 1998.
3. Overview of European Activities in the Health Monitoring of Bridges , Andrea Del Grosso, Daniele
Inaudi,Livia Pardi, First International conference on Bridge Maintenance, Safety and Management,
IABMAS'02, CIMNE, Barcellona, 2002.
4. Monitoring System for a Cable-Stayed Bridge using static and dynamic Fiber Optic Sensors, A. Del
Grosso, A. Torre, D. Inaudi, G. Brunetti, A. Pietrogrande.
5. International Conference on Structural Health Monitoring of Intelligent Infrastructure (SHMII-2),
Shenzhen, China, November 16- 18, 2005.
6. Monitoring Of A Smart Bridge With Embedded Sensors During Manufacturing, Construction And
Service, Rola L. Idriss, Third International Conference on Health Monitoring, Stanford California,
September, 2001.

*********
 Modification and Repairs of Spillway and Tail Channel – A case study

Er. VINAY KULKARNI

Assistant General Manger (Civil), TATA Consulting Engineers Ltd.,
‗Sai Trinity‘, 6th floor, Central Wing, Pashan, Pune - 411021
email: vnkulkarni@tce.co.in
Er. MADHAV KHADILKAR
CE (I), CEng (UK), CPEng (Australia), MIE (I), MIStructE (UK), MISSE, MIWWA, MISTE
Regional Discipline Lead (Structural)
Stantec ResourceNet India Pvt. Ltd.
‗Bajaj Brand View‘, 5th floor, Wakade wadi, Shivaji Nagar, Pune - 411005
email: mvkhadilkar@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Safety of dams and spillways is of paramount importance to avert the loss of lives and damages to
properties and environment. There is legislative framework to monitor safety of major dams under
Water Resources Department of Central and State Ministries. Guidelines are issued by central
ministry for inspection of dams and appurtenant works to be followed by dam owners.
Standardization and digitization of inspection and follow up process is underway to bring uniformity
and ease of analysis of data. Also, a law is under preparation for safety of dams. A case study
emphasizing the necessity of periodical inspection and maintenance of masonry dams and spillways
is presented. The dam under study was constructed almost a century ago, which has undergone
many changes in terms of its strengthening, capacity enhancement, changes in appurtenant works
and operations pattern. Since the inspection of dam is regularly done, followed by necessary
maintenance or upgradation work to ensure safety of dam; the life of dam can be considered even a
century more. While modifying the spillway and the tail channel, it was envisaged that the tail
channel will not require any treatment due to presence of hard rock base and three natural falls in the
channel. Over a decade the tail channel, in its natural state, was functioning well. However, during a
post monsoon inspection some erosion was observed in spillway structure and disintegration of hard
rock in tail channel. Further geological and geotechnical investigations were carried out to quantify
the extent and possible cause of distress. Because of occurrence of large number of tectonic fractures
along the length of tail channel, deep weathering and percolation of water through fractures had
resulted in formation of clayey seams of varying depths. This phenomenon was observed near toe of
spillway. Therefore, immediate remedial measure was required. After studying the flow patterns and
various alternatives to dissipate energy in the path of tail channel, a sustainable and innovative
solution was provided for the repairs to existing spillway and modifications to Energy Dissipation
Arrangements (EDA) in tail channel.

Keywords - Dam; spillway; tail channel; energy dissipation; periodical inspection.

INTRODUCTION

Dams and spillways are complex engineering structures and their strength, stability, durability and
safety are of apex importance to avoid the loss of lives and damages to properties and environment.
Inspection of dams is necessary on a continuous basis to safeguard the investments and the benefits
derived from these projects. Though safety of dams is ensured in planning, design, construction and
operation by following relevant codes of practice, standards, publications by public authorities or
professional institutions, best current technology and good engineering practices; history has shown
that on occasion dams do fail and these failures cause extensive damage to properties and loss of
lives. Therefore, inspections should be scheduled and performed on a regular basis. Inspection and
maintenance of dams are vital in their long-term performance. However, it is very important to note
that, inspections alone do not make dams safe; but repairs and maintenance are essential to warrant
the safety of dams.

In India, Central Water Commission (CWC), a central Government organization is operational for
control, conservation and utilization of water resources throughout the country. To bring uniformity
and standardization in safety inspection of dams across India, CWC had published Guidelines for
Safety Inspection of Dams in 1987. The revised guidelines are issued by CWC in 2017, considering
the technological advancements, best practices worldwide and the experience gained from the dam
safety inspections carried out over the last thirty years. Further, the implementation of Dam
Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) is monitored by CWC with financial assistance
from the World Bank. Under DRIP, the online tool named Dam Health and Rehabilitation
Monitoring Application (DHARMA), is being developed to capture asset and health data of large
dams.

During the 37th meeting of National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS) draft Dam Safety Bill, 2016
was discussed. Some changes in the Bill were suggested and the matter was referred to the Ministry
of Law and Justice. Bill requires that every owner of a dam shall have dam safety unit to undertake
annual pre-monsoon and post-monsoon inspection of dams. Also, the owners shall inspect or get
inspected during and after every earthquake, flood or any other natural or artificial disasters, and if
any sign of distress or unusual behavior is noticed in the dam or appurtenances.

In Maharashtra, Dam Safety Organization (DSO) and Central Design Organization (CDO) work
under Director General, Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute (MERI) of Water Resource
Department (WRD) and monitor the safety of dams and appurtenant structures. Dam owners have to
file reports on all inspections with the relevant DSO. The DSO has the power to conduct
investigations, which must be carried out by someone with the rank of executive engineer or higher.
It is responsibility of DSO to pursue with the relevant project authorities for any remedial action
arising from these periodic inspections. Most of the dams are owned by State Government. The
inspections of such dams are carried out Superintending Engineer or Executive Engineer of the dams
under their jurisdiction. Though the inspection of privately-owned dams is carried out by their in-
house dam safety unit, CDO helps to vet the inspections or independently carries out inspection and
reports are submitted to DSO.

PROJECT BACKGROUND

A dam constructed in 1927, to store water for power generation at some other location is considered
for case study. The project details cannot be revealed for security reason and confidentiality
agreement with owner. It is a solid gravity dam constructed in random rubble masonry in lime
surkhi mortar with coursed rubble facing. The dam is 1098.0m in length, 48.60m high and curved in
plan. The original length of spillway was 465.0m and had 36 no. of automatic gates. Presently the
modified spillway in reinforced concrete (RCC) is 100.50m in length with 7 no. of radial gates. The
tail channel having exposed rock base meets the river at a distance of about 350m from spillway
location.

In 1988, as per directions of DSO, all dam owners had to vet the design of dams and appurtenant
works for new seismic design criteria. During the studies, it was found necessary to strengthen the
main dam to satisfy the DSO norms and Indian Standards‘ requirements. While strengthening of
existing dam was under consideration, the owner wanted to enhance the storage capacity of dam.
Therefore, strengthening of main dam was done with colgrout masonry buttresses and height of dam
was increased by about 4.0m. Then existing 465.0m long spillway was closed and new reinforced
concrete spillway of 100.50m long overflow (OF) section with radial gates was constructed. While
finalizing the layout, provision of 22.70m long non-overflow (NOF) section beyond the existing
dam up to the beginning of spillway was made. The extreme end of spillway is directly keyed into
the rock mass.

In 1995, in their inspection report, CDO advised to widen the existing tail channel so as to divert the
discharge away from the main dam. Therefore, the extreme end of spillway directly keyed into the
rock mass was widened. The channel had four natural falls of varying depths from 2.30m to 6.40m.

In 1999, while strengthening of dam near spillway and modifications of spillway, it was reported by
CDO that there is no need of providing elaborate energy dissipation arrangement and existing
natural cascades will be sufficient to kill the energy and passing the flood discharge without any
retrogression of foundation rock. However, to avoid erosion of rock near the toe of the overflow
section due to high velocity flow in the initial reach of tail channel, 600mm thick, 5.00m long
concrete apron for the bed with a key at the end was provided. Since the bed concrete was laid on
hard rock, no undesirable stresses due to settlement were expected. However, surface reinforcement
in both directions was provided. For taking care of the uplift pressure below the panel concrete,
nominal anchors consisting of 25mm dia. tor steel bar grouted anchors were provided. A 300mm
thick RCC side lining of height 4.00m, on both sides of tail channel up to the end of key was
provided. The height of side lining was calculated considering maximum water level and necessary
free board requirements as per IS 5186:1969. Construction of spray wall was avoided near the end
piers in view of side lining provided as per CDO Code of practice. The grouted rock anchors were
provided to support the side lining and weep holes to relieve back water pressure behind side lining.

AGING OF SPILLWAY AND TAIL CHANNEL

The modified spillway and tail channel performed well over a decade. The aging of spillway and tail
channel was underway. During the pre-monsoon inspection in 2007, DSO observed that the overall
condition of dam was good, but deterioration of spillway and tail channel was noted with following
observation.

1) Erosion of concrete on immediate downstream of spillway bars near two gates

2) Erosion of edges of concrete apron, provided to match the natural profile of rocks, and
exposure of reinforcement at edges (Fig. 1)
3) Some fractures and scouring of exposed hard rock bed in tail channel.
4) Undermining at the base of sloping apron
5) Pools and gully formation in the bed rock
To ensure the extent of retrogression of bed rock and banks of tail channel, detailed inspection was
carried out. At many places deep weathering and percolation of water through fractures had resulted
in formation of clayey seams of varying depths. Near the first cascade rock masses were dislodged
(Fig. 2) and further vertical fractures that would result in disintegration of loosen masses were
observed.
 Figure 1: Erosion at the edge of apron Figure 2: Dislodged Rock mass at
the first cascade

A very short period was available to provide solution and act on the situation. The process of
disintegration was continued and during inspection in 2008, DSO brought to notice occurrence of
large number of tectonic fractures along the length and across the width of tail channel. (Fig. 3) A
fracture line up to 150 m long in the direction of flow was observed. The rock masses looked
disintegrated in the pattern of spheroidal weathering. (Fig. 4) The headword erosion of rock masses
was observed from the edges of the cascades towards spillway structure, which would have
endangered the safety of foundation of spillway and consequently of dam. At some locations, where
sever fractures were observed and rocks were dislodged in earlier monsoon, the rock masses were

further broken and flown away due heavy impact of spilled water.

Figure 3: Longitudinal and across separation planes Figure 4: Spheroidal Weathering of

Rock mass

Further DSO had advised to conduct geological mapping of entire tail channel, assessment of depths
of fractures in rock masses and geological investigations.
 Figure 5: Deep and wide fractures in rock Figure 6: Rock mass broken and
displaced

INVESTIGATIONS

In line with suggestions from DSO and to work on preventive measures, it was necessary to conduct
topographical survey, geological mapping and detailed geotechnical investigations. Surface
Geological studies/mapping helped to ascertain the types of rocks occurring at the site, their
geological structures, engineering characteristics, state of preservation, physical properties, etc.

In brief, the findings of investigations were as below.

1) In the tail channel area, in the vertical cut, compact porphyritic basalt is exposed.
2) In the tail channel bed, small irregular flows of amygdaloidal basalt with white and green
infillings are exposed. Some of them are hydro thermally altered and weathered.
3) Deep gullies are observed due to erosion of these rocks.
4) At some places deep and wide fracture zones were observed.
The summary of recommendations was as follows.

1) Safe bearing capacity of rock 100 t/m2.

2) Proposed rock cutting for obtaining the desired foundation levels ranges from 1.50m to
4.70m below existing ground level.
3) Results of in-situ permeability test shows that the Lugeon value ranges from 20 to 180.
4) It is recommended to carry out the grouting as per CDO norms.
REMEDIAL MEASURES

The data collected through various surveys, investigations and records of flow through spillway was
assimilated. The aim of assignment was to offer a sustainable solution to avoid erosion of tail
channel by providing necessary Energy Dissipation Arrangement (EDA) with minimum disturbance
to natural cascading profile. Two factors were required attention. First, check the sufficiency of the
existing spillway considering stilling basin required to be provided near foot of existing spillway as
a part of proposed cascading. And second, the selection of type of energy dissipator that will
function in complement with developed or modified conditions of existing spillway. Considering the
flow pattern and profile of the existing spillway, various alternatives for EDA were worked out.
Selection of Type of Energy Dissipator Arrangement
Following types of energy dissipators were studied.

1. Bucket Type Energy Dissipaters:

The bucket type energy dissipators are designed as per IS: 7365: 1985- Criteria for
Hydraulic Design of Bucket Type Energy Dissipaters. Two sub-types of bucket energy
dissipators were considered for evaluation.

A) Trajectory Bucket Type Energy Dissipator (Fig. 7) and

B) Roller Bucket Type Energy Dissipator (Fig. 8)

Figure 7: Trajectory Bucket Type Energy Dissipator

Figure 8: Roller Bucket Type Energy Dissipator

a. The basic criteria for selection of this kind of EDA is that the channel bed should consist
of sound, hard strata and should be free from laminations, joints and weak pockets to
withstand the impact of Jet.

b. The amount of energy dissipation cannot be estimated due to this arrangement by

analytical methods. The point of erosion at the foot of basin is shifted to a distance away
from the basin floor immediate d/s of spillway.

c. With the existing conditions at the spillway d/s end, some dismantling at the foot of
existing ogee spillway could be possible to fit the ski jump bucket radius arrangement.

2. Straight Drop (Free Overfall) Spillway:

The use of this structure for hydraulic drops from head pool to tailwater in excess of 20 feet
(6M) should not be considered. Also, as per the design standards, where the erosion cannot
be tolerated, an artificial pool can be created by constructing an auxiliary dam downstream
from the main structure.
 3. Hydraulic Jump Type Stilling Basin
Without making any changes to existing spillway, providing stilling basins of varying
lengths was easier. As the tail channel was passing through natural falls and retention of its
natural profile to the best possible extent was found feasible by providing stilling basin as
per IS 4997 :1968 cl:5, 5.2 type III stilling basin.

In conclusion, the first option was ruled out due to requirement a higher bucket depth near foot of
existing spillway, which could have endangered the foundation of spillway and dam. The second
option was tried for subsequent spillways, after providing stilling basin near existing spillway.
However, it was ruled out because this alternative involved very high costs and major changes in tail
channel geometry. Considering existing bed rock condition in tail channel and the limitations of
these two options, EDA with hydraulic jump type stilling basin was recommended with necessary
protection measures to ensure sustainability and environmental protection point of view.

Proposed Scheme
Three stilling basins were formed with cascading profiles to dissipate energy to the acceptable level
followed by horizontal aprons with end weirs.

Figure 9: L-Section of Spillway and Tail Channel with proposed scheme

Apart from the bed rock protection by providing the apron, following arrangements were considered
to give the complete solution to the problem.

Key Features of Remedial Measures:

Under drainage arrangements: In order to release uplift water pressure on stilling basin, vertical
drain holes of 75 mm dia are provided at regular intervals. These uplift holes were covered by
Half round Hume Pipes of 450mm dia (Longitudinally) & 300mm dia (Laterally) which provides
a passage for draining the water outside safely. 25-30% of the longitudinal Hume pipes extended
till the outer surface of Ogee weir and drains the water directly outside the weir. (Fig. 10)

Rock Anchoring: Anchor rods of 25mm dia are provided in Stilling Basin (SB) at spacing as per
the design. Anchor rods are drilled about 3m deep in the rock surface for SB-1 & 3.55m deep for
SB-2 & SB-3.
 Grouting: Since the entire EDA is laid on rocky strata, and the geological studies showing
Lugeon value of rock is bet 30 to 180. After constructing PCC which acts as a load on the rock,
grout holes were drilled and cement mortar 1:20, 1:10 and 1:5 were injected to consolidate the
rock strata. Each grout hole was monitored with the help of grouting card and ensured the
consolidation of rock before constructing the concrete raft of the basin.

Guniting: The exposed rock faces of the portion above guide walls have been gunited with mesh.

Colgrout masonry: Colgrout masonry is extensively used for the construction of weir except
glacis concrete and weir cap which is constructed in RCC with higher grade concrete.

Construction Sequencing and monitoring

One of critical aspects of the spillway construction is ogee profile. In case the geometry on site does
not match with the designed one, there is possibility of cavitation, difficulty in formation of jump for
certain range of flows or totally defeat the purpose of EDA. Ogee profile is fabricated and verified
thoroughly prior to the construction as shown in the photograph below. (Fig. 11) In order to fit the
EDA profile into the given geometry, existing cascades have been deepened/ modified for the
requirements of EDA. Suitable blasting techniques suggested by Central Water & Power Research
Station (CWPRS) was implemented to ensure safety while carrying out blasting activity. During the
whole exercise a care has been taken to have optimum excavation and backfilling quantities can be
generated and utilized for the construction. Sequence of construction activities have been so planned
to complete the work before monsoon to avoid erosions.

Following construction sequence has been followed.

 Excavation of all the basins to the required grade

 Drilling of holes for rock anchoring in the bed rock
 Insertion of anchor rods in the bed rock with necessary bed for raft at top
 Drilling of holes for inserting pipe for uplift release holes
 Drilling of hole for carrying out grouting
 Grouting with necessary surcharge load
 Checking of effectiveness of grouting by necessary tests.
 Laying of underdrainage half round pipe network with necessary slopes
 Casting of concrete apron in alternate panels

Figure 10: Under drainage, Rock Anchors, Grouting work Figure 11: Ogee profile work in
progress
While carrying out the excavation activity of second basin, the grouting of first stilling basin has
been completed and it was ensured that the shocks have not been transferred to the first basin. The
same sequence has been followed for all the basins.

Weir construction activity has been carried out independently. (Fig 12 & 13). Guide walls have been
anchored into the side rocks after ensuring the pullout tests.

Figure 12: Construction of second weir Figure 13: Shuttering work for ogee
profile in progress

CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTATION OF SCHEME

The design of rock anchors for extension of existing apron near spillway structure was critical. The
permeability values of rock as per geotechnical report demanded longer depths than anticipated for
basalt rock and large quantity of anchor grout. During construction of anchors, it was noticed that
the quantity of grout required was much less than the quantity estimated based on geotechnical
investigation recommendations. Therefore, to ascertain the quality of rock encountered and its
capacity to absorb the grout to close surrounding fissures of grout holes, separate geotechnical
investigation agency was appointed. New borehole locations were finalized such that these will not
affect the designed pattern. The Lugeon values arrived were 1 to 5. Therefore, embedment length of
anchors required for anticipated uplift was redesigned and provided. To ensure sufficiency of depth
pull-out test was carried out, which gave satisfactory results. The revised drawings with revised
anchors were issued on priority.

As per design, the loose rock mass or the solid rock mass was required to be removed or trimmed to
achieve desired foundation level or profile of the cascades. (Fig. 12) During construction it was
revealed that the blasting near foothill of dam could pass heavy vibrations to spillway and dam
foundation endangering the safety of dam. The issue was addressed by appointing a specialist
agency to test and decide on the bore depth, blasting charge and blasting pattern. The new blasting
pattern required more time and efforts for contractor, which was suitably compensated without
compromising on schedule.

It was felt very necessary to understand the effectiveness of under drainage arrangement which is
generally could not be seen from the surface. However, it was witnessed a good amount of flow
from the base of basin coming out from the outflow pipe emerging from the weir surface.

It was challenging to control the spilling of water over partially completed work. Timely completion
was achieved by closely monitoring the progress of work.
FURTHER SCOPE FOR DEVELOPMENT

The assignment was really crucial in terms of working out a sustainable scheme and execute same
before start of next monsoon. Therefore, much attention could not be paid for using new digital
systems for monitoring the health and safety of dam. Various types of sensors could have been used
for data logging of seepages at the interface of rock and colgrout, colgrout and glacis concrete,
malfunctioning of under drains or calibrating tension in grouted anchors, etc.

CONCLUSION

Though the design, construction and operation of dams are done as per the safety norms, it is
obligatory to undertake periodical inspections followed by routine maintenance or immediate
adoption of special remedial measures to ensure safety of dams.

For the dam under study, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon inspections were carried out regularly and
necessary actions were taken immediately. The dam is almost a century old, that means it is serving
even before independence of India. The strengthening of dam to sustain seismic loads as per new
codes and standards, increase in height of dam to enhancement the capacity of dam, closing of old
spillway and construction of new spillway and now modification and repairs to spillway and tail
channel are the examples of upkeeping of dam and appurtenant works for ensuring safety by owner
of dam. It can be reckoned that the life of the structure is enhanced by not less a century.

The innovative solution of providing a series of basins for EDA turned out in total energy loss of
58% of the total energy at the base, where the basin meets tail channel. The velocity of flow at the
foot of existing spillway was 16.0 m/s which was reduced to 3.0 m/s near end of EDA. The further
erosions of the tails channel have been drastically reduced as the width of tail channel is increased
from 100m to 200m and further up to 300 m and the energy has been killed in the proposed basins.
With proper investigations, designs with the consideration of construction forces and safety aspects
and timely completion of work; the proposal yielded success of scheme with proper dissipation of
energy and achieved protection of tail channel from further erosion.

The scheme for improvisation of tail channel followed the natural cascading pattern emerging in a
sustainable solution that ensured fulfillment of principles of stability, durability, serviceability and
constructability.

Biographical details of the authors:

VINAY KULKARNI graduated in Civil Engineering from Govt Engineering college, (Shivaji
university) in year 1999. He obtained MTech in Hydraulics and Water resources engineering from
REC Surathkal in year 2002. From year 2002 to 2004 he worked in a builder‘s firm as a planning
manager. From year 2004 to 2005, he worked in a proprietary firm and worked on irrigation and
water resources projects. In year 2005 he joined Tata Consulting Engineers and worked on
Hydraulics and water resource related projects. Presently, working as AGM civil and handling smart
city projects and city storm water drainage projects.

MADHAV KHADILKAR graduated in Civil Engineering from Shivaji University in 1987 and
post-graduation in Civil-Structural Engineering from Walchand College of Engineering Sangli,
Maharashtra in 1990. He has more than 30 years of diverse academic and professional experience in
civil and structural engineering. In his professional career he has worked almost in all facets of Civil
Engineering. His major contributions to services to public started from 1994 when he joined
Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC). He was largely responsible for design of
infrastructure works. He moved on to TATA Consulting Engineers in 2007, where he worked as
Deputy General Manager. Now he is working with Stantec as Regional Discipline Lead (Structural).
His services to communities started from a city in Maharashtra to all continents presently.
Protection work on Left Bank and upstream side of Gandak Barrage
at Valmikinagar, Bihar.
By
H.V. Patel. M.D
Multi Mantech International Pvt Ltd
Mobile: 9427417414 E-mail: hvpatel@mmipl.in

Abstract
Gandak Barrage is situated on river Gandak at Valmikinagar in the district of West
Champaran of North Bihar. It has been constructed in 1968. The project is located on
boarder of India & Nepal. The project has been irrigation command of 15.47 HA. The left
bank U/S of barrage was required to be stabilized to control the slope erosion and stabilize
the bank slope and finally to protect the infrastructure existing at the top of high left bank.
Also suitable facility to enable inspection bank is require to be created. The project involves
for protection work of 1080 m length in upstream of Gandak Barrage on left bank in front of
I.B. and Dormitory at Valmikinagar. As part of remedial measure Reinforced soil system
(Gabion Facia) along with Gabion mattress which acts as launching apron to prevent
scouring at toe of proposed structure along the banks of the reservoir. To prevent the bank
(at Upper slope) from getting eroded further, a composite structure with Reinforced soil
retaining wall and 3D Reinforced Erosion control mat/Coir mat is propose.The entire
project is based on to control the slope erosion and stabilize the bank slope and finally to
protect the infrastructure existing at the top of bank as well as it will also help in trouble
free functionality and life of the barrage and its irrigation to 15.47 HA of command.

___________________________________________________________
_
1. Introduction/Background of Project
Bihar state is located in the eastern part of the country. Bihar is India‘s most flood-prone
State, about 76 percent of the state population, covered under the north Bihar region is
living under the recurring threat of flood devastation. About 68800 sq Km. out of total
geographical area of 94160 sq Km. comprising 73.06 percent is flood affected. The
plains of Bihar, adjoining Nepal, are drained by a number of rivers that have their
catchments in the steep and geologically nascent Himalayas. Kosi, Gandak, some
tributaries of Burhi Gandak, Bagmati, Kamla Balan, Mahananda and Adhwara Group of
rivers originates in Nepal. Nepal being a hilly terrain, all these rivers carries high
discharge with very high sediment load and drops it down in the plains of Bihar. About
65% of catchments area of these rivers falls in Nepal/Tibet and only 35% of catchments
area lies in Bihar. The Gandak River flows across the Gangetic plain of Bihar state in
the western region near U.P border and eventually merges with the Ganga near at
Hajipur Patna. The entry point of the river at the Indo-Nepal border is at the
convergence of Gandak, known as Triveni. Here, the rivers meet with Pachnad and
 Sonha also flowing into India from Nepal. Pandai River flows into the Indian state of
Bihar from Nepal in the eastern end of the Valmiki Sanctuary and finally meets
Sikrahana/Burhi Gankdak. The drainage area of Gandak River in India is 7620 sq. km.
After the river enters India at Triveni, it flows for an extended length of 300 km and
then joins the Ganga. Before merging with the river Ganga near Patna, it flows through
the districts of Champaran, Sarang and Muzaffarpur. The total length of the Gandak
River is 630 km out of which 330 km flows in Nepal and Tibet.

2. PROJECT NEED
Gandak Barrage is situated on river Gandak at Valmikinagar in the district of West
Champaran of North Bihar. It has been constructed in between 1964 – 1968. The half
eastern part of the Gandak Barrage is situated in Bihar whereas the rest half western part
is in Nepal. In the upstream of Barrage in front of I.B & Dormitory, there is high patch
of land approximately in 1080 mt. length having an average height of 30 m above
L.W.L of Gandak Barrage on left bank of river Gandak. The objective is to protect the
river bank from getting eroded and damaged by providing a suitable engineered
Solution. The objective of work is to control the slope erosion and stabilize the bank
slope and finally to protect the infrastructure existing at the top of high patch of land.
Also suitable facility to enable inspection along with beautification in area along the
bank is require to be created.

3. SCOPE OF WORK
The assignment was Preparation of Detailed Project Report for protection work of 1080
m length in upstream of Gandak Barrage on left bank in front of I.B. and Dormitory at
Valmikinagar. In which Geological study of existing strata of land at site, advice
regarding effective remedial measure which is technically & economically feasible to
solve the problem, Detailed design of proposed remedial measure with drawings,
Provision will be such that the protection work must be done without losing further land.

1. SALIENT FEATURES OF GANDAK PROJECT

A GENERAL
1 Name of Barrage : Gandak Barrage
2 Location
(i) Latitude & Longitude : Lat 27⁰26'N", Long - 83 ⁰56' E
(ii) River : Gandak
(iii) Sub Basin : Gandak
(iv) Basin : Ganga
(v) Village : Valmikinagar
(vi) District : West Champaran
(vii
State Bihar
) :
3 Type of Barrage : Gated
4 Year of Completion : 1967 - 68
Nearest D/s town, city, village/
5 Bagaha (sub Divisional Town) - 42 km
important :
: Chhitauni Rly Bridge - 35 km
: National Highway - 35 km
6 Importance Elevations
 (i) Deepest foundation of d/s cutoff : 99.00 m ( in under sluice)
(ii) Average river bed : 102.74 m
(iii) Max m Flood Level (Observed) : 111.90 m (367 ft)
(iv) Design H.F.L : 113.08 m (370.90 ft)
(v) Maxm Pond Level : 110.37 m (362 ft)
(vi) Top of Bridge over Barrage : 115.24 m (378 ft)
15 MW hydel power on WMC (Surajpura Hydel
7 Power
: PS
15 MW hydel power on TMC (Valmikinagar
: Hydel PS)
B HYDROLOGY
1 Catchment Area of river up to Barrage : 38,850 sq.km (15,000 sq.miles)
2 Design flood adopted : 24,100 Cumecs (8.50 lakh cusecs)
3 Design Barrage discharge : 24,100 Cumecs (8.50 lakh cusecs)
4 Design flood Frequency : 1 in 220 years
5 Length of Barrage : 739.00 m
6 Spillway
(a) Elevation of Crest : 105.79 m (347 ft)
(b) Type : Broad Crested Weir
(c ) Crest length : 367.38 m (1205 ft)
(d) Crest width : 1.52 m
(e) No of span of Bays : 46 nos. x 18.30 m (60 ft)
(f) No of size of gate : 18 nos., 18.30 m x 4.88 m(60 ft x 16 ft)
(g) type of gate : Vertical lift gate
Under sluice
7 Under sluices and River Sluice River Sluice
Left Right
(a) Crest level : 104.27 m 104.27 m 104.27 m
(b) Type : Broad crested Broad crested Broad crested
(c) No of bays : 6 6 6
(d) Span of bays : 18.3 m 18.3 m 18.3 m
(e) Crest length : 122 m (400 ft) 120 m (395 ft) 120 m(395 ft)
(f) Crest width : 13.72 m 13.72 m 1.52 m
(g) No of gates : 6 6 6
(h) Size of gates : 18.3m x 6.4 m 18.3 m x 6.4 m 18.3m x 6.4m
(i) No of silt Excluder vent : 12 12 12
(j) Size of silt Excluder vent : 2.21m x 1.75m 2.21m x 1.75m -
8 Head Regulator Left H/R Right H/R
(a) Type : Rect. RCC Rect. RCC
(b) Orientation (to Barrage Axis) : 90⁰ 90⁰
(c) Capacity : 533 cumecs 533 cumecs
(d) Sill level : 106.40 m 106.40 m
8 nos x 7.62 m 8 nos x 7.62 m
(e) No & size of gates
: x 3.91 m x 3.91 m
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
Removal of bank material by action of flowing water is termed as Bank erosion,
while collapsing of the huge section of the bank causes mass failure under
gravitational activity.
The causes of erosion can be one or more of the following:-
a) Direct impact of flow to the surface of existing embankment.
b) Sloughing of saturated bank caused by rapid drawdown.
c) Liquefaction of saturated silty and sandy bank material.
d) Erosion due to seepage from the banks during low discharge in the river.
e) Scouring along waterline due to wind or movement of water caused by passing of
huge high velocity flow.

At the site near Gandak Barrage, the river flow has eroded the bank to a nearly
vertical profile resulting in continuous loss of land. Erosion of the bank is caused
due to the floods. This in turn has endangered the stability of the bank of the river.
There is a need for an engineered solution which will prevent further erosion and
retain the existing embankment. The construction of solution structures is usually
coupled with carrying out geotechnical works, in order to guarantee their protection
against the erosion.

Erosion at
River banks

Erosion at
River banks

3. DATA COLLECTION
The following information are useful for flood protection works.

 Study of available maps of administrative boundary, railway, road, water

resources projects in the basin,
 Regional and site geology of basin
 Availability of construction material
  Topographical survey
 Detailed river morphology and ecological studies
 Climate, temperature, humidity, industries,
 Past floods and damages in basin
 Assessment of water requirement
 Behavior of river and sediment load of river
According to that certain hydrological and historical data and maps Regime plan,
Cross section of Gandak Barrage has been prepared.

4. SURVEY & INVESTIAGTION

Survey work of Protection in upstream of Gandak Barrage on left bank carried out
Based on the desktop study and hydro-logical information survey work of transfer of
TBM using DGPS were carried out including LAT, LON with RL with respect to
GTS. The satellite imagery is used to identify alignment of river and its tributaries.
Visual study of terrain, land use and soil condition along alignment of river & its
tributaries. L-section based on the ground control points and elevation captured
using DGPS & total station instrument are plotted at interval of 30 m and referred
for technical comparison based on technical parameters. Apart from this, geological
study of existing strata of land, seismic investigation& foundation investigation has
been carried out.

5. TYPES OF STRUCTURES USED IN THE RIVER BANK IMPROVEMENT

Few basic types of structures are designed to stabilize a bank such as different filter
structures and wall structures. The success of each type depends upon adequate
design and construction and selection of suitable types as per site requirements.
(A) Stone Revetment As Filter Type Structure
(B) Gabions As Wall Structures
(C) Concrete Blocks Revetment
(D) Stone Gabion Mattress
(E) Sack Revetment
(F) Retaining Wall
(G) Concrete Counter fort Wall Systems
(H) Vegetations
(I) Geo Tube
 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION – REINFORCED SOIL WALL

6. DETAILED DESIGN
SOIL REINFORCED SYSTEM (GABION FACIA)
• Reinforced soil system (Gabion Facia) along with Gabion mattress which acts as
launching apron to prevent scouring at toe of proposed structure at river front. To
prevent the bank (at Upper slope) from getting eroded further, a composite structure
with Reinforced soil retaining wall and 3D Reinforced Erosion control mat/Coir mat
is proposed. Inspection Ladder from Inspection Bunglow to Gabion Facia wall.
Longitudinal drain on the d/s of top road i.e., towards river side & catch drain at the
junction of drain has been proposed and dispose off directly in to river by provision
of slope drain and pipe drain through retaining wall.
• Main components of the system:
I. Gabion facia with integrated tail
II. Geogrid
III. Gabion/Gabion Mattress Units
IV. Geotextile

Salient Features of Reinforced Soil System (Gabion Facia)

General Parameters

1 Length to be protected 1080 m

2 Design High Flood Level (HFL) 113.08 m

 3 Average River Bed 102.74 m

4 L.W.L at river 104.0 m

5 Design Discharge 24100 m3/s

6 Top of Bank Level 115.0 m

7 Height of Gabion Facia Wall 5.0 - 11.0 m

Structural Parameters

8 Live traffic load 22 kPa

Zone V. (αh = 0.18 and αv =

9 The seismic zone considered
0.12)

Static + Full Water

10 The design has been carried out for cases Seismic + Low Water Level

Static + Drawdown

Geotechnical Parameters

11 Cohesion c for Foundation Soil 50 kN/m2

12 Angle of Internal Friction for Foundation Soil 320

13 Bulk Density for Foundation Soil 24 kN/m2

14 Cohesion c for Filled material 0kN/m2

15 Angle of Internal Friction for Filled material 300

16 Bulk Density for Filled material 18kN/m2

10 B.C.RATIO
The entire project was based on to control the slope erosion and stabilize the bank slope and
finally to protect the infrastructure existing at the top of bank as well as it will help in the
functionality and life of the barrage. The B.C. Ratio works out as 1.91
Photos of completion work of protection work of Gandak barrage
11. Conclusion: Costing analysis

Sr. No Particulars Amount in Lacs

Core activities

1 Reinforced Soil System (Gabion Facia Wall) 2316.54

2 Inspection Ladder (Inspection bunglow to Gabion Facia wall) 2.82

3 Drain along to Existing Road 22.79

Total 2342.15

Non-Core activities

4 Slope Protection at Upper Side 190.60

5 Development of landscaping work 10.25

Total 200.85

Grand Total 2543

The siltation on the U/S of barrage will be minimized and possibility of siltation of Canal
head will be contracted and required flow will be diverted into the left bank Head regulator,
which can fulfill the requirement of 15.47 HA command area.
 Technical Session II
Integrated Management of Water Resources
Session Chair: Er. M.P.Raval, Chief Engineer (S) & Add. Sec., WRD
Gandhinagar
 CENTRALISED RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM FOR
TOWNSHIPS
Alex Thomas
MIE
Consultant Civil
Engineer

ABSTRACT:

Rainwater harvesting, in its broadest sense, is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater for human
use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments using simple techniques such as pots and barrels. Though
building permitting agencies require this system in place, it is still not effectively implemented. Rainwater
harvesting has been practiced for thousands of years. It is an important water source and appropriate rainwater
harvesting technology should be used for the utilization of rain water as a water source.

INTRODUCTION

Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually acceptable for many purposes with little or no treatment. The
properties of rainwater are usually better than groundwater (which may be contaminated).

Rain water collecting system consists of different phases. The collecting phase, conveying phase, storage phase, and
distributing phase.

Water safety, like food safety is a major national/international priority in today‘s world. Rainwater collected from roof
tops, parking lots, play grounds etc. has very few negative impacts compared to other technologies for water resource
development.

Advantages of rainwater harvesting include but not limited to: Supplement to other water resources ; used as a buffer
during emergency or breakdown of other sources; reduces storm drainage load and flood in in cities; Reduces water bill;
Reduces soil erosion; reduces demand /consumption of ground water;

Disadvantages include but not limited to: unpredictability of rain; initial cost; Regular maintenance; storage limits.

Rainwater harvesting is a system fast developing and is most beneficial to areas that receives very high rainfall.

Concrete and Asphalt are covering our cities and this causes large reduction in rainwater permeating which in turn
increase and speeds up the surface flow causing drains and sewage blocks, overflowing of rivers and streams that
repeatedly causes flood.

Towns and cities instead of continually discussing this, should try to educate the public about the need and urgency to use
these technique/process. Which is: in short, Rainwater is collected when it rains, stored and utilized later.

Rainwater utilization, water conservation and wastewater reclamation, should be done in the governmental level by
municipal ordinances and regulations. Standardization of materials, design of the rainwater utilization system, etc. will
ease the implementation process.

Various implementation policies should be established. Leadership is very important and local governments must take the
initiative to promote the concept of water resource independence and restoration of the natural hydrological cycle.
Consideration should be given to subsidizing facilities for rainwater utilization.

Training to support rainwater utilization is very important. It is also important to promote the development of efficient and
affordable devices (some of which can be given FREE} to conserve water.

Through existing network of covered storm water damage, rain water can be collecting to a large reservoir about 5 hectare
and 3 m depth below ground level suitable for a township of medium population.
 An assessment of Water and Sanitation Condition in India
Ajit Pratap Singh
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Babu Banarasi Das Northern India Institute of Technology, Lucknow
ajit.jatropha@gmail.com

Access to water, sanitation and hygiene is a human right, yet billions are still faced with
daily challenges accessing even the most basic of services. Around 1.8 billion people
globally use a source of drinking water that is fecal contaminated. Some 2.4 billion
people lack access to basic sanitation services, such as toilets or latrines. Water scarcity
affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is projected to rise. More than
80 per cent of wastewater resulting from human activities is discharged into rivers or sea
without any treatment, leading to pollution. Water and sanitation related diseases remain
among the major causes of death in children under five; more than 800 children die every
day from diarrhea diseases linked to poor hygiene. Proper water and sanitation is a key
foundation for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, including good health and
gender equality. By managing our water sustainably, we are also able to better manage
our production of food and energy and contribute economic growth. Moreover, we can
preserve our water ecosystems, their biodiversity, and take action on climate change. The
World Bank estimates that 6.4 per cent of India’s GDP is lost due to adverse economic
impacts and costs of inadequate sanitation. Without better infrastructure and
management, millions of people will continue to die every year and there will be further
losses in biodiversity and ecosystem resilience, undermining prosperity and efforts
towards a more sustainable future. This Paper tries to assess the current situation of
water and sanitation condition in India and measures take to improve the same.

Keywords: Drinking water, sanitation, sustainable future

 SIMULATION OF HYDROLOGICAL VARIABLES USING QGIS
AND DEVELOPING INTERREALATIONSHIP OF RAINFALL,
RUNOFF & SOIL EROSION FOR THE SUB BASIN OF SABARMATI
RIVER
NIRALI PADHIYAR & DR. TMV SURYANARAYANA

Assistant Professor; Dept. of Civil Engineering, IITE, Indus University, Ahmedabad.

Director, Water Resources Engg. And Mgmt. Institute, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of
Baroda.
nirali1708@gmail.com, drsurya-wremi@msubaroda.ac.in

ABSTRACT
Water is a precious natural resource. Its management determines its prospective capability to sustain growth
and development related aspirations of the society and its balance with the need to maintain the ecological
integrity of its hydrological crucible. Numerous integrated watershed models are available, but choice of
watershed development model depends upon the hydrologic components to be incorporated in the water
balance. In this study, SWAT, developed by USDA has been used to analyze and quantify the water balance.
In present study, location of Sabarmati river lying between 23 o1′12" and 23o36′00" of North Latitude and
72o32′24" and 72o58′12" of East Longitude in Gandhinagar District in Gujarat state is considered. The total
geographical area of the watershed was 889.90 km2. The analysis has been carried out by using QSWAT 1.4
for time of 30 years from 1983 to 2012. SWAT was used to generate valuable information for decision making
by providing maps with model output. SWAT requires various input data such as land cover/land use data, soil
cover/soil use data, weather data (daily precipitation, relative humidity, solar radiation, temperature variation,
wind speed). The general water balance equation is a central part of SWAT. SCS curve number method is used
to calculate Surface runoff. USLE equation is used to calculate Soil Erosion. Analysis reveals that average
Annual rainfall was 748.30 mm of entire catchment, Surface runoff was 307.60 mm. Average annual Soil
Erosion was 2.19 tonne/ha/year.

Keywords: QGIS, QSWAT; Sabarmati river Sub basin, Water balance assessment, rainfall-runoff-Soil
Erosion modelling

I. INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the essential natural resource for mankind. The availability of pure water is very less in the
region because of the rainfall pattern is uneven distributed. The rainfall pattern is very unpredictable in semi-
arid region due to that, demands of water for drinking and irrigation becomes critical. For that planning and
managing of available resources are required. The area of land draining into a stream or a water course at a
given location is known as catchment area. It is also called as drainage area or drainage basin. In USA, it is
known as Watershed. Runoff means the draining or flowing off precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time. The precipitation
falling over the watershed will be collected and drained as runoff to a common point by the system of streams.
The amount of runoff generated is depending upon number of factors such as land use/land cover of the
watershed, soil cover of the watershed, elevation profile, evapotranspiration, etc. Hence the latest software will
do the job with less duration and more accuracy. SWAT is physical based which requires specific information
about meteorological parameters, soil type, topography, vegetation, and land use for a watershed. Physical
processes associated with water movement can be studied. It is a hybrid model spatially based on HRU
(hydrological response units) includes both, conceptual and physical approaches. A central part of SWAT is
the general water balance equation. Surface runoff is determined by the SCS Curve Number approach.
Potential evapotranspiration is determined by Penmen- Moneith method. The Simulated results are visualized
statically, graphically and numerically in QSWAT output.
 Soil erosion is a complex dynamic process by which productive surface soil is detached, transported
and accumulated at a distant place resulting in exposure of sub surface soil and siltation in Catchment and
natural streams elsewhere. It is a major problem throughout the world that threatens natural environment and
also the agriculture. Various human activities disturb the land surface of the earth, and thereby induce the
significant alteration of natural erosion rates. Soil erosion by running water has been recognized as the most
severe hazard threatening the protection of soil as it reduces soil productivity by removing the most fertile
topsoil. Impact of Soil Erosion includes a decrease of effective root depth, nutrient and water imbalance in the
root zone therefore subsequent decrease in soil quality, structure, stability and texture.
A hydrologic model is a simplification of a real-world system which deals with the surface water, soil
water, wetland and groundwater etc. The main aim of the modelling is to understanding, predicting, and
managing water resources. Flow of water and quality of water are commonly studied by using hydrologic
models. The main purpose of modelling is to decreases the unreliability in hydrological predictions.
Hydrological model plays a vital role in simulating the complex process of rainfall runoff & Soil Erosion etc.
Hydrologic models are prepared to simulate the response of catchment by solving the equations which deals
with the physical processes occurring within the watershed. Hydrologic models are normally used to simulate
the watershed behavior for a catchment. Hydrologic models take one time series data as input and generate
another time series as output for a given watershed.

III. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the study is to carry out SWAT analysis of Sabarmati river sub basin for 30 years (01-
01-1983 to 31-12-2012) of small watershed data to compute all the water balance components such as average
amount of Precipitation, Potential Evapotranspiration, Actual Evapotranspiration, Groundwater Contribution,
Surface runoff, Soil water content, Water yield for the day, month or year for each sub basin with help of
QSWAT. Soil Erosion is find out by using Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Developed and analyzed
Rainfall-Runoff model, Rainfall-Soil Erosion Model & Rainfall Runoff-Soil Erosion Multiple Linear
Regression model.
II. STUDY AREA
The Sabarmati River with its origin in Rajasthan flows generally in South – West direction. It enters the
Gujarat State and passes through the plains and continues to flow in the same direction and joins the Gulf of
Khambhat in the Arabian Sea. Sabarmati watershed is located between 23 o1′12" and 23o36′00" of North
Latitude and 72o32′24" and 72o58′12" of East Longitude in Gandhinagar District in Gujarat state. In this study
there is one rain gauge station available situated at Gandhinagar. Location of rain gauge station is 23 o13′00―of
North latitude and 72o42′00" of East Longitude. The total geographical area of the watershed is 889.90 km2.
Gandhinagar lies on the west bank of the Sabarmati River, about 545 km (338 miles) north and 901 km (560
miles) south. Gandhinagar has an average elevation of 81 meters (266 feet). The annual rainfall varies from
750 to 850 mm. The average annual rainfall is around 803.4 mm.

Fig.1: Location of Sabarmati River Basin Fig.2: Location of study area

IV. METHODOLOGY

SWAT requires various input data for simulation of watershed. The data required are Digital Elevation Model
(DEM), Land use/Land cover, soil cover, precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, solar
radiation. All these data were first collected and processed to convert into the SWAT input format. Then the
software is run by giving these data as inputs. The various steps involved in the software are watershed
delineation, HRU (Hydrological response Unit) analysis, and Write input tables, edit input data and SWAT
simulation. Once it is over software will begin the execution and will print the output file. This output file will
be used to plot the graphs and maps. The first step in using the SWAT model is to delineate the watershed and
then divide it into multiple HRUs and sub-basins.

Fig.3: Flow Chart for Methodology of QSWAT Analysis

The primary inputs for the analysis are the Digital Elevation Model (DEM), land use map and soil map for the
region. The slope map is prepared from the DEM. Each map of the slope, the land use and the soil was first
categorized into different groups. Then the delineated watershed is divided into (homogeneous areas) by
overlaying of slope, land use and soil layers of unique combinations. These HRU are identified such that the
characteristics of these layers fall into the same combination of categories. A threshold level was used to
eliminate HRUs with small areas. Normally, a stream network was burnt to force the generated streams to
follow existing stream reaches. Burning in a stream network improves hydrological segmentation and sub
watershed delineation. The model was set up as described earlier and the drainage areas both the watersheds
were delineated. This resulted in the subdivision of the watersheds into 5 sub-basins in Sabarmati Watershed.
The simulation period can be set according to the requirement; hence, the period of simulation was
fixed as 1983-2007. Subsequently, the weather sources were defined. The curve number method for the
surface runoff, Penman Monteith method for potential evapotranspiration, skewed normal distribution for the
generation of monthly values and a variable storage method for channel routing were selected from the
available options. These were mutually processed in the GIS environment provided by the QSWAT.

Description of SWAT Model

The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a hydrological watershed scale model developed by
Agricultural Research Services of United States Department of Agriculture. It is a physically based and semi-
distributed model that operates

Fig.4: DEM of Study Area

 Fig.5: Land use Map of Fig.6: Soil Map of
Study Area Study Area

Continuously on a daily time step. SWAT allows simulating the major watershed processes as hydrology,
sedimentation, nutrients transfer, crop growth, environment and climate change. The aim is to depict the
physical functioning of these different components and their interactions as simply and realistically as possible
through conceptual equations and using available input data so that it can be useful in routine planning and
decision making of large catchments management. One of the main goals of SWAT model is to predict the
impact of land management practices on water quantity and quality over long periods of time for large
complex watersheds that have varying soils, land use and management practices.
The hydrologic cycle is simulated by SWAT model based on the following water balance equation:

SWt=SWo+( )……………………………………….… (1.1)

Where,
SWt = Final soil water content
SW0= Initial soil water content on day
Rday = Amount of precipitation on day
Qsurf = Amount of surface runoff on day
Ea = Amount of evapotranspiration on day
Wseep= Amount of water entering the vadose zone from soil profile on day
Qgw = Amount of return flow on day

Two methods for estimating surface runoff are provided in SWAT: The SCS curve number procedure (SCS,
1972) and the Green and Ampt infiltration method. In this study, the SCS method was used. The SCS curve
number method estimates surface runoff from daily rainfall using initial abstractions (surface storage,
interception, and infiltration prior to runoff) and a retention parameter which varies with respect to changes in
soil, land use, management, and slope and soil water content.
Following retention parameter S is calculated on the basis of daily CN value.

S=25.49[ ]………………………….… (1.2)

Value of the CN will lie between 100 ≥ CN ≥ 0. Zero potential retention condition is represented by 100 which
is impervious catchment whereas the 0 value of the CN depicts the infinitely abstracting catchment.

( )
Qsurf= ( ………………………….….. (1.3)
)
Where,
S is the retention parameter (mm). In this equation the initial abstraction in surface storage, interception and
infiltration prior to runoff which approximate value is as 0.2S.
Once the surface runoff is calculated with the curve number the amount of surface runoff released to the main
channel is calculated.

Soil Erosion Using USLE

The universal soil loss equation is the most widely used tool for estimation of soil loss from agricultural
watersheds for planning erosion control practices. The USLE is an erosion prediction model for estimating
long term averages of soil erosion from sheet and rill erosion modes from a specified land under specified
conditions.
The equation of soil erosion is written as below:
A=R*K*LS*C*P…………………….……….. (1.4)
Where,
A = The soil loss per unit area in unit time (Tonnes/ha/year)
R = Rainfall erosivity factor
K = Soil erodibility factor
L = Slope length factor
S = Slope-steepness factor
C = Cover management factor
P = Support practice factor
The numerous factors of the USLE equation are as below:

Fig.7: Soil Erosion Using LULC

Rainfall-Runoff-Soil Erosion Modelling

After obtained result from SWAT, Predicted Runoff calculated from non-linear equations. From Observed vs
Predicted Runoff Model have been developed. There are basically three models are prepared, PR 1 deals with
80-20%, PR 2 deals with 70-30% and PR 3 deals with 60-40%. In 80-20%, 80% data are used for training and
remaining 20% data are used for testing. In 70-30%, 70% data are used for training and remaining 30% data
are used for testing. In 60-40%, 60% data are used for training and remaining 40% data are used for testing.
After obtained result from QGIS, predicted soil erosion using non-linear equation. From Observed
soil erosion and predicted soil erosion model have been developed. There are basically three models PE1, PE2
and PE3 are prepared, PE1 deals with 80-20%, PE2 deals with 70-30% and PE3 deals with 60-40%. In 80-
20% model 80% of data are used for training and remaining 20% are used for testing. In 60-40% model 60%
of data are used for training and remaining 40% are used for testing. In 70-30% model 70% of data are used
for training and remaining 30% are used for testing.
After obtained result from SWAT and QGIS, predicted soil erosion calculated using multiple linear
regression equation. From Observed soil erosion and predicted soil erosion model have been developed. There
are basically three models PRE1, PRE2 and PRE3 are prepared, PRE1 deals with 80-20%, PRE2 deals with
70-30% and PRE3 deals with 60-40%. In 80-20% model 80% of data are used for training and remaining 20%
are used for testing. In 60-40% model 2330311322060% of data are used for training and remaining 40% are
used for testing. In 70-30% model 70% of data are used for training and remaining 30% are used for testing.

Model Validation
After Preparing Model, Validation of model is done with respect to RMSE (Root Mean Squared Error) and r
(coefficient of co-relation).
RMSE and r are determined for each model. Based on that value, validation of model is to be done.

Model Forecasted:
After finding RMSE and r, which model has least value of RMSE and highest value of r is selected for
forecasting.

Performance Indices
Correlation coefficient (r): correlation coefficient (r) is the degree of collinearity between simulated and
calculated data. The correlation coefficient, which ranges from −1 to 1, is an index of the degree of linear
relationship between observed and simulated data. If r = 0, no linear relationship exists. If r = 1 or −1, a perfect
positive or negative linear relationship exists. Although r has been widely used for model evaluation, this
statistic is oversensitive to high extreme value (outliers) and insensitive to additive and proportional
differences between model predictions and measured data (legates and McCabe, 1999).
R can be obtained using equation given below.

∑( ) (∑ )(∑ )
R=
√[ (∑ ) (∑ ) ][ (∑ ∑ ) ]

Where, N=number of observation

P=rainfall, R=runoff

RMSE: RMSE is valuable because it indicates error in the units (or squared units) of the constituent of
interest, which aids in analysis of the results. RMSE values of 0 indicate a perfect fit. Singh et al. (2004) state
that RMSE value less than half the standard deviation of the measured data may be considered low and that
either is appropriate for model evaluation. A standardized version of the RMSE was selected for
recommendation and is described later in this section. RMSE is commonly used in climatology, forecasting
and regression analysis to verify experimental results.
RMSE calculated using equation given below: RMSE=√(̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
Where,
P=Predicted values and O=Observed values.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig.8: SWAT output (Water Balance)

 Fig.9: Precipitation vs Hydrological Parameters for year 1983 to 2012 for Sub Basins

Table 1: Overall Summary of Hydrological parameters

Fig.10: Yearly Soil Erosion Analysis of all sub-basins

From the above Fig.10 analyzed that maximum Soil Erosion was in year 1994 and 2005 was 4.02tonne/ha/year
and 3.38 tonne/ha/year respectively. Minimum Soil Erosion was in year 1987 and 2002 was 0.89 tonne/ha/year
and 1.34 tonne/ha/year respectively. Average Soil Erosion was 2.19tonne/ha/year.

Rainfall-runoff model
After obtaining runoff, in SWAT model has been prepared and RMSE (root mean square error) and r
(Coefficient of co-relation) of each model has been determined and is given below in table 2.
In the present study, Rainfall-Runoff datasets were divided in the different ratio of training and testing data
like PR 1 (80-20%), PR 2 (70-30%) and PR 3 (60-40%). The 80% datasets were used for training the model
and remaining 20% dataset were taken for its validation purpose. The runoff model was developed for
Gandhinagar rain gauge station.

Table 2: PR RMSE results

The best model for the Gandhinagar Rain gauge station was selected and highlighted as per the result
according to elevation parameters like RMSE and r values which are shown in Table 2.

Rainfall – Soil Erosion model:

After calculating soil erosion, Rainfall-soil erosion model has been prepared and RMSE (root mean square
error) and r (Coefficient of co-relation) of each model has been determined and is given below in table 3. In
the present study, Rainfall-soil erosion datasets were divided in the different ratio of training and testing data
i.e PE 1 (80-20%), PE 2 (70-30%) and PE 3 (60-40%). The 80% datasets were used for training the model and
remaining 20% dataset were taken for its validation purpose. The soil erosion model was developed for
Gandhinagar rain gauge station.

Table 3: PE RMSE results

Rainfall-Runoff-Soil-Erosion Liner Multiple Regression Model

After obtaining runoff and soil erosion, Liner multiple regression models have been prepared and its equation
and RMSE (root mean square error) and r (Coefficient of co-relation) of each model has been determined and
is given below in Table 4.

Table 4: PRE RMSE results

Fig 11: Observed soil erosion vs Predicted soil erosion for Training

Fig 12: Observed soil erosion vs Predicted soil erosion for Testing
VI. CONCLUSION
The present study deals with the use of physically based model i.e. QSWAT and GIS techniques to estimate
the surface runoff and other hydrological parameters such as percolation, evapotranspiration, ground discharge
etc. from a Sabarmati Sub Basin of Gujarat state. Analysis reveals that maximum Precipitation was in year
1990,1994 & 2005 was 1131.50 mm, 1553.20 mm & 1270 mm respectively and minimum precipitation was
obtained in year 1987 was 178.20 mm and runoff was 7.93 mm. Average Annual rainfall was 748.30 mm of
entire catchment, Surface runoff was 307.60 mm, percolation of shallow aquifer was 88.22 mm,
evapotranspiration was 352.50 mm, Return flow was 30.74mm & Total Average Potential Evapotranspiration
was 2715.70 mm. Total Annual Soil Erosion of Sabarmati river basin was 2.19 ton/ha/year which is less. So,
problem of soil erosion in Sabarmati River is not so dangerous.
There are 3 Rainfall-Runoff Models which have been developed PR 1, PR 2 and PR 3. In PR 1 80-
20% data was taken, PR 2 70-30% was data taken and PR 3 60-40% data was taken, from which PR 1 model
is found to be best model which gives RMSE as 11.49 mm & r as 0.98.
There are 3 Rainfall-Soil erosion Model have been developed PE 1, PE 2 and PE 3. In PE 1 80-20%
data was taken, PE 2 70-30% data was taken and PE 3 60-40% data was taken, from which PE 1 Model is
found to be best Model which gives RMSE as 0.00 tonne/ha/year & r as 0.99.
There are 3 Rainfall-Runoff-Soil erosion Models have been developed PRE 1, PRE 2 and PRE 3. In
PRE 1 80-20% data taken, PRE 2 70-30% data was taken and PRE 3 60-40% data was taken, from which PRE
1 Model is found to be best Model which gives RMSE as 0.00 tonne/ha/year & r as 1.00.

References
1. Jaimin Patel, N.P.Singh, Indra Prakash, Khalid Mehmood "Surface Runoff Estimation Using SCS-CN
method-A Case study on Bhadar Watershed, Gujarat, India" International journal of Interdisciplinary Research
(IJIR), Vol-3, Issue-5, 2017. ISSN : 2454-1362

2. S.K.Diwakar, Dr.(Mrs.) Surinder kaur, Dr. Nilanchal Patel "Hydrologic Assessment in a middle Narmada
basin, India Using SWAT Model" International Journal of Engineering Technology and Computer Research
(IJETCR), Vol-2, Issue-6, ISSN : 2348-2117.

3. Ashish Bansode, K. A. Patil ''Estimation of Runoff by using SCS Curve Number Method and Arc GIS''
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 5, Issue 7, July-2014 1283 ISSN : 2229-
5518,p-5.

4. Ningaraju H.J., Ganesh S, Surendra H.J. (2016) "Estimation of Runoff Using SCS-CN and GIS method in
ungauged watershed: A case study of Kharadya mill watershed, India" International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS), Vol-3, Issue-5, ISSN: 2349-6495.

5. Pancholi V. and Prakash I. (2016) ―Open Source Hydrologic Modelling for Vishwamitri River Watershed,
Western India‖, Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research(IJIR), Vol-2, Issue-8, ISSN: 2454-1362.

6. H.J.Ningaraju, Ganesh Kumar S, Surendra H J "Estimation of Runoff Using SCS-CN and GIS method in
ungauged watershed: A case study of Kharadya mill watershed, India" International Journal of Advanced
Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS), Vol-3, Issue-5, May- 2016 ISSN: 2349-6495.

7. Bansode S. and Patil K. (2016) ―Water Balance Assessment Using Q-SWAT‖, International Journal of
Engineering Research, vol-5, Issue-6, pp:515-518.

8. Fadil A., Rhinane H., Kaoukaya A., Kharchaf Y., Bachir O. (2011) ―Hydrollogic Modelling of The
Bouregreg Watershed (Morocco) Using GIS and SWAT Model‖, Journal of Geographic Information System
(JGIS), Vol-3, pp:279-289.

9. Ajeeth C. and Thomas R. (2013) ―Water Balance Study on Karuvannur River Basin Using SWAT‖,
International conference on Materials for the Future – Innovative Materials, Processes, Products and
Applications – ICMF 2013.

10. Engineering Hydrology, K. Subramanya

Author Profile

Nirali Padhiyar is born in Baroda on 17th August, 1991 and received the B.E. Degree in
Civil Engineering from BVM Engineering College, Vallabh Vidyanagar in 2013 and
completed M.E. (Civil) Water Resources Engineering in 2018 from Water Resources
Engineering and Management Institute, Faculty of Technology and Engineering, The
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Gujarat, India. I have 4 years of academic
experience.

Dr. T.M.V. Suryanarayana is born in Visakhapatnam on 11th February, 1979 and

completed B.E.(Civil- IWM) in May 2001, M.E.(Civil) in Water Resources Engineering in
November 2002 and Ph.D. in Civil Engineering in May 2007 from The Maharaja Sayajirao
University of Baroda, Gujarat, India. He is serving as Associate Professor & recognized
Ph.D. Guide in Water Resources Engineering and Management Institute, Faculty of
Technology & Engineering, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. He has 14.50
years of teaching and Research Experience. His areas of research include Operations
Research, Hydrologic Modeling, Conjunctive Use, Hydraulics of Sediment Transport, Soil and Water
Conservation, Reservoir Operation, Soft Computing Techniques, Climate Change. He has obtained Three Best
Paper Awards at different National level conferences and Two Best Poster Awards at different National Level
Events. He has under his credit around 98 Research Papers published in various International / National
Journals / Seminars / Conferences / Symposiums.
 Analysis of Drought in Afghanistan at Provincial Scale

Shakti Suryavanshi*, Akash Agrawal, Fahim Sediqi, Frishtah Samimi, Mohammad Essa Zahed,

Hazrat Ali Noor and Shabir Ahmad Popal

Department of Civil Engineering, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture Technology and

Sciences, Prayagraj, U.P. 211007

*Correspondence: suryavanshi.shakti@gmail.com

Abstract

Drought is universally acknowledged as a phenomenon associated with scarcity of water. The

Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) expresses the actual rainfall as standardized departure from

rainfall probability distribution function. In this study severity and spatial pattern of drought was

analyzed in the Afghanistan at provincial scale using multi-temporal SPI. Monthly precipitation data

for 34 provinces of Afghanistan (1979-2012) were collected from National Environmental

Protection Agency (NEPA) and used in the analysis.

For Afghanistan standard precipitation index (SPI) values range from + 3.43 to – 4.59 indicating

variation in precipitation over the period of 1979-2012. Further, it was found that during 1979-2012

there is a considerable change in extremely dry and severely dry years. Ningarhar, Paktiya, Parwan,

samangan, Takhar and Orazgan provinces have faced extremely drought events during the study

time period. Kabul, Helmand, Logar, Wardak, Parwan, Bamyan, Sare pol, Badakshan, Takhar,

Baghlan, Nosistan and panjsher provinces are exhibiting a severly dry provinces during the study

time period. Based on the result of this study it was felt that some drought proofing measures must

be taken up for better management of natural resources.

Keywords: Drought, Standardized Precipitation Index, Afghanistan

 PAPER TOPIC:-“REJUVENATION OF TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF
WATER CONSERVATION- VAV-JAL MANDIR- IN THE STATE OF
GUJARAT.
PAPER BY:-ER.KIRIT B.TRIVEDI,

B.E. (M.),MBA(Mark), MIE, FIV. DEE (Mech.) Rtd. Government of Gujarat-Gandhingar

ABSTRACT

The development of Indian culture has always been along the river banks. Like the flow of
water, every life is considered incomplete without water. To maintain the life-cycle of development and to
enhance the development of the human race, the scholars have adopted the approach of building various water
accumulation schemes.

Step wells are called kalyani or Pushkarnai (kannad), Bawdi (Hindi), Barav (Marathi), Vav-
(Gujarati) are well or ponds in which water may be reached by descending a set a steps. They may be covered
and protected and are often of architectural significance. History revels back around 600 A.D. or so in Gujarat.

In contemporary times, there has been a great effort to reinstate the cultural status of the
forgotten ―Vavs‖ by the Gujarat Government from the year 2007-08. In a view of their structural uniqueness
as well as their role in water conservation, Gujarat government decided under the mission mode from 2007-08
to 2011-12 to revive clean-up and rejuvenation these step wells, which are named as ―Jal-Mandir‖-Water
Temple, as these are our national heritage and are a different kind of water harvesting structures.

About 669 step wells were identified in Gujarat, considering the importance of these
heritage structures. Gujarat Government renovated several step wells under Jal-Mandir‖ Yojna. The thrust of
the scheme is to see that all these are protected made useful to the community and maintain properly per the
research work, there are about 518 step wells in which water is available. As some vavs are historical they are
kept under the Archaeological Survey of India, these are about 73 Nos. Also it was noticed that about 133 vavs
are partially blocked and from as these for about 40 Nos. of vavs, the restoration work was carried out during
the year 2007-08 and sub-sequent years.
The concept is innovative especially from the point of view of
sustainability of village water supply system by inculcating the sense of responsibility among people and
motivating them towards maintaining the system by attaching social and religious facets to it which is vital for
water conservation. This is a remarkable project and Government of Gujarat has done a very good and
innovative work for the benefit of the people and may also attract tourists all over the India and abroad.
Just like various historical sites are being revived
throughout the world using latest technologies, in the same way the glorious restoration work of Gujarat is also
a real reflection of our engineering skills. I hope that all of us can be a part of this noble service of reviving our
heritage with the help of new technology.
This paper aims to make suggestions about the usefulness of such
restoration works which can give a direction to solve the of rain water harvesting, even in other state and
regions having similar structures of step well and regain the value of historical monuments also in other way.
I hope that my paper will enlighten the details regarding
step taken by the Government of Gujarat for this socially and economically great work and give new
dimensions in the field of Civil Engineering to uncover the historical marvels of Indian sculpture and also
traditional system of water conservation of India.
1. INTRODUCTION:-

The development of Indian culture has always been along the river banks. Like the flow of
water, every life is considered incomplete without water. To maintain the life-cycle of development and to
enhance the development of the human race, the scholars have adopted the approach of building various water
accumulation schemes.
Step wells are called kalyani or Pushkarnai (kannad), Bawdi (Hindi), Barav (Marathi), Vav-
(Gujarati) are well or ponds in which water may be reached by descending a set a steps. They may be covered
and protected and are often of architectural significance. Step wells were first used as an art form by Hindus
and then popularised under Muslim rule. History revels back around 600 A.D. or so in Gujarat.
The Vavs-step wells consists of two parts-a vertical shaft from which water is drawn and
the surrounding inclined underground passageways chambers and steps which provides access to the well.
The galleries and chambers surrounding these wells were often carved profusely with elaborate details and
became cool, quite refracts during the hot summer for local public as well as the travellers. An important fact
about Vavs is that, since the direct sunlight cannot penetrate too deep into them, the evaporation of water is
less and also as the water gets filtered from the earth, it remains pure and fresh. Another important fact about
Vavs is that as the minerals and other natural substances get mixed with the water, it is very helpful in
development of physical and spiritual health of the people who consume it and also improve the yield of crops
when used in agriculture. A number of surviving step wells can be found across India, including in north
Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi, Madhya Paradesh and Maharashtra. In 2016 a collaborative mapping
project, step well Atlas started to map GPS coordinates and collate information on step well. Over 2700 step
wells have been mapped so far. The most significant and marvel of construction one can found many step
wells all over India, and most of these are under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and most
favourable them are famous Tourist Spot. As per one report, Rajasthan State is having maximum step wells
and then comes Gujarat.

Step wells were considered as the easiest way for rain water harvesting in old civilization
and were helpful to the local population. The construction work was continued for a long time, up to about
1910, A.D. But one will be surprise to know that in recent time, in the year 2005, construction work of one
step well was started and completed in the year 2009. This is Birkha Baoli, at Jodhpur, Rajasthan and the main
purpose is to conserve water for use by the city, and it is built in the style of traditional Indian step wells. The
architect is Anu Mridul. This step well is built of red sandstone, and is capable of holding 17.5 million litres of
rain water. This is the reason for particular mention about this Baoli, so that as an engineers, technocrats and
planners we can see the value of our heritage construction aspects for the water harvesting methods and in
addition create one another place of attraction for tourists and thus boost this field also. The number one step
well ―Rani-ki-vav‖, is from Patan-Gujarat, and now given a status of World Heritage Site- in the year 2014 by
UNESCO.

Table No-1
The Details of some Important Step-wells of India
Sr.No Name of Step-Well& City State Construction era
1 The Rani ki-vav-Patan Gujarat About 1022 A.D.
2 Rudabai step-well-Adalaj Gujarat 1599 A.D.
3 Modhera Sun Temple-Modhera Gujarat 1027 A.D.
4 Dada Harir Step-well-Ahmedabad Gujarat 1485 A.D.
5 Agrasenkibaoli-Delhi Delhi 1132 A.D.
6 Rajon ki baoli-Delhi Delhi 1516 A.D.
7 Toor ji ki baori, Jodhpur Rajasthan 6 th Century
8 Raniji ki baoli-Bundi Rajasthan 1699 A.D.
9 Chand baoli-Abhaneri-Jaipur Rajashthan 800-900 A.D.
10 Hampi-Pushkarini-Hampi Karntaka 15-16, Century
11 Durga Temple-step well-Aihloe Karntaka 11 th Century
12 Ghaus Ali shah-Farrukhnagar Haryana 18th Century
 PHOTOGRAPHS OF SOME IMPORTANT STEP WELLS OF INDIA

Rani-ki-Vav- UNESCO World Heritage Agrasen-ki-baoli-

Patan, Gujarat New Delhi

Chand baoli Hampi-Pushkarini-

Abhaneri, Near Jaipur-Rajasthan Hampi-Karnataka

Birkha Baoli, 2009.

Birkha Baoli, 2009.
Jodhpur- Rajasthan
Jodhpur- Rajasthan

2. HISTORY OF STEP WELLS:-

The stepped well may have originated to ensure water during drought periods. The water is
considered sacred from the time of Vedas and the steps to reach the water level in artificially construed
reservoirs can be found in the sites of Indus Valley civilizations such as Dholavira and Mohenjo Daro.

The step wells were constructed in the south western region of Gujarat around 600 AD.
From there they spread north to Rajasthan and subsequently to north and west India. Construction activities
accelerated during the 10th to 13th century during the Chaulukya and Vaghela periods. The construction of
these step wells hit its peak during the 11th to 16th century. The Muslim rulers of the 13th to 16th century did
not disrupt the culture that was practiced in these step wells and encouraged the building of step wells. These
step wells were even proven to be withstanding earth quake of 7.6 magnitudes in Richer Scale.

The authorities during the British Raj found the hygiene of the step wells less than desirable
and installed pipe and pump systems to replace their purpose. Jethabhai‘s Step well in Isanpur, Ahmedabad
was completed in the 1860s for irrigation. The step well of Wankaner palace was built by erstwhile rulers in
the 1930s as a cool place of retreat for the royal family. It was built in white sandstone and is the last
monument of its kind. Due to water pumps and pipe-systems, the step wells lost their significance and due to
economic cost, they were not constructed thereafter.

3. DESIGN ASPECTS OF STEP WELL:-

Step wells, also called Kalyani or Pushkarni (Kannada), Bawdi (Hindi), Barav (Marathi),
Vav (Gujarati) are wells or ponds in which the water may be reached by descending a set of steps as
mentioned above, may be covered and protected and are often of architectural significance. They also may be
multi storied having bullock which turns the water wheels to raise the water in the well to the first or second
floor. Irrespective of when a vav is built, four structures are essential to its architecture. Todas are a pair of
ornate pillars at the entrance to mark its location. Kutas are landings between sets of steps in a step well to
provide a resting place. An ardhakuta is a supporting arch which has no landing or pavilion. Lastly, there is the
well shaft, which contains or used to contain water. ―Sometimes, there could be two well shafts. One would be
used to lower the ambient temperature while the second would be used to draw water,‖ since a step well taps
aquifers, it never went dry.
The most important purpose of Step well-Vav is to store water and distribute it
when needed. These step wells are generally dependent on the recharge from nearby surface water source-
ponds, streams, canals and in some cases nearby rivers. Even during dry period of the year most of these wells
have water in them, highlighting the ancient wisdom of craftsmen in those days.

Here are some lay out plan/design of very important vav-step-well, to understand the basics
of construction works, which will be useful to do the restoration works if needed.
4. STEP WELLS OF GUJARAT:-

In fact, the earliest step wells were built in Gujarat, which till today holds the title of ―land
of stepwells‖. According to German art historian Jutta-Jain Neubauer, who in 1981 wrote The stepwells of
Gujarat in art: A historical perspective and introduced the water monument to Western readers, ―The oldest
stepwells that are known are cut into a natural rock on a 1,000 m-high mountain range called Mount Girnar
(Uparkot caves) near Junagadh in Gujarat‖. The Uparkot step wells date back to the 4th century and were built
by Buddhist monks.

About 669 step wells were identified in Gujarat, considering the importance of these
heritage structures. As per the research work, there are about 518 step wells in which water is available. As
some vavs are historical they are kept under the Archaeological Survey of India, these are about 71 Nos. Also
it was noticed that about 133 vavs are partially blocked. Gujarat Government renovated several step wells
under Jal-Mandir‖ Yojna. In a state like Gujarat - which has scanty rainfalls, it is believed that Vav would
have been constructed to serve this purpose.

Table No-2 Details of Step wells of Gujarat

Under Water
Sr.No. District Total Number
ASI availablity
1 Ahmedabad 4 10 20
2 Amreli 0 9 12
3 Ananad 1 22 26
4 Bharuch 0 0 10
5 Bhavnagar 1 36 37
6 Banaskantha 0 15 17
7 Gandhinagar 2 2 4
8 Jamnagar 3 2 4
9 Junagadh 12 47 47
10 Kheda 6 16 23
11 Kuchchh 0 7 12
12 Mehsana 5 11 15
13 Narmada 0 17 19
14 Patan 1 1 6
15 Porbandar 0 20 25
16 Panchmahal 6 44 49
17 Rajkot 4 30 31
18 Surat 0 14 20
19 Sabarkantha 13 47 58
20 Surendranagar 10 66 91
21 Valsad 0 2 3
22 Vadodara 3 100 140
TOTAL 71 518 669

We can see from the above table that about 518 step wells are wealthy as per the status of water availability, in
which the some step wells under ASI is also included. About 133 step wells were found partially blocked, as
per the survey made before the restoration works actually proposed, This information is based on the details
published in the booklet for Jal-Mandir‖, by the Information Department, Government of Gujarat and
reproduced here for the benefit of readers.

5. RESTORATION OF STEP WELLS-“JAL-MANDIR” IN GUJARAT:-

In contemporary times, there has been a great effort to reinstate the cultural status of the
forgotten ―Vavs‖ by the Gujarat Government from the year 2007-08. If we just look from a technical point of
view, the makeovers with stone, cement or iron, we just give a new form of construction, but in reality, we
engineers are helping to revive a forgotten culture.

In a view of their structural uniqueness as well as their role in water conservation, Gujarat
government decided under the mission mode from 2007-08 to 2011-12 to revive clean-up and rejuvenation
these step wells, which are named as ―Jal-Mandir‖-Water Temple, as these are our national heritage and are a
different kind of water harvesting structures. The thrust of the scheme is to see that all these are protected
made useful to the community and maintain properly. Restoration works were carried out during the year
2007-08 and sub-sequent years for about 40 Nos. of vavs, and thus the rain water harvesting in all such step
wells started once again in better way and also became an attraction point for planners and technocrats to study
the rejenavation works.

Besides the restoration work by construction, in all of these step wells, the rejenavation work
were also carried out by making the site of step well approachable, by cleaning of jungle and making the
surrounding area in level. The fencing work around the step well was also carried out to protect them and
sitting arrangements for public was also made available near by the step well. Notice board were also put there
mentioning the details of the step well, mentioning historical back ground and as such making people aware
about the old heritage in about all the step wells of Gujarat.

In a revolutionary and technically visionary work undertaken by the Government of Gujarat,

we have participated in reviving the historical heritage with the highest standards of engineering skill. This is a
matter of pride for all of us. As my paper is related to restoration work of Vavs-Step wells-carried out by
Government of Gujarat only, I have not touched the restoration works of various step-wells which are under
the Archaeological Survey of India, Gujarat. But all the step wells are in very good condition and some of
them are very famous for their architectural value, tourists from all over India and abroad like to visit these
wonderful historical monuments.

Table-3
Vavs-Step wells Restored by the Government of Gujarat are as shown in this table

Sr. District Number

No of Vav
1 Amreli 3
2 Ahmedabad 3
3 Bhavnagar 3
4 Bharuch 2
5 Banaskantha 2
6 Kuchchh 2
7 Valsad 4
8 Mehsana 4
9 Porbander 6
10 Rajkot 4
11 Surendranagar 3
12 Surat 1
 13 Sabarkantha 3
Total 40 Nos.

Photographs of Restoration works of various step-wells-“Jal Mandir”

RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS

RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS

RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS RESTORATION WORK OF STEP WELLS

6. BENEFITS:-

The concept of Jal-Mandir may be very useful in those areas where Groundwater table is
high and no assured supply schemes are available viz. Tube well/Municipal supplies. Replication of this
concept in such areas appears advantageous. In the absence of electricity in those times, the step-wells were a
reliable source of ground water for the population, travellers, and princely army‘s on-the-move.
 The concept is innovative especially from the point of view of sustainability of village water
supply system by inculcating the sense of responsibility among people and motivating them towards
maintaining the system by attaching social and religious facets to it which is vital for water conservation. This
is a remarkable project and Government of Gujarat has done a very good and innovative work for the benefit
of the people and may also attract tourists all over the India and abroad.

7. CONCLUSION:-

Considering water conservation and sustainability of village water supply systems in many
parts of the country, the ―Jal-Mandir‖ concept can be replicated in rest of the country especially in water
scarce rural areas. In the absence of perennial recharge system, rainwater harvesting from village area can be
useful for recharge of village water supply arrangements such as Dug-wells, Tube-wells, etc. Just like various
historical sites are being revived throughout the world using latest technologies, in the same way the glorious
restoration work of Gujarat is also a real reflection of our engineering skills.

As we are aware that we are living in such an era, where most of the countries are struggling
for water and making various projects for rain water harvesting and trying to get some other solution to
overcome the scanty of water, in such situation a small step to understand and look behind our old and ruined
heritage constructions, built for water harvesting, and make them available for water harvesting once again,
with the help of planning of rejenavation them, which may be attribute to all who constructed them. This will
be an appropriate step for the benefit of local people residing in the vicinity.

This paper aims to make suggestions about the usefulness of such restoration works which
can give a direction for rain water harvesting, with the help of ancient technique of water storage, even in
other states and regions having similar structures of step wells and regain the value of historical monuments
also in other way.
If the states which are rich in step wells, can go through a detail survey of such forgotten
structures and take an initiative to restore them to put in their original architectural design and make them a
good source of rain water harvesting once again, I think this will be an extra ordinary tribute to those who took
care of the people during that era. The reliable and informative details for the benefit of the people should
made available through their official web site also.

So, I have tried to present my views on this topic with these learned readers, hoping that all of us can be a part
of this noble service of reviving our heritage with the help of new technology. I hope that my paper will
enlighten the details regarding step taken by the Government of Gujarat for this social and economic great
work and give new dimensions in the field of Civil Engineering to uncover the historical marvels of Indian
sculpture and also traditional system of water conservation of India. Jai-Hind.

References:-
(1) The website: www.gswan.gov.in
(2) “Gujarat na Jal-Mandiro”Book published by Gujarat Government on Jal-Mandir.
(3) Inputs from various Government offices.
(4) Jatin Chhabra- “a Step well traveller”-details from hisguide book..

Paper by:-Er. Kirit B. Trivedi, 62, B.E. (Mech.) from the L.D. College of Engineering of Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad, M.B.A.(Marketing), Post Graduate Certificate in Disaster Management from IGNOU-New Delhi.
He joined as an Assistant Engineer (Mech.) in the Government of Gujarat in the year 1981 and was promoted
as Deputy Executive Engineer (Mech.) in-2010 and retired in the month of July-2019 from the N.W.R.W.S. &
Department at Gandhinagar.
He presented Papers at the ―International Conference on Habitat‖ in the year-1997 & ―World
Congress on Natural Disaster Mitigation‖ in the year -2004. Presented total Eleven Technical Papers during
the India Water Week-during the year-2012, 2013 and 2015 held at New Delhi. Presented Paper on Renewable
Energy-Tidal Wave‖-at Bhaikaka Bhavan on dt.17-2-2018, during the Seminar on,-Recent Trends in
Renewable Energy Application & research‖ organized by IEI-Gujarat Local Centre and Government
Engineering College-Ahmedabad. Presented Paper during the ―International Conference on Recent
Developments in Clean and Safe Nuclear Power Generation‖ which was held at Hyderabad, 3-5, October-
2018, organized by IEI-Telengana State Centre , Hyderabad. He was also invited to deliver talks on various
subjects by All India Radio-Rajkot. Life member in Mechanical Division of the IEI-India, worked as an
Executive committee member at its Saurashtra Local Branch-Rajkot for 14 years. Fellow of the Institution of
Valuers-New Delhi. He was also selected for the final round of CNBC-Awaj TV Contest on ―Tax Planning
Championship‖
 LITERATURE REVIEW: ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS WATER

MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY TO MEET THE AGRICULTURE

DEMANDS FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

SMIT CHETAN DOSHI (Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona)

smitdoshi5@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:

Population grows where in the agriculture demands linearly grows and the agricultural
water management needs to be more technically oriented and the stakeholder decisive plays
an important role for type of adaption of water management scheme known. Various water
management technologies are being carried across the globe in order to meet the increasing
demands for domestic, industrial and irrigation purpose either by optimizing the water or
improvise the existing system efficiency. Planet Earth consists of water in abundance, but
the concern is about the accessibility and provision to be very less per capita above all the
climate change resulting in the worse condition for its accessibility and making more area
prone to flooding or a drought zone to certain region which makes it difficult to sustain.
Hence optimum use of water and efficient system is always of requirement. A review of
analysis is carried out for various water management technologies considering meeting the
future agricultural demands. This paper would also focus on the analysis and the drawbacks
in those technologies as in the workability of the technologies by considering various
scenarios and there by suggesting the adaption viability. Current scenario suggests the vital
importance of water resource management over water resource development and this could
be achieved by showcasing the known technologies. Since water is one of the basic needs
there is a need to identify the challenges in implication of the technologies in the future in
order to meet the demand excess over the supply.

Keywords:

Introduction-Irrigation Methods-Recent Advances in Water Management Technologies-

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION:

The maximum water is consumed for agricultural purpose accounting 70% of its stakes as
per the water consumption statistics.(1) And with the increasing population the stress on the
usage of water for various purposes needs to be cut down or either the system needs to be
efficient enough to meet the demands. Due to the water stress most of the regions are
undergoing the food security issues and resulting in the poverty considering the economic
failure of a nation. Even the uncertainties of rainfall, drought period and the flash events
like floods and cyclones have a heavy impact on certain zones of the nation in term of crop
production. Agriculture accounts for the major accountability in terms of economy of any
nation with major dependency on the climate parameters which altered could lead to the
water availabilities being met.(2) In order to cover up this issue and provide an effective
solution one must have an understanding about the recent advances undergoing in the field
of water management that could improvise the efficiency and yield the best output than
expected. It is also equally important to acknowledge the benefits but at the same time focus
on the environmental degradation. As the era is moving ahead one of the critical issues is
crisis in water. FAO has forecasted that by 2050 the water requirements would increase by
50% for agriculture sector in order to meet the demands of the growing population and in
order to cover up this an improved management of land and water is required.(1) This paper
covers the various water management technologies utilized across the world pertaining to
the agricultural sector and detailed description to their efficiencies and workability
approach. The water use for agriculture is mostly accounted directly by the rainfall i.e.
rainfall stored in soil profile whereas 15% is provided by irrigation. The system efficiency is
determined by maximizing crop yield with the optimum use of water. But a system needs to
account for various factors to make it efficient by controlling the losses. On an average
about 40 % water is withdrawn from various sources for crop production whereas rest is lost
due to evaporation and deep infiltration.(3) Reports have shown that the water supply has
been not timely and, in enough quantity, whereas some regions would receive more than the
requirement.(4) This analysis of paper would depict the elevating

productivity of water and provide a focus to the stakeholders benefiting in terms of the
analysis of various systems worldwide.

IRRIGATION METHODS:

Type of
Methods Description Drawbacks
Irrigation
Surface Levelled field with dyke boundaries
Basin Flow is undirected and
Irrigation and
Irrigation water onto the field. uncontrolled.
Surface
Border Extension of Basin Irrigation with Suitable only for crops
Irrigation
sloping borders and draining
Irrigation which require ponding,
condition
at lower end. wastage of land, uneven
distribution of water.
Surface Provision of furrows where in Tailwater losses,
Furrow
Irrigation water Salinity,
infiltrates and spreads vertically Difficult to automate,
Irrigation
and soil
horizontally. erosion.
Surface Applying water by flooding land
Uncontrolled Uncontrolled flow
Irrigation which
Flooding is smooth or flat. without any check.
Well and Tube well Irrigation Water is lifted from ground water Depletion of ground
through pumps and then utilized for water level.
irrigation purpose.
Canal Irrigation through Canals as the
Waterlogging, Ground
Irrigation source.
water level increment
due
to seepage and Flooding
during extreme events.
Tank Irrigation Irrigation storage system developed Silting of tank bed, land
 by
usage, not efficient
small bunds built across stream.
during
dry season.
Surge
Water applied intermittently in the Proper irrigation
Irrigation
borders. scheduling is needed to
make the system
efficient,
not suitable for all soil
characteristics.
Cablegation Automatically apply the requisite Difficult to counteract
quantity of water. with the farmers related
to automation.
Water distributed in a circular
Centre Pivot Irrigation High loss due to
pattern
with a long pipe supported on evaporation, inefficient
tower. as
not utilizing the land
space.
Water applied to the plant root
Drip Irrigation Filtration of water,
through
drippers on or below soil surface. Installation depth varies
for different crop.
Water sprinkled through nozzles in
Sprinkler Irrigation Energy required for its
the
air and with gravity falls on the
operation, Not suitable
ground
surface like precipitation. for high wind condition
and high temperature
distribution.
Table 1: Various Irrigation Techniques (Source: (4), (5), (6), (7))

There are many various ways to irrigate the land the above table indicates just some of the
common ways followed widely. The methods that are drawn results in some or other flaws
reducing the efficiency of the system.

RECENT ADVANCES IN WATER MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY:

Soil and Water Sensors:

With the Soil and Water Sensor the problem related to the over irrigation could be
overcome. The sensors could detect moisture and nitrogen levels which could help the
farmers to acknowledge and control the supply there by making the system efficient. (8)
This could also help environmentally as by controlling the erosion and reducing fertilizer
use. (9) Use of sensor could help in managing irrigation scheduling. This sensor gathers real
time

information of soil and crop condition and could showcase how the technology could be
utilized at its precision in agriculture. (10) It acts as a useful tool for the irrigator as to
determine the data pertaining to the root zone of a crop. There are basically two types of
sensors: Water potential sensor such as tensiometer or Granular matrix sensor and Soil
moisture sensor. Based on the type of soil and crop type the sensors are opted. It is of
utmost importance that in order to obtain the useful information for the irrigation
management soil moisture probe must be selected correctly. (11)

Weather Tracking:

There are several weather services that could help farmer in terms of tracking weather
services. If the data is available about the forecasted weather to the farmers, it could help
them in mitigating or controlling the crop water requirements accordingly. Weather is one
of the most important parameters in agriculture as that could lead to the declination of the
crop production if better decisions are not prevailed. (8) Farmers know that the weather is
one of the important factors for crops and livestock. Weather forecast are availed based on
the previous data collected of the temperature, wind, humidity, precipitation, and the
predictions are made on that. A new tool related to this was developed by Food and
Agricultural Organization (WaPOR) wherein farmers can obtain this data and achieve better
agricultural yields by optimizing the irrigation system accordingly. (12)

Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques:

This technique could provide relevant data for improvising the efficiency of water used by
crops as the isotopic signatures of oxygen-18 and hydrogen-2 allows the separation of
irrigation water into evaporation and transpiration. Similarly, isotopic signature of nitrogen-
15 could trace the nitrogen content through soil. All in all, this could improve water use
efficiency by monitoring soil water through soil moisture neutron probe, Carbon-13 could
help user to select crop tolerant to the drought and salinity. (1)

Remote-sensing technology:

Aerial vehicles like Drone, airplanes and satellites are utilized in order to provide
information to the farmers about the irrigated crops. It could help in determining the issues
like clogged nozzles or maps with irregular pattern of irrigation and could indeed save from
yield losses. This data could also be utilized for crop production forecasting over a given
area, cropping system analysis, also acknowledge the crop damage and crop progress.

(13)

Automated Micro-Irrigation System:

Irrigation scheduling plays a vital role and in order to get the requisite yield the timely
distribution of water is must. In order to overcome the manual operation automation is to be
incorporated. With this approach adoption the frequency of irrigation could be modified,
increasing the water and fertilizer use efficiency. The system of automation could be either
Time Based System, Volume Based System, Closed Loop System, Real Time Feedback
System, Computer-based Irrigation Control System, Sensor Controlled Micro Irrigation. In
the time- based system, the controller set the time as to the opening and closing of the
valves whereas for the volume- based system are of two types either one being controlled by
pulse output or no controller for the automatic metering valve. In open loop system the
operator controls the decision and water is applied as per the schedule. In closed loop
system the operator sets a general control strategy and then this system makes detailed
decision for the application of water. In real time feedback irrigation is carried out based on
the demand of the plant. In computer-based irrigation control system either interactive
system where in controlled as per specific needs or automatic systems controlled by the
specifically programmed computers and modifies the parameters accordingly based on the
conditions. In sensor controlled micro irrigation sensors are utilized in order to control the
water supply which could be either twin sensor or single sensor. (14)

CONCLUSION:

Since the demands are increasing more and more and as such the agriculture sector accounts
for maximum use of water these limited natural resources must be utilized effectively and
efficiently. This could be achieved only if the accountability of every drop is considered. In
order to do so the focus needs to be on automating the irrigation system at the same time
monitoring the systems on field. More research is to be carried out in order to make the
system for more user friendly and cost effective so that the mindset is diverted towards a
better approach. Converting the flaws and drawbacks of the irrigation system with the
requisite latest technologies. Provision of trainings to the stakeholders with the recent latest
technologies where in showcasing the cost-benefit

analysis. Better water governance and policies in implementation of those technologies over
conventional approaches especially to the small landholders. This shows that in order to
make the system efficient even for the conventional approaches the usage of the technology
could improvise and make the condition much better if incorporated as it makes the
effective use of water and this combination could make a considerable positive impact on
the water scarce zones.

REFERENCE:

(1)Iaea.org. (2019). Agricultural water management | IAEA. [online] Available at:

https://www.iaea.org/topics/agricultural-water-management.

(2)Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply | Climate Change Impacts | US EPA.
[online] Available at: https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-
impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply_.html

(3)Lenntech.com. (2019). Use of water in food and agriculture - Lenntech. [online]

Available at: https://www.lenntech.com/water-food-agriculture.

(4)Upadhyaya, A. ‗Water Management Technologies in Agriculture : Challenges and

Opportunities‘, 2(1), pp. 7–13.

(5)Farming, O. and Policy, P. (2019). Advantages and Disadvantages of Centre Pivot

Irrigation System - 1001 Artificial Plants. [online] 1001 Artificial Plants. Available at:
https://www.1001artificialplants.com/2019/04/25/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-centre-
pivot-irrigation- system/
(6)Civilserviceindia.com. (2019). Different Types of Irrigation, Irrigation Storage Systems,
Type of Irrigation Techniques. [online] Available at:
https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/different- types-of-
irrigation-and-irrigation-systems-storage.html

(7)Fao.org. (2019). 2. Surface irrigation systems. [online] Available at:

http://www.fao.org/3/T0231E/t0231e04.htm

(8)Ayoka - Made in USA Enterprise Application Services. (2019). Ayoka - Custom

Software Development. [online] Available at:
https://www.ayokasystems.com/news/emerging-agriculture-technologies/.

(9)Digitalcommons.unl.edu. (2019). [online] Available at:

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=researchecondev
.

(10)Precisionag.com. (2019). [online] Available at: https://www.precisionag.com/in-field-

technologies/connectivity/soil-sensors-a-new-direction-in-precision-agriculture-to-improve-
crop-production/.

(11)Agric.wa.gov.au. (2019). Soil moisture monitoring: a selection guide | Agriculture and

Food. [online] Available at: https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/horticulture/soil-moisture-
monitoring-selection-guide.

(12)Agritechtomorrow.com. (2019). How Can Farmers Track the Weather |

AgriTechTomorrow. [online] Available at:
https://www.agritechtomorrow.com/article/2017/09/how-can-farmers-track-the-
weather/10211.

(13)Grind GIS-GIS and Remote Sensing Blogs, Articles, Tutorials. (2019). Remote Sensing
Applications in Agriculture. [online] Available at: https://grindgis.com/remote-
sensing/remote-sensing-applications-in- agriculture.

(14)Sswm.info. (2019). [online] Available at:

https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/RAJAKUMAR%20et%20al%20
2008%20Automatio n%20in%20Micro%20Irrigation.pdf.

BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF THE AUTHOR:

Smit Chetan Doshi did undergraduate in Civil Engineering – Irrigation Water Management
from the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda in 2016 and accomplished with first rank
in department. He is currently pursuing Master of Science in HydroInformatics and Water
Management (EuroAquae+) under Erasmus Mundus Program linked with 05 universities
which are university of Nice Sophia Antipolis (France), Technical University of Catalonia
(Spain), Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus (Germany), Newcastle University
(UK), Warsaw University of Technology (Poland).

From 2016 to 2018 he worked for various sector such as road and building as a Junior Civil
Engineer.
 RAINFALL RUNOFF ANALYSIS BY USING RAINFALL SIMULATOR
Kartik S. Chourasia1, Nishant Sourabh2
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology and
Engineering, Indus University Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India – 382 115
2 PhD Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat, India.- 395007

Email: kartikchourasia.cvl@indusuni.ac.in / ns90tnau@gmail.com

Contact Number and Fax Number: +91-8490075302 and +91-27642600277/8/9

1. ABSTRACT
It is necessary to know the response of the catchment in terms of discharge versus time for a particular rainfall
input and characteristics of the catchment. This would be helpful in the flood forecast studies. The rainfall
simulator apparatus is used in this work to simulate the rainfall accurately and precisely on a prepared catchment
in a controlled manner. The project intends to check the variation in the storm hydrograph by changing the
parameters like rainfall intensities, slope and order of rainfall in ascending or descending manner. This work
mentions and compares the various hydrographs obtained by either varying the rainfall intensities, rainfall
direction or changing the catchment characteristic such as slope and imperviousness in the apparatus catchment of
2 m2. The rainfall intensities of 30 lpm, 45 lpm and 60 lpm were used in the experimental work. The catchment
slopes of 1 in 200 and 4 in 200 were used and for impervious catchment study, impervious sheet was used to cover
catchment area about 30% and 70%. Though there are differences between the natural and simulated rainfall, they
can be correlated.

Keywords: Simulator; Intensity; Slope; Hydrograph; Rota-meter; Soil Condition; V-Notch.

2. INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of a rainfall simulator is to simulate rainfall accurately and precisely. A rainfall simulator
allows generating rainfall with a known intensity and duration on a prepared catchment in a controlled
manner, making it possible to quantify runoff while at the same time allowing very detailed base flow
quantity. In this way, simulators have widely contributed to understanding the behavior of soil under different
intensities of rainfall. Though there are differences between natural and simulated rainfall, it is possible to find
satisfactory correlations between simulated rainfall and natural rainfall. This simulator was designed to be
easily set up and maintained as well as able to create a variety of rainfall regimes. The main purpose of this
project is to check the variation in the flood hydrograph with changing the parameters like rainfall intensities,
slope and order of rainfall in ascending and descending manner (Pall et al., 1983).We carried out experimental
investigations in laboratory of runoff using rainfall simulator focusing influence of rainfall intensity on
different hydraulic characteristics of runoff (Moussouniet al., 2012). This is a controlled sets of experiments
on rainfall simulator to study the rainfall runoff process and obtain the runoff hydrograph data (Chakravartiet
al 2014).
 3. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
Rainfall simulator is an equipment and experiment which we can used to simulate the actual processes of
hydrologyduring rainfall as well as in its runoff generation and also to analyze the behavior of the catchment
for the given precipitation (rainfall), the response which will be obtained from the simulator is in the form of
discharge verses time also known as flood hydrograph. The response on a catchment will always be dependent
on catchment characteristics.

3.1. Catchment preparation

1. The first thing work it out before starting the experimental work is churning of the soil by
layers to decrease the soil saturation.

2. Cleaning of the spray nozzles must be carried out for proper distribution of water droplets
with proper intensity as rainfall in the catchment.

3. Cleaning of the base-flow pipe to diminish the blockage and allow water to pass freely
without any obstruction. Check the condition of Rota-meter to get the proper rainfall
intensity arrangement because the intensity variation will be totally dependent on Rota
meter.

Figure 1 Rainfall Runoff Simulator

3.2. Procedure Adopted for Experiment
i. The container is filled up-to the top of the V-notch with water.
ii. Then the motor is switched on and after that the required intensity of rainfall is set in Rota-meter.
iii. In case of base flow, the flow is collected for the time period of 30secs in measuring cylinder and then the
discharge was found from the initial stage.
iv. After some time when flow started from V-notch, the head of water was recorded for given time interval by
using scale.
v. When the head (Depth) of water over the V-notch apex became constant then we have toswitch off the
motor.
 vi. The readings of head over V-notch up-to apex level and base flow were calculated until the both the flows
became zero.
vii. After all the collections of reading, the direct runoff hydrograph or flood hydrograph was plotted and
analysis of the catchment characteristics was carried out by comparing the different hydrographs.
viii. For all the required setups, the same procedure is repeated.
3.3 Experimental Cases in the Present Study
Case 1: Impervious Catchment – Practical perform by using impervious material in place of soil for 30%,
50% and 70% imperviousness alongwith different slope arrangment. Case 2:- Successive Storm – Practical
perform for successive rainfall with increasing intesity as well as decreasing and irregullar intensity. Case 3:
Non-successive Storm – Practical perform for non successive rainfall for increasing and decreasing intensity.
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Case 1 - Impervious Catchment
The catchment was made impervious for 30% and 50% out of total surface area for the different rainfall
intensity to check the effect of increased imperviousness due to urbanization on the shape of hydrograph.
Table 1 shows the arrangement in the experimental setup for different impervious percentage of the catchment.
Storm hydrographs for 30 lpm and 45 lpm intensities with the variation in the percentage of imperviousness
are shown in the Fig. 2 and 3.
Table 1.Rainfall with different intensity for different imperviousness
Rotamete Rotamete Rotamete
Impervi Durati
r1 r2 r3
ousnes on
Flow rate Flow rate Flow rate
s (min)
(lpm) (lpm) (lpm)
0 10 10 10 5

15 15 15 5

30 10 10 10 5

15 15 15 5

50 10 10 10 5

15 15 15 5

Fig.2Comparison of different imperviousness for 30 lpm

 Fig.3 Comparison of different imperviousness for 45 lpm
Case 2 - Successive storm
Experiment performed for successive rainfall with increasing, decreasing and irregular intensity to verify the
temporal variation of the storm hydrograph for the arrangement are shown in Table 2,3 & 4,also the
corresponding storm hydrographs are shown in Fig. 4,5 & 6. Figure 7 shows the comparison between the
increasing and decreasing intensity in successive storm.

Table 2.Rainfall with increasing intensity for successive storm

Rotameter 1 Rotameter 2 Rotameter 3 Duration
Flowrate (lpm) Flowrate (lpm) Flowrate (lpm) (min)
10 10 10 5
15 15 15 5
20 20 20 5

Fig.4 Storm hydrograph for successive storm with increasing intensity

Table 3.Rainfall with decreasing intensity for successive storm
Rotameter Rotameter 2 Rotameter 3 Duration
1 Flow rate Flow rate (min)
Flow rate (lpm) (lpm)
(lpm)
20 20 20 5
15 15 15 5
10 10 10 5
 Fig.5 Storm hydrograph for successive storm with decreasing intensity

Table 4.Rainfall with irregular intensity for successive storm

Rotameter 1 Rotameter 2 Rotameter 3 Duration
Flow rate (lpm) Flow rate (lpm) Flow rate (lpm) (min)
10 10 10 5
20 20 20 5
15 15 15 5

Fig. 6 Storm hydrograph for successive storm with irregular intensity

Fig. 7 Comparison of Storm hydrograph for successive storm (increasing v/s decreasing)

CASE 3 - NON-SUCCESSIVE STORM

Experiment was performed for non-successive rainfall with increasing intensity and decreasing intensity to
verify the temporal variation of storm on the shape of hydrograph. The arrangement of the setup for these
cases is given in the Table 5-6 and the corresponding storm hydrographs are shown in the Figure 8 & 9. Figure
10 shows the comparison between the aforesaid cases.

Table 5. Rainfall with increasing intensity for non-successive storm

Rotameter 1 Rotameter 2 Rotameter 3 Duration
Flow rate Flow rate Flow rate (min)
(lpm) (lpm) (lpm)
10 10 10 5
0 0 0 5
15 15 15 5

Table 6. Rainfall with decreasing intensity for non-successive storm

Rotameter 1 Rotameter 2 Rotameter 3 Duration
Flow rate (lpm) Flow rate (lpm) Flow rate (lpm) (min)
15 15 15 5
0 0 0 5
10 10 10 5

Fig. 8 Storm hydrograph for non-successive rainfall with increasing intensity

Fig. 9 Storm hydrograph for non-successive rainfall with decreasing intensity

Fig.10 Comparison of storm hydrograph for non-successive storm (increasing v/s decreasing)

5. CONCLUSIONS
We performed the study for the aforesaid six cases. We can conclude from the experiment carried out as
different points that are as follows:
In case 1, as the imperviousness of the experimental catchment increases for different rainfall intensities for
constant duration, peak obtained for storm hydrograph is higher and earlier.

In case 2, temporal variation in intensity of rainfall for experimental catchment in successive manner after
every 5 minute shows, the peak of the storm hydrograph increases with increasing intensity of successive
storm and the peak decreases for decreasing intensity at the same time for irregular intensities continuous
storm getting irregular peak hydrograph.

In case 3, temporal variation in intensity of rainfall for experimental catchment in non- successive manner
with gap of 5 minute showed that the peak of the storm hydrograph increases with increasing intensity of
successive storm and the peak decreases for decreasing intensity at the same time for irregular intensities
continuous storm, irregular peak of storm hydrograph was obtained.
References
1. Abudi, I., Carmi, G., & Berliner, P. (2012). Rainfall simulator for field runoff studies. Journal of Hydrology, 454, 76-81.
2. Andersen, C. T., Foster, I. D. L., & Pratt, C. J. (1999). The role of urban surfaces (permeable pavements) in regulating drainage and
evaporation: development of a laboratory simulation experiment. Hydrological processes, 13(4), 597-609.
3. Cerdà, A. (1998). The influence of aspect and vegetation on seasonal changes in erosion under rainfall simulation on a clay soil in
Spain. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 78(2), 321-330.
4. Chakravarti, A., & Jain, M. K. (2014). Experimental Invesitigation and Modeling of Rainfall Runoff Process. Indian Journal of Science
and Technology, 7(12), 2096-2106.
5. Chouksey, A., Lambey, V., Nikam, B. R., Aggarwal, S. P., & Dutta, S. (2017). Hydrological Modelling Using a Rainfall Simulator over
an Experimental Hillslope Plot. Hydrology, 4(1), 17.
6. Chow V. T., Maidment, D. R., and Mays, L. W. (1988). Applied Hydrology, Pp.201-230. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
7. Wood, E. F., Sivapalan, M., Beven, K., & Band, L. (1988). Effects of spatial variability and scale with implications to hydrologic
modeling. Journal of hydrology, 102(1-4), 29-47.
8. Pérez-Latorre, F. J., de Castro, L., & Delgado, A. (2010). A comparison of two variable intensity rainfall simulators for runoff studies.
Soil and Tillage Research, 107(1), 11-16.
9. Moussouni, A., Mouzai, L., &Bouhadef, M. (2012). Laboratory experiments: Influence of rainfall characteristics on runoff and water
erosion. Waset, 68, 1540-1543.
10. Pall, R., Dickinson, W. T., Beals, D., &McGirr, R. (1983). Development and calibration of a rainfall simulator. Canadian Agricultural
Engineering, 25(2), 181-187.
11. Sanhuesa, C., Arumi J., Pizarro, R., & Link, O. (2010). A rainfall simulator for the in situ study of superficial runoff and soil erosion.
Chilean Journal of Agriculture Research, 70 (1), 178-182.
12. Júnior, S. S., &Siqueira, E. Q. (2011, September). Development and calibration of a rainfall simulator for urban hydrology research.
In Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Urban Drainage, Porto Alegre, Brazil (pp. 11-16).
13. Woods, S. W., & Balfour, V. N. (2008). The effect of ash on runoff and erosion after a severe forest wildfire, Montana, USA.
International Journal of Wildland Fire, 17(5), 535-548. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 17(5), 535-548.
 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS DEMONSTRATION IN
RAMGANGA RIVER BASIN
RAVINDRA KUMAR
Advisor, WWF-India

Ravindra53@yahoo.co.in, cell: 9415021334

ABSTRACT

World Wide Fund for Nature- India and its partners felt that it was imperative to pilot the Environmental-
Flows demonstration in a river system to build a case for long-term E-Flows realization and its monitoring.
After assessing the required E-Flows, one also needs to answer another important question, i.e. ―from where
the water will come and what would be the trade-offs?‖ A pilot demonstration in Karula River, a tributary of
Gaagan/Ramganga was carried out by WWF-India introducing irrigation saving technique in sugarcane
dominant Khanpur minor command in Bijnor district and releasing saved water towards E-Flows by farmers,
encouraged our this endeavour at River Basin level.

Heavily regulated river Ramganga, a major tributary of River Ganga, was selected for an E-Flows assessment
and pilot demonstration. This paper captures the process of trade-offs analysis against additional water
releases 200 MCM to 300 MCM (over and above all the committed use) from Kalagarh reservoir and the
incremental benefits (fully or partially) to downstream Hareoli barrage sites at Agwanpur and Katghar
(upstream and downstream of Moradabad City) with respect to enhanced flows for good health of Ramganga
river. The seasonal regulated flows and recommended E-Flows d/s Hareoli barrage, 28 km below Kalagarh
dam has been summarised in the following table. Unit: m3/s.

Season/months JFM AM JJASO ND

Regulated present flows 1.4 1.0 33 2.1

E-Flows-Drought year 5.5 3.4 21 8.4

E-Flows-Normal 12.8 7.8 40.1 19.3

maintenance year

The E-Flows release pattern of net water available at 75% dependability in Kalagarh reservoir (for
Maintenance Year Target Scenario) is suggested from November to June. It is evident that except June, all
lean season E-Flows requirements of Agwanpur site and almost 50% of recommended E-Flows during lean
season at Katghar site can be realized if E-Flows from Hareoli barrage are released downstream in the river
main course for which policy advocacy is required.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Vision for India‘s water resources development springs from an understanding of ecological
limits. Therefore, ecological needs of the river should mimic its natural characteristics that is to
say by low or high flow, small floods or large floods and so a portion of river flows should be
year marked aside to meet ecological needs including base flow contribution in the lean flow
season through regulated groundwater use. National Water Policy- 2012 has set Environmental-
Flows priority as 2-B i.e. after 1st for drinking and health- hygiene and 2-A for livelihoods based
agriculture and other land and water based livelihoods. Agriculture, hydro power, commercial
industries and service sectors are the last in their proportional priority (MoWR, GOI, 2012).

1.2 Riparian rights often debated that farmers would not allow share of their water for agriculture to
riverine ecology or biodiversity. Blending socio-cultural aspects of bathing in river at auspicious
occasions during Shravani mela(July), kartik purnima (in November), maghi- mela (Jan-Feb)
and Ganga- dusehara (June) etc., WWF-India did survey for farmers willingness to spare
irrigation water for the sake of good health of Ganga, in Upper Ganga and Lower Ganga Canal
System, sample size of more than 1000 each. We received positive and encouraging results
(Ravindra, 2016).
1.3 WWF-India work-experience with 40 villages in 6 districts of Ramganga Basin, Uttar Pradesh,
has shown that by adopting Package of Practices (PoPs) for seed selection, sowing practices, bio-
fertilizer, bio-pesticides, water application and management, and nutrient management could
yield a 40% water savings besides a 20-30% increase in crop productivity. On the other hand,
yield enhancement entails better soil management practices that will increase the soil acreages
productivity. Thus, to increase productivity of water and soil WWW-India did another
experiment in Khanpur Minor (Bijnor district) to save irrigation water and transfer this saved
water in the neighbouring river Karula- a tributary of Gaagan that joins Ramganga at Moradabad.
The following initiatives were taken in sugarcane dominant(70%) canal command of 400 hectare
by WWF-India team-
i. De-siltation and jungle clearance of Khanpur minor of Ramganaga Sub Feeder to
carry design discharge of 3 cusec (1cusec= 0.0283 cumec i.e m3/s).
ii. Repair of Gauge to carry out monitoring of discharge at head and tail ends to ensure
equitable water supply and to monitor water saving.
iii. Trench method of sugarcane sowing was insured by providing light furrow tool,
which a farmer can carry on his bicycle.
iv. Awareness of best agricultural practices given by experts through training farmers.
v. Canal tail end connected to river through underground PVC pipe.
vi. Saved water was transferred to river by farmers towards E-flows.

Success of this pilot work encouraged to engage WWF-India at larger scale in Ramganga River Basin

2. RAMGANGA RIVER BASIN

River Ramganga, a major tributary of River Ganga, was selected for an E-Flows assessment
and pilot demonstration. Under this Ramganga E-Flows assessment exercise (2013-17), total
eight sites were selected for which E-Flows assessment was carried out (Figure-1). The
honorable Irrigation Minister of Uttar Pradesh released a report on this work on 18 th
September 2018. This report captures the entire process of the Ramganga E-Flows
Assessment, with a trade-offs analysis (WWF-India 2018). The work builds on the lessons
learnt from the E-Flows assessment in the Upper Ganga (WWF-India 2012) and Prayagraj
Kumbh (WWF-India, 2013).

A stakeholder-driven process was adopted for this work and the data support was provided
by Central Water Commission and UP I&WRD.

Figure-1. E-Flows sites in Ramganga Basin Box-1 Partners

• INRM Consultants, Incubatee company of IIT

Hydrology
Delhi
River Health • IIT-Kanpur
Geomorphology • IIT-Kanpur
Aquatic
• CIFRI, WWF-India, HNB Garhwal University
Biodiversity
Socio-cultural • People's Science Institute, Dehradun

2.1Methodology

Ramganga EFA exercise was a multi-disciplinary study which focused on Building Block
Methodology (BBM). The thematic studied for E-Flows assessment were Hydrology, River Health,
 Socio-Cultural, Aquatic Bio-diversity and Fluvial Geomorphology. This involved a number of
partners and experts which contributed to this, as shown in Box-1. Besides this, the IIT BHU
Varanasi contributed to this exercise by conducting Cross Sections and Longitudinal Profile Surveys
at all river locations.

2.2 Process
E-Flows exercise involves a broad 5-stage process, as depicted in the Figure-2.

Figure 2: E-Flows Process

2.3 E-Flows Recommendations

E-Flows were assessed and recommended at eight locations along the Ramganga river. E-
Flows (seasonal and monthly pattern) vis-à-vis regulated flows at two most critical sites d/s
Hareoli barrage and Katghar are presented here.

2.3.1 Downstream of Hareoli barrage

Flows downstream of Hareoli barrage is highly regulated and except monsoon season
negligible amount water flows downstream the barrage. The monthly and seasonal regulated
flows and recommended E-Flows are presented in Figure 3 and Figure-4.

Figure-3. Monthly Flow regimes – Regulated and E-Flows d/s Hareoli barrage in Ramganga

80
70
Mean monthly flow, cms

60 Monthly Flows
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Hareoli (Regulated), cms 1.60 1.30 1.20 0.90 1.00 10.8020.2059.2064.9012.10 2.70 1.50
E-Flows - Maintenance
13.3 12.7 12.3 8.6 7.0 6.4 32.0 64.0 64.0 34.0 23.2 15.4
Year, cms
E-Flows - Drought Year 5.7 5.4 5.3 3.7 3.0 4.6 16.2 32.0 33.2 21.5 9.9 6.6

2.3.2 Katghar E-Flows (monthly and quarterly)

The flows at Katghar are influenced by heavy groundwater extraction within city limits plus the
industrial and sewage effluent discharge at several point sources. The lean season flows are quite
paltry and mostly comprise of sewage discharge. Monthly and seasonal flows at Katghar is shown in
Figure 5 and Figure-6, respectively.

Figure 4. Seasonal Flow regimes – Regulated and E-Flows at Hareoli barrage on Ramganga
 Seasonal E-Flows reccomendatons- Hareoli

Discharge, Cumec
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Jan-Mar Apr-May Jun-Oct Nov-Dec
Hareoli (Regulated), cms 1.4 1.0 33.4 2.1
E-Flows - Drought Year 5.5 3.4 21.5 8.3
E-Flows - Maintenance Year,
12.8 7.8 40.1 19.3
cms

Figure 5 Monthly Flow patterns at Katghar

250
Monthly Flows at Katghar
200
Mean monthly flow, cms

150

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Katghar(Regulated), cms 10.8 11.0 8.3 3.5 2.8 16.8 100.6 165.7 138.1 41.8 12.3 9.6
E-Flows - Maintenance Year, cms 32.9 34.1 29.3 17.1 14.6 37.8 132.9 210.0 183.3 69.9 36.9 30.8
E-Flows - Drought Year, cms 7.0 7.2 6.2 3.6 3.1 16.0 56.3 89.0 77.7 14.8 7.8 6.5

Figure-6: Seasonal Regulated and recommended E-flows at Katghar in Ramganga Basin

140.0
Discharge, cumec

120.0
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Jan-Mar Apr-MayJun-Oct Nov-Dec
Katghar(Regulated), cms 10.0 3.2 92.6 10.9
E-Flows - Drought Year,
6.8 3.4 50.8 7.2
cms
E-Flows - Maintenance
32.1 15.9 126. 33.8
Year, cms

3.0 WATER ALLOCATIONS AND TRADEOFF ANALYSIS

The water resources of the Ramganga river has several committed uses. These primarily include
irrigation supplement to Lower Ganga Canal and direct irrigation systems from the Ramganga river
(Box-2). These systems are managed by UP Irrigation and Water Resources Department and
Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, based on jurisdictional limits.

Box-2. Committed Water Use of Kalagarh reservoir on Ramganga river

3.1 Process of assessing net Water Availability after all dedicated withdrawals
To assess the net water availability in the reservoir for E-Flows release, annual water levels, storage
and withdrawals data from UPID (Kalagarh Dam) was collected. Data collected from UPID for
assessment of reservoir after all dedicated withdrawals since 1976-2015. The Table-1 shows the
calculation of net water availability in Kalagarh dam, after all dedicated withdrawals.

Table-1 Net water availability at various dependability in Kalagarh reservoir after all committed
withdrawals at Dead Storage level (317m) and Normal depletion level(321 m). Based on data series
1976-2015.
Depend- Storage at Start Storage in Flood release Annual Water Gross water available Evaporati Net water available Net water available
ability of Monsoon Non d/s reservoir Withdrawal , in Aligarh dam, on losses, above dead storage above normal
Season, MCM monsoon MCM MCM MCM MCM level , depletion level,
MCM MCM MCM

1 2 3 4 5 6 = 2+3+4+5 7 8= 6-7-5-254 9=6-5-7-355

MCM
25% 571 359 645 1867 3441 141 1180 1079
50% 469 275 270 1614 2628 107 654 553

75% 327 206 125 1381 2039 87 317 216

90% 109 143 12 983 1247 63 -53 -154

It is evident here that there is about 317 MCM of water available above DSL and 216 MCM above
normal depletion level, after all committed usages at 75% dependability.

For year round E-Flows implementation, the trade-off analysis for the Hareoli site is required
(Ravindra, 2016). In the BAU scenario, net water available (leftover in Kalagarh Reservoir above
Dead Storage Level post dedicated withdrawals) should be used to cater the E-Flows requirements.
This would require changes in reservoir operation policies, which can allow water to be released
downstream of the Hareoli Barrage during the lean season. The release pattern of net water available
at 75% dependable flow condition (for Maintenance Year Target Scenario) is presented in following
Figure-7.

Perusal of Figure 7 suggests that after fulfilling E-Flows requirements of lean season (November –
June), almost 32% of water would still be left in the reservoir (103 MCM) above the normal depletion
level at the start of filling season (from 15 June), which can be either kept in reserve or released
downstream to cater the flows required at critical times during the monsoon months.

3.2 Tradeoffs: Incremental Benefits of recommended E-flows (lean season) downstream of Hareoli
barrage on downstream sites
The recommended E-Flows released from Hareoli barrage downstream will have incremental benefits
(fully or partially) to downstream sites with respect to enhanced flows. It is evident from Figures 7, 8
and 9 below that except June, all lean season E-Flows requirements of Agwanpur site and almost
50% of recommended E-Flows during lean season at Katghar site can be realized if E-Flows from
Hareoli barrage is released as recommended.
 Fugure-7 Release pattern of Kalagarh dam water to realize lean season E-Flows at Hareoli
downstream barrage on Ramganga river

345.0
317 MCM Start of
48 Cumulative release
84
BALANCE WATER IN RESERVOIR POST E-

245.0 114 (Nov-Jun)

143
172 192 208 215 End of lean
season Release
FLOW RELEASE, MCM

145.0 (103
93MCM left) 87 99 269
72 233 Balance water
203 145 48
30 174
29 29 125 109 36
20 16 102 available in
45.0 7 reservoir post E-
30 Flows release (Nov-
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jun),
-55.0
-63 E-Flows Gaps
(Additional flow

ag
requirements over

e
-155.0 -150
regulated
-249
condition)

De
Be

ad

or
St
lo
w
-255.0

Figure 8. Hydrological Benefits to recommended E-Flows at Agwanpur

Benefits of Hareolli E-Flows release on Agwanpur

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
35
Percentage, %

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

65

0 0 0 0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Percentage of E-Flows of Agwaanpur realised, % Percentage Shortfall at Agwaanpur %

Figure 9. Hydrological Benefits to recommended E-Flows at Katghar, Moradabad

 Benefits of Hareolli E-Flows release on Katghar

25
35
47 47 43
51 49
Percentage, %

87

75
65
53 53 57
49 51

13
0 0 0 0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Percentage of E-Flows of Katghar realised, % Percentage Shortfall at Katghar %

4. Key Takeaways
 Kalagarh dam on Ramganga river can play a new role post Tehri dam on Ganga river towards Aviral
and Nirmal Ramganga. As analysed net surplus water available in the reservoir is 317 MCM (after all
committed uses), which can be released from November onwards of the current year up to June of the
next year in a regulated way.
 After fulfilling Environmental-Flows requirements of lean season (November – June), almost 32% of
water would still be left in the reservoir (103 MCM) above the normal depletion level at the start of
filling season (from 15 June), which can be either kept in reserve for early Kharif irrigation during
drought or released downstream to cater the flows required at critical times during the monsoon
months.

Acknowledgement

Author is thankful to WWF-India team whose collective wisdom has established e-flows for various
sites of Ramganga river towards a healthy river. Sri Suresh Babu, Nitin Kaushal and Arjeet Mishra
deserve special thanks for coordination of the project under guidance and support from Dr Sejal
Wohra, Programme Director, WWF-India. The financial resource was made available by HSBC
program ‗Rivers for Life‘.

References

1. Ministry of Water Resources, GOI, 2012, National Water Policy-2012.

2. Ravindra Kumar, 2016, Assessment of the Potential of Enhanced Crop-Water Productivity through
Farmer Water School and Farmers Survey in the Upper Ganga River Basin aspiring Healthier Rivers
for Safer Water and More Productive Agro-ecosystems, National workshop on Challenges in
Irrigation Management and Food Security, Org. by IIT Roorkee & IWRS, at Roorkee, Uttarakhand,
Nov 26-27. Later this paper was also published in journal of IWRS.
3. Ravindra Kumar, 2016, Optimisation of Releases from Kalagarh dam and Hareoli barrage for healthy
and prosperous Ramganga river basin, Proceedings of Healthy Rivers, Ecosystem Benefits and
Prosperity, ed: Ravindra Kumar et all., Lucknow.
4. WWF-India, 2018, Environmental Flows for a Healthy Ramganga.
5. WWF-India, 2013, Environmental Flows for Kumbh 2013 at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad.
6. WWF-India, 2012, Assessment of Environmental Flows for the Upper Ganga Basin.
Biographical details of the author:

Er. Ravindra Kumar graduated in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Allahabad in 1976.
He obtained Master of Engineering in Design of Process Machines at MNR Engineering College, Allahabad
(now MNIET). From 1977 to 1980 he worked as faculty in Department of Applied Mechanics, Hydraulics and
Hydraulic Machines and then in Department of Mechanical Engineering at MNIET Allahabad. In Oct, 1980 he
joined Irrigation Department of Government of Uttar Pradesh as Assistant Engineer, where he specialised in
design and maintenance of hydraulic gates, state tube wells, lift pump canals. From 2003 to 2012 he worked in
various capacities at State Water Resources Agency under World Bank financed Water Restructuring Project
undergoing in Uttar Pradesh. Presently he is Basin Planning Expert, Tahal Consulting Engineers Pvt. Ltd.
India and Advisor, BBAU Central University, Lucknow and WWF-India, New Delhi.
 Seepage analysis of the lake using FEM Program
Keval S Jariwala1, V.G. Yadav2, S.M. Yadav3
1
P.G. Scholar Department of Civil Engineering, GEC, Surat, Gujarat, India, 395001
2
Assistant Professor, Civil engineering Dept. GEC, Surat, Gujarat, India, 395001
3
Professor and Head of Civil Engineering Department, SVNIT, Surat, Gujarat, India, 395007

vkygecs@gmail.com

Abstract - Seepage analysis is vital for all the structures which has to retain or store the water (such as earthen dam
or lake). Inadequate analysis can lead the project to failure and all the investment made become futile. The present
study intends to determine the seepage loss from pond and for this purpose, a case study of urban pond is
undertaken. Selected urban pond is situated in the West Zone of Surat city. The Issues of storage in the pond were
analyzed by collecting geological data, soil data and topographical data of the study area. The seepage losses were
computed using FEM based tool for unlined condition of pond. The present study will help in developing
understanding issues in the conservation of water for urban pond. The outcome of the analysis will be useful for
conservation of water in the storage structure like unlined pond.

Keywords- Seepage analysis, Slope stability analysis, Finite element method, Geo-Studio

INTRODUCTION

Seepage analysis is the one of the most important parameters which affects the design of most of the
hydraulic structure. Thus, before commissioning of any such structure which is purposefully
constructed to store the water or to convey water, such an analysis may prove very effective in order
to control the water loss which can occur if structure has to be built on or it is alignment passing
through pervious geological strata. Also, this will help to adopt a suitable measure which will
control the amount of water which can be lost in an absence of any sealing method. In past years due
to negligence of such a seepage analysis many hydraulic structures were collapsed and caused
damaged to human life and properties such example of this is Brumadinho dam failure in Brazil
(2019) and Teton dam Idaho USA (1976). Also, huge amount of the potable water is being lost from
the unlined canal and the unlined ponds and lakes. Thus, determining the seepage rate and reducing
the seepage is one of the most important aspects for water resources management. In current study
seepage and contour analysis of urban pond has been carried out to determine the reason behind its
failure to store the water using Finite Element based program (Geo-Studio V2012).

Finite Element Methods are based on the concept of subdividing a continuum into small pieces,
describing the behaviour or actions of the individual pieces and then reconnecting all the pieces to
represent the behaviour of the continuum as a whole. This process of subdividing the continuum into
smaller pieces is known as discretization or meshing. The pieces are known as finite elements. Many
researchers have successfully applied the Finite element method in order to predict the seepage from
the various hydraulic structures in order to select the best sealing method. Researchers also found
that value predicted by this approach are very near to the actual field measurement, thus it can prove
handy and less time-consuming tool to simulate the real-life problem.

Moeini et al. [3] did seepage analysis of the upper reservoir of the Kurdistan Azad pumped storage
dam. The total seepage discharge computed in the steady-state regime for the Reservoir by means of
analytical and numerical methods (Seep/W finite element software) was 1.14E+05 and 1.15E+05
m3/day, respectively. Karimi and Abrishami [6] used the numerical method to determine the seepage
rate through the channel at different time steps and compared the results with that of a physical
model to adopt the suitable sealing method. The result obtained by the model and physical model
showed quite a close similarity indicating the capability of numerical technique to simulate such a
complex system. Rastogi and Prasad [4] have used the Finite Element modeling to investigate
seepage loss from the lined Nadiad branch canal. They have taken three sections of the canal and
found Pre-and-Post-monsoon seepage losses. Sensitivity analysis showed that hydraulic conductivity
and canal supply depth are more influencing parameters than the hydraulic conductivity of lining.
Soleymani, and Akhtarpur [8] carried out a two-dimensional seepage analysis using computer
software, Seep/W to determine seepage quantities. The results were obtained for two conditions;
with and without a cut-off, within the dam foundation. Branch and Hossain [11] undertook the
numerical modeling of the cut-off walls in order to determine the suitable approach to prevent the
contamination of wetland. Burt et al. 2010 [2] showed that compaction in the canal has resulted in
reduced seepage loss. Fattah et al. [10] used the SEEP/W program and found that presence of clay
core has an important effect on decreasing the exit gradient, which may increase in the order of
300% when the core does not exist and the factor of safety may be critical when the water level in
the reservoir is at 143.5 m. The sloping core design was adopted for Al-Adhaim dam since it permits
the lowest values of seepage and provides the lowest exit gradients.

STUDY AREA

The present study was carried out at the Pal lake (Fig-1). Pal lake is one of the largest natural lake
situated in the west zone of Surat city. It was developed in 2015 for recreational purpose having a
total area of 33811 sq. mt. After the development of the lake, it is observed that the lake is not
functioning well and it is getting empty from couple of years even in the period of the monsoon
stored water is getting lost. This has compelled the detailed study in order to understand the possible
reasons behind the phenomenon and identify the suitable corrective measures if required and to
determine the possible runoff which can be generated from surrounding area to recharge the lake.

Fig. 1 Pal lake and bore site

(Source–Google map, Date of Imagery 11/09/2018)

DATA COLLECTION

To perform the seepage analysis of the lake using FEM Certain geological parameters which
required too be determined after performing various tests. So that it can be used as the input
properties while assigning it to the geometry created in to program. Some significant soil properties
are hydraulic conductivity or co-efficient of permeability of soil strata, particle size analysis, bulk
density, dry density, coefficient of volume compressibility, porosity, water content, etc. Some
topographical data is also collected to determine the storage capacity of the lake.

Following data has been collected

1) The development plan of the lake having all details showing its various components and
elevation map of the lake.

2) Bore log detail of surrounding area and of the lake.

3) Soil samples for laboratory testing.

METHODOLOGY

Seepage analysis through lake was performed by finite element method using SEEP/W software
(Geo-Studio V 2012). Seepage rate, Pore-pressure, Seepage velocity etc. can be determined by this
program. Some of the soil properties determined after conducting several tests on collected soil
sample are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Soil properties

Soil Soil Soil

Depth Depth Depth
Parameters (m) (m) (m)

0-1 1-2 2-3m

D10 (mm) <0.001 0.001 0.001

D60 (mm) 0.025 0.028 0.039

Liquid limit % 48.24 48.48 37.99

Porosity or Saturated
0.36 0.40 0.40
water content

1.716E- 3.201E- 1.054E-

Permeability K m/s
09 09 09

From the test result it can be said that soil is having high silty clay up to 3m depth from the bed level
below 3m depth, soil is having higher sand content and finer particle are reducing significantly
which was found from bore log detail.

After completion of necessary testing, model is created in the program material properties and
various boundary condition has been applied to the geometry and then simulation is carried out for
three different condition of water level.
RESULT ANALYSIS

After creating the geometry in the program, assigning the actual soil property and applying
boundary condition simulation is carried out. Test results obtained after the simulation are verified
using field validation of seepage rate.

Figure 2. Seepage rate for water depth of 3m.

Result obtained after the simulation for various water level are shown in Table 2. Fig. 2 shows the
seepage rate for the sample water depth of 3 m.
Table 2. Result obtained from Seep/W program.

Seepage rate obtained for water level of 1m 1.530 × 10-7 m3/sec.

Seepage rate obtained for water level of 2m 1.910 × 10-7 m3/sec

Seepage rate obtained for water level of 3m 2.293 × 10-7 m3/sec

Seepage rate validated by inserting the steel ring which is being made from steel sheet of 1mm thick
and it is inserted on the lake bed water is poured in the ring to the full level and observation are
made for several hours. This test is carried out for three consecutive days. Before doing this test soil
is made completely saturated so that result will be accurate.
Table 3. Result obtained after field testing
 Result of field Seepage experiment

Day 1 (27/03/2019)

Initial Final
Starting Finishing Water Water Test Seepage loss
Time Time level level Duration in M³/Sec
(M) (M)

10:17 17:30 0.23 0.15 7.25 2.16552E-07

Day 2 (28/03/2019)

Initial Final
Starting Finishing Water Water Test Seepage loss
Time Time level level Duration in M³/Sec
(M) (M)

10:36 16:45 0.23 0.18 6 1.63542E-07

Day 3 (29/03/2019)

Initial Final
Starting Finishing Water Water Test Seepage loss
Time Time level level Duration in M³/Sec
(M) (M)

10:46 18:21 0.23 0.145 7.5 2.22417E-07

Average Seepage Rate M³/Sec 2.00837E-07

From the result it can be conclude that seepage rate we obtained using program is showing
similarities with field result so seepage rate is quite less.

CONCLUSION

After completion of the all the simulation and the field test result of both are showing quite
acceptable similarities thus, we can recharge the pond without giving some soil treatment. Also,
there some need to suitable recharging technique so lake can be recharge during monsoon period.

REFERENCES

[1] Rastogi A.K. and Prasad Baldev, 1992, FEM modelling to investigate seepage losses from the
lined Nadiad branch canal, Journal of Hydrology, 138 (1992) 153-168
[2] Branch Anita and Hossain MD Sahadat, 2007, Seepage Analyses of Soil-Bentonite Slurry
Cutoff Wall through Landfill, Geoenvironmental Engineering Geo-denver2007.
[3] Hassani Arash Nikvar, Homayoon Katibeh and Hadi Farhadian 2015 Numerical analysis of
steady-state groundwater inflow into Tabriz line 2 metro tunnel, northwestern Iran, with special
consideration of model dimensions, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
[4] Ahmed Ashraf A. and Bazaraa Abdallah S, 2009,Three-Dimensional Analysis of Seepage below
and around Hydraulic Structures , Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 3, March 1,
2009
[5] Burt Charles M, Orvis Sierra and Alexander Nadya, 2010, Canal Seepage Reduction by Soil
Compaction, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Vol. 136, No. 7, July 1, 2010
[6] Butscher Christoph, 2012, Steady-state groundwater inflow into a circular tunnel, Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology 32 (2012) 158–167
[7] Kermani E. Fadaei, Barani G. A, 2012, Seepage Analysis through Earth Dam Based on Finite
Difference Method, J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res., 2(11)11621-11625, 2012
[8] Hadi Moeini, Hadi Farhadian & Arash Nikvar-Hassani 2018 Determination of the optimum
sealing method for Azad pumped storage dam considering seepage analysis, Arabian Journal of
Geosciences (2018) 11:389
[9] Hadi Farhadian, Arash Nikvar Hassani and Homayoon Katibeh 2016, Groundwater Inflow
Assessment to Karaj Water Conveyance Tunnel, Northern Iran, KSCE Journal of Civil
Engineering (0000) 00(0):1-10
[10] J. F. Devlin, 2015, HydrogeoSieveXL: an Excel-based tool to estimate hydraulic
conductivity from grain-size analysis , Springer-Verlag ,Hydrogeology Journal.
[11] Md. Abdul Alim, Fahim Ahmed, Md. Sohidul Islam 2017, Seepage Analysis of Mahananda
Earthen Embankment at Chapai Nawabganj in Bangladesh ,American Journal of Engineering
and Technology Management Vol. 2, No. 1, 2017, pp. 1-6.
[12] Mohammed Y. Fattah, Salama N. Y. Al-Labban, Firas A. Salman 2014, Seepage Analysis
of a Zoned Earth Dam by Finite Elements, International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Technology Volume 5, Issue 8, August (2014), pp. 128-139
[13] S. Soleymani, A. Akhtarpur, 2011, Seepage Analysis for Shurijeh Reservoir Dam Using
Finite Element Method, ASCE Geo-Frontiers 2011 3227-3234.
[14] Saeeid Karimi and Saeid Abrishami ,2015, Numerical Analysis of Seepage of Concrete-
Coated Water Transmission Channels Considering Saturated – Unsaturated Conditions, Indian
Journal of Science and Technology, Vol 8(S3), 33–37, February 2015
 ANALYZING HYDRO-CLIMATIC ACTIVITIES OF GIRNAR HILL
AREA USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES

BY JANKI ADHVARYU, jankiadhvaryu@gmail.com

ABSTRACT:
In today's world climate change and sustainable development is very important part of
research. Many of countries are spending many money and resource to these climatic
studies. These study should be precise & accurate with optimum time limit. Hence there is a
need of effective methodology so that these climatic study can be made effective and
precise.

Using this methodology several field of spatial application can be supported i.e. flood
modelling and storm water drainage designing (by calculating runoff and infiltration). This
model can also be utilised in agriculture scenario that how crops will behave with respect to
land use and land cover, enhanced use of pesticides can also be directed using this approach.
Siltation and sedimentation can also be calculated. Many other spatial significance may be
arise by preparing this methodology.

The aim or objective of this study is to provide a suitable method in aspect of hydrology and
climate monitoring so that this method can be adopted by any one as an optimum way to
sort climate and weather related study. For this purpose the study area is taken as a Hill area
from Gujarat INDIA. As a part of methodology initially preparation of landuse land cover
map than spatial representation of earth information i.e. soil than it involves simulation of
30 years of weather data. Major parameter will be land use land cover changes, solar,
rainfall precipitation, wind, relative humidity. All this parameter will be taken as input to
this research method. Major outcomes will be as -1-Modelling i.e. Hydrological and land
cover changes 2- Simulation i.e. for weather assessment 3 - visualization of climate spatial
data 4 - Validation and comparison. Final product methodology will also validated using
systematic approach. Based on the output a desirable conclusion will be made and further
future scope application will be projected.

Keywords – Optimum methodology, Climate, Hydrology, sustainability, Geospatial

technique, GIS, land use land cover, simulation, modelling, visualization, validation

AIM & OBJECTIVES OF STUDY AREA:

This study aims toward designing and assessing a framework for weather centered parameter in
relation with hydrological evidence based on geospatial techniques

 Optimizing Remote sensing techniques for analyzing hydro-climatic behavior - Enhanced

use of Digital image processing to evaluate impact of land use parameter over water
resources
 Determining hydrological measurements via Spatial analysis i.e. calculation of watershed,
basin and sub basin parameter
 Development of a framework to obtain weather centered hydrological parameter
INTRODUCTION:
India is a massive and dynamic country, many of region are suffering problem of water and other
climatic problem. There is a need of an effective method or model. So that this problem can be
identified and precisely analyzed or it may say that there is a need of an optimum and quick model
for analyzing this hydro-climatic problem.

This research aiming to propose a GIS based method which uses both spatial and non-spatial data.
This data may be of highly temporal in nature (i.e. periodicity). This model is dependent of several
weatherrelated parameter like precipitation, solar, wind and relative humidity. All this data is use to
evaluate hydro-climatic nature of region.

STUDY AREA:
This research is focusing over a hilly region in Gujarat State of India. The hilly region is selected
because of dynamic nature of study area i.e. green cover, terrain profile and tourist spot for pilgrims.

Location – 21°31'12.1"N 70°32'57.5"E

Elevation - 1,031 m

Girnar, also known as Girinagar or Revatak Pravata, is a group of mountains in the Junagadh
District of Gujarat, India, situated near Junagadh. Below map shows the study area

BRIEF HISTORY OF STUDY AREA:

Girnar is a group of mountains in the Junagadh District of Gujarat, India, It is an important

pilgrimage site. It is the highest mountain in the state (1,145metres) forms a part of the range south
of the Bardo . It has a radial drainage pattern. The rivers originating in the Girnar and the Gir
namely the Ojhat, the Kamb, the Surekh, the Somal, the Sangwada, the Hirani, the Kpila and the
Saraswati flow into the sea. Gir hills are mainly surrounded by forest and very excellent of habitat.
 DATA & SOFTWARE USED:

Spatial data Non-Spatial data

All this data mentioned in shown table is

Satellite imagery Weather data
taken for span of 36 years so that a
proper simulation exercise may be
Resourcesat – • Rainfall
achieved.
LISS III • Humidity data
• Wind data
• Solar energy data The temporal variability of data is from
year 1979 to 2014.
DEM Soil data
Software used

Boundary shape- Properties of soil ArcGIS 10.3

file

METHODOLOGY:
The conceptual methodology to describe this paper is shown here under. Three phases of
work i.e. Data collection and preparations Analyzing collected spatial and non-spatial data
and Final conclusion statement after a careful interpretation.

Working methodology for this analytical study consists of initially data preparations which includes
land use maps, slope map, soil classification. All this prepared data is significantly used as input for
soil and weather assessment tool in Geographical Information System (GIS) environment. This work
further consists of hydrology data and calculation on various DEM (digital elevation model) based
output i.e. flow direction, flow accumulation, stream generation and grading over DEM. All this
generated stream and accumulated flow is used for calculation of outlets and delineation of
watershed along outlet and pour points.

This generated watershed is further used for calculation of basin and sub basin parameter. Spatial
overlaying of these classified landuse and slope over this watershed delaminated area is achieved so
that proper relation between landuse and hydrology may be maintained. This spatial overlying
analysis incorporates several weather parameter i.e. precipitation, solar, wind and relative humidity.
All this mention generated parameter is use as contribution to SWAT model. This research study
involves thirty six years of spatial and non-spatial data.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS:

The overall analysis is done keeping in concerned the relation of climatic and hydrological
parameter.

Landuse land cover map and Elevation profile for Junagadh Taluka

The above two maps showing two dimensional and three dimensional profiling of study region.
LISS III images are used to prepare landuse land cover classification map using supervised
classification algorithm. For three dimension profiling and slope calculation cartosat image of 2.5
meter spatial resolution has been used.

The along hydrology map shows delineation of watershed and basin. It also shows location of outlet
points.

All this output is generated from SWAT. Simulation workout is adopted over this data of watershed
and basin after calculating sub basin and basin parameter.

Focusing over GIRNAR hill Section using optimizing remote sensing technique

 Visual interpretation technique i.e. classification

 Digital technique i.e. indices

Soil moisture -Representation as % of saturation

The above statistics of soil moisture is ideally represented as a form of zonation of hill area.
Above data is of the precipitation recorded from 2004 to 2013.

Output - Hydro-climatic Analysis

Evapotranspiration, Aquifer information

Runoff, Lateral flow, Return flow

Inference from hydrological response unit

• Surface Runoff - High

• Ground water – Low
• Lateral Flow is greater than Ground water
• Sediment yield may be too high
• Surface runoff may be excessive
• Less than 22% water is base flow
• Average sediment >> 10 metric ha

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

  One of the major problems faced around the world is water scarcity and this study gives the
prime solution to that which region to be treated as prime focus so that problem redressing
may be achieved.
 A proper relation between landuse, soil, water and water conservation was brought out.
 Hydrological response unit also suggests the quantity of Nitrogen and phosphorous required
for the crops or biomass.
 This study would help to decide on which aquifer to be recharged.
 Rain water harvesting could be improvised using this methodology.
More data of reservoir and other pits if available, the study could be taken to another horizon ,The
segment of NDVI calculation is adopted in such thinking that relation can be analyzed between
climate and hydrologic response unit is more specifically understood.

REFERENCES:

• Global weather data SWAT

http://globalweather.tamu.edu/

• BHUVAN - http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan_links.php

• Spatial data-http://www.diva-gis.org/
 Technical Session III
Maintenance of Structures and remedial
measures
Session Chair : Er. K.B.Rabadia,
Chief Engineer (SG) & Add. Sec.,WRD
Gandhinagar
 MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE GRAVITY DAMS
J.P Mahajan and Abhishek

Civil Design Department, SJVN Limited

Corporate Head Quarter, Shanan, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh-171006

e-mail: jp4mahajan@gmail.com, abhi.sjvn@gmail.com

Abstract

The dams are national property and are constructed for development of the national economy with
large capital investment. Dams are built for water supply, irrigation, hydropower generation, and
flood protection. The engineers are mostly apprehensive in respect of quality during construction of
structures, but these structures should require supervision/maintenance during all the stages of its
life. Maintenance is the work required to keep the installation in working order. A dam gets
protected against deterioration, prolong its life, and greatly reduce the chance of failure through a
good maintenance program. Almost, all the components of a dam are liable to damage and
deterioration of material if not taken care of and maintained timely. In addition to this, the cost of
apposite maintenance is small in comparison to the costs of major repairs, loss of life, loss of
property and litigation. This paper covers the various maintenances i.e. immediate, preventive,
condition-based and routine maintenance which shall be done to protect the concrete gravity dams
from various damages and enhance their service life. A case study of Nathpa Dam of NJHPS (1500
MW) in Himachal Pradesh is also presented, covering safety and a maintenance program adopted to
safeguard the dam against probable damages.

Keywords: Dam, maintenance; preventive; service life

 OVERALL SCENARIO OF SAFETY OF DAMS IN INDIA
Sh Gulshan Raj, Chief Engineer, CWC
Sh Rajeev Singhal, Director, CWC
1. INTRODUCTION
Dams have played a key role in fostering rapid and sustained agricultural and rural growth
and development, which have been key priorities for the Government of India since independence.
Over the last fifty years, India has invested substantially in infrastructure necessary to store surface
runoff in reservoirs formed by large as well as small dams with associated appurtenances. In terms
of large dams, India ranks third in the world after USA and China (ICOLD, 2011). In India, there are
4839 large dams completed and another 348 dams that are under construction; while full
information on smaller dams – numbering several thousand – is yet to be catalogued. Although
almost every state of India has large dams, the major chunk is situated in Maharashtra (1845),
Madhya Pradesh (906) and Gujarat (666) (NRLD, 2009).
A substantial proportion of Indian dams have now become old. Many of these ageing dams have
various structural deficiencies and shortcomings in operation and monitoring facilities, while few of
them do not meet the present design standards – both structurally and hydrologically. Thus, an
increasing number of dams fall in the category where they need rehabilitation. Safety of these
dams is very important for safeguarding the national investments and the benefits derived. An
unsafe dam also constitutes a hazard to human life and property in the downstream reaches. The
safety of the dam and allied structures therefore is very necessary for ensuring continued accrual
of benefits and for ensuring protection of the downstream areas from any potential hazards.

2 DAM FAILURES
Any public civil works facility such as dams, buildings or bridges present a degree of risk to
loss of life or damage to property should it fail. However, possible failure of a dam and sudden
release of the stored water poses a larger threat to human life and property, and is a matter of
great concern to the general public. The effect of huge bodies of water suddenly released from
restraint – causing havoc in the downstream valley – is widespread compared to the effects of
other calamities. During the last century, there has been substantial increase in construction of
dam world over, and thereby the risk of failure of a dam has become one of the inevitable burdens
of civilization. By the end of 20th century, there were over 45000 large dams in over 140 countries
(Wrachien and Mambretti, 2009), and it is evident that many of these structures have not
performed as designed or planned. As per an ICOLD publication – Lessons from Dam Incidents
(1973) – there have been about 200 notable failures of large dams in the world up to 1965 (see
Table 1 below), in which more than 8000 people have died.

Table 1: Year-wise figures for failures of Large Dams worldwide

Year Approximate number of significant
failures
Prior to 1900 38
1900 to 1909 15
1910 to 1919 25
1920 to 1929 33
1930 to 1939 15
1940 to 1949 11
1950 to 1959 30
1960 to 1965 25
 Date unknown 10
Total 202

A more detailed statistical analysis of 179 dam failures by ICOLD (1995) indicates that the
percentage of failure of large dams has been falling over the last four decades – about 2.2%
of dams build before 1950 have failed while the failure rate of dams built since 1951 has
been less than 0.5%. It was also noted that most failure involved newly-built dams – over
70% failures occurred chiefly in the first ten years, and more especially in the first year after
commissioning. Problems in foundation (internal erosion and shear strength) have been
found to be the most common cause – accounting for 42% failure – in case of concrete
dams. In case of earth and rock fill dams, the most common cause of failure is overtopping
(31% as primary cause), followed by internal erosion in body of the dam (15%) and
foundation problem (12%) respectively. Overtopping (43%) followed by internal erosion in
foundation (29%) have been the most common causes of masonry dam failures.

India too has had its share of dam failures. The first such failure was recorded in Madhya
Pradesh during 1917 when the Tigra Dam failed due to overtopping. As per dam failure
records maintained in Central Water Commission (CWC), in all there have been 36 reported
failures since then, details of which have been listed in the Appendix. Maximum number of
dam failures has been reported over two decades corresponding to the period 1951 to 1970,
as illustrated in Figure 1. An analysis of this data shows that most of the failures have been
in respect of earth dams (30 failures) plus a few composite dams (3failures). Only three
failures have been reported for masonry dams in the last 90 years, while none of the
concrete dam has failed. Since over 90% of reported failures are of earth or composite
dams, one may argue that the earth dams are more susceptible to failure in India. However,
such a deduction may not be proper because over 90% of India‘s large dams are of earth or
composite type. If we look at State-wise records of dam failures (Figure 2), Rajasthan has
the dubious distinction of having maximum failures followed closely by Madhya Pradesh –
with both the states accounting for almost 60 percent of the failures that have occurred so
far. However, this information needs to be grasped with the realisation that there is no
established system of recording and reporting of dam failure in India, and thus, not all the
failures get recorded by CWC.

Figure 1: Year -wise number of dam failure in India

Series1, 1951-
1960, 10
Series1, 2001-
2010, 9

Series1, 1961-
1970, 7

Series1, Up to Series1, 1971- Series1, 1991 –

1950, 3 1980, 3 2000, 3

Series1, 1981-
1990, 1
The most common cause of dam failures in India has been breaching – accounting for about
44% of cases – followed by overtopping that accounted for about 25% failures. Problems of
foundation (including piping in foundation), piping through dam body, and slope failure –
each accounting for about 9% cases – have contributed equally to the cause of dam failure.
Majority of Indian dams have failed immediately after construction or at the time of first
full-load (see Table 2), which can be clearly attributed to factors of either inadequate design
or poor quality of construction. Knowing the causes of failure and analyzing the available
statistics gives an important indicator of how to structure the future dam safety programme
of the country. Investigations of such failures have also confirmed that a majority of
failures could have been avoided by proper design, construction and regulation. It therefore
becomes a national responsibility to see that manmade reasons for the possibility of dam
failures are minimized, and their consequence on the unsuspecting people is avoided.

Table 2: Age of Indian dams at the time of failures

Age of Dam at failure Number of failure % Failure

0 - 5 years 16 44.44%

5 - 10 years 7 19.44%

10 - 15 years 1 2.77%

15 - 20 years 1 2.77%

50 - 100 years 6 16.67%

> 100 years 2 5.56%

Age not defined 3 8.33%

 Total 36

3 AGEING OF DAMS AND NEED FOR PRIORITIZATION

Although dam failures have been so far infrequent, the factors of age, construction
deficiencies, inadequate maintenance, extreme weather, or seismic events can contribute to its
likelihood. However, extreme seismic events (exceeding the assumed seismic magnitudes for design of
structures) and weather events (leading to larger floods than the assumed ones) are difficult to predict,
and hence may not be of much help in assessing the odds of dam failure. On the other hand, age of dam
is a leading indicator of odds for its potential failure. In particular, the structural integrity and
operational effectiveness of dams may deteriorate with age; and in most case, older dams do not comply
with the updated dam safety standards.

Sometimes certain factors of failures unrelated with ageing process may also get linked with
the age of dam. We know that the reasons for dam failure can be several, and they may get
ingrained at any point of time over the prolonged life cycle of dam. Thus, cause of failure may
get implanted at investigation stage, design stage, construction stage or the post-construction
(operational) stage of the dam. However, the cause may fructify only after a prolonged period;
and thus it may get attributed to the ageing of dam.

Even though portrayed as modern-temples of India by Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, the dams
in India have been in existence since age old times. The 24 m high earthen dam of Thonnur
Tank in Karnataka is over 1000 years old, and it is still in use. Besides, there are 126 large-
dams which are over 100 years old. Post independence, a substantial number of dams were
added up in the early five-year plan periods to meet the needs of irrigation, drinking water,
hydro-power and supplies to municipalities and industries. Over 76% of these dams are
more than 20 years old – a period sufficient to dim the initial spotlight and political mileage
attached with water resource projects. Evidently, most of these projects are in dire needs of
maintenance, for want of adequate budgetary support from the State Governments.

The large number of India‘s ageing dams – since not maintained adequately – present a grave
threat to the lives and economies of the downstream populations. With increasing number of
dams becoming older and older, the likelihood of dam failures in India is understandably on
an ascending path. The likelihood of dam failures has been further aggravated by the fact that
many of the ageing dams lack qualified (and experienced) supervisory and maintenance staff
needed for guaranteeing the structural safety and the operational integrity to prevent possible
failures.

To reduce the risk of dam failures, regular health inspections are necessary to identify the
deficiencies; and, wherever severe deficiencies are observed, comprehensive rehabilitation
measures are required to be taken. However, owing to the large proportion of ageing dams in
India, this exercise is skewed with the possibility of spreading the limited financial resources
too thinly – with no meaningful results, and perhaps, with detrimental effects. To overcome
this situation, there is an urgent need for prioritization of ageing dams for rehabilitation
purpose.

4 DEVELOPMENT OF DAM SAFETY ACTIVITIES IN INDIA

It has now been recognised world over that dam safety aspects, particularly of the existing dams,
are not receiving adequate attention. It is so because a large number of existing dams are ageing,
and these dams were constructed using the standards and criteria prevalent at an earlier time and
may either not be safe under today’s technology and know-how or may not be acceptable to the
present society which demands absolute safety in terms of life and property. Worldwide, dam
safety is considered an inherent function in the planning, design, construction, maintenance and
operation of dams. It has been also generally recognised within the international dam safety
community that a successful dam safety assurance programme requires a dedicated institutional
structure with access to top management attention. Without the top management’s commitment
in providing the necessary resources, the programme will be lost amidst other demands and more
dams may become a risk to the public and society. With the ever-increasing number of dams,
Government of India realized the importance of dam safety and took a number of steps to
reinforce its concern.

In India, by and large, dams are owned, constructed and maintained by the State
Governments. The State Governments operate their dams primarily through their Irrigation
Department. Other State Organisations like State Electricity Boards, State Power
Corporations, and Municipal Corporations also own and operate some dams. There are
also few Central PSU organizations like Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), Damodar
Valley Corporation (DVC), National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) Ltd., Satluj Jal
Vidyut Nigam (SJVNL) Ltd, Tehri Hydro Development Corporation (THDC) Ltd., National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Ltd. etc., who also own dams and operate them.
Presently there are very few dams under private ownership, though their numbers are
gradually on the rise with the increasing private-sector participation in India’s hydropower
development.

The safety of the dams in India is the principal concern of the State agencies and other
organization‘s that own the dams and are involved in various aspects of their investigations,
planning, design, construction operation and maintenance. However the overall
responsibility of Dam Safety is that of the State in which these dams are located. As the
practices of dam safety can vary from State to State and from organization to organization,
the centre has been working towards evolving unified practices of dam safety and has
recommended its implementation by all States and dam owning organisations.

4.1 Formation of Dam Safety Organizations

State Ministers of Irrigation in their First Conference held in July 1975 at New Delhi
discussed the question of dam safety and recommended that, in view of the increasing number of
large dams in India, the Government of India may constitute an advisory Dam Safety Service to be
operated by the Central Water Commission (CWC, 1986). Pursuant to the directives of the State
Ministers’ Conference and realizing the importance of dam safety, a Dam Safety Organization
(DSO) was established in CWC, in May 1979. The Dam Safety Organization in CWC has made great
efforts in creating awareness in the country and has succeeded to a large extent in convincing the
States towards the concept of dam safety which has now been accepted by a large number of
States.

The DSO of CWC has compiled guidelines for the safety inspection of dams; check lists and formats
for data book for the periodical inspection of dams; guidelines for emergency action plan; and a
number of other dam safety literatures. This organization has also been assisting the State
Governments in locating the causes of distress in dams, and to suggest remedial measures for the
same. However, such assistance is rendered only on specific request from State Governments.
Apparently, it is not practical for such a dam safety service at the Centre to cater to the needs of all
the dams in the country. Also, it is important to note that in the present legal framework, DSO of
CWC has substantial authority to issue guidelines and review standards relating to dam safety, but
have virtually no powers for actual enforcement.

Due to a few dam disasters like Machhu II dam (in Gujarat), the attention of the country was
drawn on the systematic management of the dams for safe operations. Consequently, a large
number of states established their own Dam Safety Organisations and have taken up measures for
ensuring dam safety in their respective jurisdictions – exercising responsibilities for maintaining an
inventory of dams, compiling a history to reveal areas requiring special attention and monitoring
administrative and technical procedures regarding dam safety. So far, 14 States – namely, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal – having significant number
of dams, have created State level DSOs. Besides, three of the dam owing organizations – namely,
NHPC, BBMB and Kerala State Electricity Board – have also created their own DSOs.

Despite such large number of DSOs in the country, the state-of-affairs of dam safety in the
country is not up to the mark. To begin with, the staffing pattern, capabilities and activities,
differs widely in these States (and in dam owning organizations) due to various limitations.
There is no uniformity in the administrative set-up or functions of these DSOs. Even the
size of dams that come under the purview of DSOs differs from state to state, owing to
non-standardization of dam classification. The worst scenario is with regard to the
instrumentation of dam, owing to large communication gap between agencies (and
personnel) involved with design, construction, operation & maintenance, and inspection.
Although some states have gone in a systematic way to evolve appropriate machinery to
safe guard their dams, but in most cases, the DSOs have skeletal staff and somewhat
undefined roles. In majority cases, the role of DSO is restricted to advisory capacity, with
little scope for proactive intervention in dam safety and rehabilitation measures.

4.2 Dam Safety Procedures

Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation program “Dam
Rehabilitation and Improvement Project” outlines the existing procedures, their evaluation and
suggestions for administrative set-ups for dam safety cells in the States, their functions and also
the role of dam safety organization in the Centre. This also gives guidelines for hydrological and
structural reviews and also for inspection and maintenance of dams (Guidelines for Safety
Inspection

of Dams, January 2018). It constitutes the unified dam safety procedures to be followed for all
dams in India.

4.3 National Committee on Dam Safety

Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, in 1987 constituted the National

Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS) under the Chairmanship of Chairman, CWC by broad-basing the
then existing Standing Committee to include all the States, having significant number of dams. This
Committee has been reconstituted from time to time to include additional States, organizations
and dam owning agencies. This Committee is represented by the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal. The Organizations, namely, Geological Survey of India (GSI), India
Meteorological Department (IMD), BBMB, NHPC, and DVC are also represented in this Committee.
The Committee oversees dam safety activities in various States and organizations and suggests
improvement to bring dam safety practices in line with latest state-of-the-art technology
consistent with Indian conditions. It acts as forum for exchange of views on techniques adopted for
remedial measures to relieve distress, and also monitors follow-up actions. The National
Committee has also set up three sub-committees to monitor the safety aspects of select inter-state
dams.

Thirty nine meetings of NCDS have so far taken place, and major issues discussed therein include: i)
review of national scenario concerning safety of dams ii) Preparation of Emergency Action Plan
(EAP) and Reservoir Operation iii) Instrumentation of Dams iv) Instrumentation of Dams iii)
Comprehensive Dam Safety Review Panel (DSRP) v) National Register of Large Dams – Updation as
per new formats vi) Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) vii) Records of Dam
Failures and Major Dam Incidents and their Technical Reports viii) Upkeep and archival of records -
Data Book and O&M Manual etc. ix) Setting up Hydrology units and Design Floods Review x)
Monitoring of safety aspects of inter-State Dams by Sub-Committees xi) instrumentation of dams

4.4 National Committee on Seismic Design Parameters

Considering the importance of seismicity in the design of hydraulic structures as well as

during their operation and maintenance stage, the Government of India constituted a National
Committee on Seismic Design Parameters (NCSDP) in October 1991 with Member (Design and
Research), CWC, as its Chairman by broad-basing a previously constituted Standing Committee.
The Committee is represented by experts from IMD, Engineering Geology Division of GSI,
Department of Earthquake Engineering (IIT, Roorkee), National Geophysical Research Institute
(NGRI), Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) and Survey of India. The Committee considers
various river valley projects put up by the State Governments and other Organizations and gives
suitable recommendations for design seismic coefficients, seismic risk mapping, attenuation
relationships, Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE), Design Base Earthquake (DBE), probability of
Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS), besides seismic network and specifications for seismic
instruments etc. The seismic coefficients recommended by the NCSDP are to be used in the design
of various components of the river valley project.

5 DAM SAFETY INITIATIVES

5.1 Dam Safety Assurance and Rehabilitation Project

Dam Safety Assurance & Rehabilitation Project (DSARP) assisted by the World Bank was
implemented in four States of the Indian Union, namely Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and
Tamil Nadu, under overall guidance of CWC during the period 1991 to 1999.The Project was
completed in September 1999 at a cost of Rupees 422.95 Crore. The objectives of the project
were to: (i) improve the safety of selected dams in the project states through remedial works; (ii)
install basic dam safety-related facilities; and (iii) strengthen the institutions of the DSO, CWC and
project states responsible for assuring dam safety.
Institutional set-up at the Centre in CWC as well as in the four participating States was
strengthened through training of officers, purchase & installation of modern equipments etc.
Formulation and use of a number of guidelines on dam safety, and preparation of Probable
Maximum Precipitation (PMP) Atlases by CWC with assistance from the implementing agencies
and dam owners, have been the most significant and unique achievements of the project. With
the use of PMP Atlases, the uniformity in methodology/ approach for the estimates of appropriate
precipitation values in the various regions was achieved. Basic dam safety facilities like providing
access roads, backup power, instrumentation, installation of communication system, stockpiling
of emergency material, etc., was provided at 182 dam locations in the 4 States.

In 33 dams (out of 55 dams that were proposed at the start of the project) remedial measures were
completed under this project and they have come up to the desired safety level, reducing the risk
and adverse environmental impact on the property and people living downstream. Thus, probable
loss of reservoir capacities was restored to provide for assured irrigation/ water supply/ power
generation which in turn have contributed to the economic development of the respective regions in
the country. Remaining rehabilitation works of the balance 22 dams were also completed
subsequently by the four State Governments through their own funds.

The project has helped in streamlining data collection at the dam level through standardizing pre-
and post-monsoon reports. The capacity of the CWC (the main implementing agency) and the
State DSOs was enhanced through training and involvement in project activities. The project
increased the awareness of dam safety issues, and improved capacity of implementing agencies to
diagnose and prioritize problems. More importantly, implementation of the DSARP provided an
impetus for further work in the area by creating awareness about dam safety concepts and
benefits of their adoption. The key lessons from the project (World Bank, 2009) are summarized as
under:

 Institution-building can be a long process when it involves organizations at multiple levels,

establishing new work methods, and upgrading technical expert.
 Institutions that carry out regulatory functions require technical expertise and adequate
resources to be able to function in a capable and independent manner. In this project,
shortage of experienced/ qualified staff and inadequate operating budgets contributed to the
under-performance of the state dam safety organizations.
 When new monitoring and reporting procedures are instituted, their purpose should be made
clear to all those involved, and appropriate and regular feedback should be given to those
originating the data.
 New techniques and equipment should be tailored to the existing level of capacity, facilities
and funds for ongoing maintenance. A significant portion of the relatively sophisticated
instrumentation installed at dams under this project has deteriorated for lack of maintenance
or use.

5.2 Central Dam Safety Legislation

In many advanced countries, particularly America, UK, Australia, Canada,

Switzerland, etc., dam safety legislations have been enacted for the purpose of regulating
and ensuring the dam safety. In several other countries, it is still in the proposed stage.
Owing to India‘s sizeable number of dams – of which substantial proportions are ageing –
legislation on the dam safety has been desired by various forums to ensure the safety of the
dams in the country. The need of legislation was first underlined by the Standing Committee
constituted in 1982 to review the then existing practices and to evolve unified procedures on
dam safety in India (CWC, 1986). The need has also been repeatedly emphasised by the
National Committee on Dam Safety.The first draft of the Dam Safety Act was prepared by
CWC in 1987, and was discussed many times by NCDS. Comments on the same were also
received from twelve states (i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal) which were incorporated in the Draft Bill (2002) circulated to all states. Initial
efforts for dam safety legislation were directed towards enactments of appropriate
legislation by respective State Governments, and accordingly State of Bihar enacted the
Dam Safety Act, 2006. However, some of the States favored the idea of a uniform Central
Dam Safety Act. The States of Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal adopted resolutions in
their respective Assemblies for enactment of dam safety legislation for regulation in their
States by an Act of Parliament. In pursuance of the above, the Union Government decided
to enact the central dam safety legislation.

Accordingly, Ministry of Water Resources formulated a (Draft) Dam Safety Bill 2010,
which was introduced in the Parliament on 30th August 2010. The Bill was referred to the
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Water Resources for the examination of the Bill, which had
submitted its recommendations in June 2011. The observation and recommendations of the
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Water Resources were examined by Ministry of Water
Resources for necessary compliance. Owing to significant changes/modifications entailed in the Bill
while complying with the recommendations of the Parliamentary Standing Committee, the Ministry
of Water Resources decided to withdraw the Bill and introduce the modified Bill as a new Bill in the
Parliament. In this regard Dam Safety Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha on 12 th December, 2018.
Though the Bill was placed in the Parliament but it could not be taken up for discussion due to
objections of some of the honourable Members of Parliament.

The proposed legislation on dam safety is intended to provide for proper

surveillance, inspection, operation and maintenance of dams of certain parameters (called
specified dams) to ensure their safe functioning, and thereby protect persons and property
against risks associated with dam failures. The proposed legislation seeks to enjoin
responsibility on Central Government, State Governments and owners of specified dams to
set up an institutional mechanism for ensuring safety of such dams and reporting the action
taken. It defines the duties and functions of these institutions in relation to perpetual
surveillance, routine inspections, operation and maintenance, maintenance of log books,
instructions, funds for maintenance and repairs, technical documentation, reporting,
qualifications and trainings of concerned manpower etc. Provisions have been made
concerning the necessities of periodical inspections, instrumentations and establishment of
hydrological and seismological stations. The Bill addresses the issues of emergency action
plan and disaster management, and also enlists the requirements of comprehensive dam
safety evaluation.

5.3 Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project

The DSARP Project, assisted by the World Bank, was a unique project and first of
its kind anywhere in the world. After seeing the performance and benefits accrued from the
project, an imperative need has been felt that another project – covering some more States
having significant number of large dams – be implemented through the World Bank
assistance on similar terms and conditions.
As part of continuous strengthening of the dam safety activities in India, Dam Rehabilitation
and Improvement Project (DRIP) has been taken up with World Bank assistance at an
estimated cost of Rs. 2100.00 Crore. In this apart from structural and non-structural
measures for rehabilitation and improvement of identified dams, the scope of project
includes the development of appropriate institutional mechanisms for safe operation and
maintenance of all large dams in participating states. In addition, strengthening of the
institutional setup for national level dam safety surveillance and guidance is being taken up
in Central Water Commission.
Revised Cost is Rs 3466 Cr. So far disbursement by World Bank is 79% of original
funding and 52% of revised funding. Originally 223 dam projects were included. Presently
198 dam projects are there. Dams are located in 7 States, 8 State Agencies and two Central
Agencies.

Important activities: Design Flood Review (223 dams), Preparation of Emergency Action Plans
(165 draft documents prepared, 17 finally published), Preparation and Revision of Operation and
Maintenance Manuals (5 published), Publication of important guidelines and manuals (11 nos )
relevant to dam safety management, institutional strengthening of all partner agencies including
capacity building of nine academic institutions and two central agencies, development of web based
asset management tool i.e. ‗Dam Health And Rehabilitation Monitoring Application (DHARMA),
Seismic Hazard Mapping of whole Country and development of Seismic Hazard Assessment
Information System (SHAIS), organization of Annual Conferences(5), 1078 nos of Third Party
Construction Supervision and Quality Assurance completed, 117 nos of trainings organized and
3880 officials trained, Special Studies of Bhakra dam, Idukki and Konar Dam top understand
unusual behavior using state of art softwares so far etc.

The overall implementation of the project is being coordinated by Central Water

Commission with assistance of a management and engineering consulting firm. The project
has become effective from 18 th April, 2012 Original 6 years (April 2012 - June 2018), two
years extension with revised closure June 2020. Expenditure is Rs. 1903 Crore (up to March
31, 2019)

Typical Rehabilitation works: Pointing of upstream face of masonry dams with special UV
resistant mortar to control seepage, Treatment of dam contraction joints for damaged seals using
hydrophilic materials, Grouting of masonry dams to control seepage, Reaming of porous drains and
re-drilling of foundation drains, Replacement of rubber seals of the spillway and sluice gates and
periodic overhauling of gate hoisting systems, Repairs and replacement of gates, Provision of
automation of gates and control room structures, Bringing the earth dam section to design section,
Improvement of rip-rap, chute drains, toe drains, rock toe and general drainage system for earthen
dams, Improvement of access roads to different components of the dam project, Improving dam
instrumentation and monitoring system of dams, Providing additional spillway structures / fuse
plugs / flush bars to take care of increased flood, Raising of height of dams to cater for increased
design flood, Repair of spillway glacis and energy dissipation arrangements, Desiltation of dam
reservoirs on selective basis, Provision of standby DG sets, dewatering pumps etc. These are the
indicative list of rehabilitation works under ongoing DRIP.

DRIP Phase-II & Phase-III: Based on success of ongoing DRIP, World Bank concurred the newly
initiated DRIP Phase-II and Phase-III proposal of Ministry on February 26, 2019. It includes 18
States and 2 Central Agencies with a rehabilitation provision of 687 dams at an estimated cost of Rs
10211 Cr. It is a Scheme of 10 years, to be implemented in two Phases i.e. Phase-II and Phase-III,
each of six years duration with an overlap of two years. The World Bank has accepted in principle
the proposal and provide external assistance amounting US$ 1 Billion for Phase-II and Phase-III.
The proposed operationalised date for this Project is April 2020. The First Consultation meeting for
DRIP-Phase-II and III was held on 18th March 2019 in New Delhi, wherein preparatory activities
were discussed with prospective agencies.
5.4 Dam Safety Review Panel

In India, it is proposed that safety review of each large dam are undertake once in 10 years.
During this evaluation, the dam performance, any safety incidences, results of safety inspections,
instrumentation data, major repairs and maintenance activities are comprehensively analysed.
Dam Safety Review Panel (DSRP)or ‘Independent Panel of Experts’ is agroup of experts which
carries out the Comprehensive safety reviews for all large dams periodically with the frequency
depending on the level of risk to people, property and the environment.

Each DSRP shall consist of at least six key experts- with one 'Chairman' and others designated as
'members'.The Chairman of any DSRP team shall be a reputed expert having proven credentials in
dam safety area along with adequate experience in dealing with dam safety matters. The members
of DSRP may comprise of working as well as retired officials from the Central Government
Organisations, State Governments, Public Sector Undertakings, Reputed Private Institutions,
reputed freelance experts etc. A minimum of fifty percent of the members of DSRP shall be from
outside of the State.DSRP shall consist of the members of the expertise in Dam Safety, Design,
Construction Supervision, Geology, Hydrology, Hydro – Mechanical, Instrumentation and
Seismicity.Depending on the number of dams in the State, it may have more than one DSRP with a
view to ensure the timely completion of all specified comprehensive dam safety evaluation.

The main function of DSRP is to examine and review the adequacy of investigation, design and
hydrology. It will inspect the dam sites, review the distress condition and suggest necessary
remedial measures to ensure the safety of the dams. It will evaluate the present condition of the
dams and suggest the work to be taken up under DRIP for rehabilitation and improvements of the
dams.The panel will also check the work suggested by the field authorities under DRIP. The panel
will suggest the appropriate work in the interest of rehabilitation and improvement of dams for
world bank assisted DRIP project.

6.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

For the disaster risk reduction, United Nations has identified 5 priority actions
(known as Hyogo Framework for Action), and these are: (i) Ensure that disaster risk
reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for
implementation; (ii) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning;
(iii) Sharing of Knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and
resilience at all levels; (iv) Reduce the underlying risk factors; and (v) Strengthen disaster
preparedness for effective response at all levels, so that consolidated efforts gets projected
coherently in a synchronized manner at the global platforms (UN, 2005). Understandably,
the above actions are also applicable in case of dam safety activities in India; and, these are
being embedded in Government of India‘s recent initiatives for dam safety initiatives.

For countries like India with large stocks of dams, the issue of dam safety is critical. There
is an urgent need for proper organisational arrangement at the national and state levels for
ensuring the safety of such dams. The proposed dam safety bill is expected to ensure
proper inspection, maintenance and surveillance of existing dams and also to ensure proper
planning, investigation, design and construction for safety of new dams. However, there is a
need for expediting its approval by the Parliament; and, also the need for its earliest
adoption by different States by passing of resolutions in this regard by respective
Assemblies.
The fundamental dam safety objective is to protect people, property and the environment
from harmful effects of misoperation or failure of dams and reservoirs. India has significant
numbers of large dams, many of which are old and some are distressed; and the safe
operation of such dams has social, economic, and environmental relevance. In such a
scenario, the importance of stakeholder involvement in dam safety projects hardly needs any
overemphasis. The project‘s relationship with its stakeholders is a two-way process: it
enables the project to fathom the concerns and reactions of stakeholders and also allows the
stakeholders to comprehend project actions correctly thus eliminating chances of
misinformation (Maheshwari and Pillai, 2004). The earlier completed Dam Safety
Assurance and Rehabilitation project (DSARP) was a novel step in right direction, which
also gave realization of the limitations of our institutional capacities. The now ongoing Dam
Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) is expected to give new and stakeholder-
inclusive impetus to the dam safety activities of India by helping in the capacity building of
the Dam Safety Organisation of CWC and that of participating states, for fulfilment of
important roles envisaged as per dam safety legislation under formulation.

REFERENCES

1. CWC (Central Water Commission) (1986). Report on Dam Safety Procedures. New Delhi
2. CWC (Central Water Commission) (2009). National Register of Large Dams. New Delhi.
3. ICOLD (International Committee on Large Dams) (1973). Lessons from Dam Incidents, Paris.
4. ICOLD (International Committee on Large Dams) (1995). Dam failure statistical analysis,
Bulletin 99, Paris.
5. ICOLD (International Committee on Large Dams) (2010). Dam Safety Management:
Operational Phase of the Dam Life Cycle, Paris.
6. ICOLD (International Committee on Large Dams) (2011). Number of Dams by Country
Members, downloaded from http://www.icold-
cigb.net/GB/World_register/general_synthesis.asp.
7. Lok Sabha (2010). Draft Dam Safety Bill, 2010, downloaded from
http://164.100.47.4/newlsbios_search/Bill_texts_pre.aspx.
8. Maheshwari, G C and Pillai, B Ravi Kumar (2004). “The Stakeholder Model for Water Resource
Projects”, Vikalpa, Vol.29, No.1. January – March 2004, Ahemedabad: Indian Institute of
Management.
9. United Nations (2005), Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015), downloaded from
http://www. Unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa.
10. Wrachien, D.de and Mambretti, S (2009). Dam-break Problems, Solutions and Case Studies,
WIT Press: Boston.
11. World Bank (2009), Project Performance Assessment Report on Dam Safety Assurance and
Rehabilitation Programme (DSARP). Report No. 48651.
12. World Bank (2010). Project Appraisal Document on Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement
Project (DRIP). Report No. 51061-IN.
13. DRIP website CWC
**************
 Appendix

Reported failure of dams in India (Year wise)

SL. State Name of Type Maximu Year of Year Cause of failure
No Project m Height Completion of
(M) Failure
Up to 1950
1 Madhya Pradesh Tigra Masonry 24.03 1914-17 1917 # Overtopping followed
by slice.
2 Maharashtra Ashti Earth 17.7 1883 1933 Slope failure.
3 Madhya Pradesh Pagara Composite 27.03 1911-27 1943 # Overtopping followed
by breach.
1951-1960
4 Madhya Pradesh Palakmati Earth 14.6 1942 1953 # Sliding failure.
5 Rajasthan Dakhya Earth N.A 1953 1953 Breaching.
6 Uttar Pradesh Ahrura Earth 22.8 1953 1953 # Breaching.
7 Rajasthan Girinanda Earth 12.20 1954 1955 # Overtopping followed
by breaching.
8 Rajasthan Anwar Earth 12.5 1956 1957 Breaching.
9 Rajasthan Gudah Earth 28.3 1956 1957 # Breached due to bad
workmanship.
10 Rajasthan Sukri Earth N.A N.A 1958 # Breached by leakage
through foundation.
11 Madhya Pradesh Nawagaon Earth 16 1958 1959 # Overtopping leading to
breach.
12 Rajasthan Dervakheda Earth N.A N.A 1959 Breaching.
13 Gujarat Kaila Earth 23.08 1955 1959 Embankment collapsed
due to weak foundation.
1961-1970
14 Maharashtra Panshet Earth 53.8 1961 1961 # Piping failure leading
to breach.
15 Maharashtra Khadakwasla Masonry 60 1875 1961 # Overtopping.
16 Rajasthan Galwania Earth N.A 1960 1961 Breaching.
17 Rajasthan Nawagaza Earth N.A 1955 1961 Breaching.
18 Madhya Pradesh Sampna Earth 21.3 1956 1964 # Slope failure on
account of inappropriate
materials.
19 Madhya Pradesh Kedarnala Earth 20 1964 1964 # Breaching.
20 UttaraKhand Nanaksagar Earth 16 1962 1967 # Breached due to
foundation piping.
1971-1980
21 Gujarat Dantiwada Earth 60.96 1965 1973 Breach on account of
floods.
22 Tamil Nadu Kodaganar Earth 12.75 1977 1977 Breached on account of
floods.
23 Gujarat Machhu-II Composite 20.00 1972 1979 Overtopping due to
floods.
1981-1990
24 Gujarat Mitti Earth 16.02 1982 1988 Overtopping leading to
breach.
1991 –2000
25 Madhya Pradesh Chandora Earth 27.3 1986 1991 # Breach.
26 Andhra Pradesh Kadam Composite 22.5 1958 1995 *Over topping leading to
breach.
27 Rajasthan Bhimlot Masonry 17 1958 - # Breached due to
inadequate spillway
capacity.
2001-2010
28 Gujarat Pratappur Earth 10.67 1891 2001 Breached on account of
floods.
29 Madhya Pradesh Jamunia Earth 15.40 1921 2002 # Piping leading to
breaching.
30 Orissa Gurilijoremip Earth 12.19 1954-55 2004 The abutment structure
along with wing and
return walls got
undermined with
foundation scouring.
31 Rajasthan Jaswant Sagar Earth 43.38 1889 2007 # Piping leading to
breaching.
32 Rajasthan Gararda Earth 31.76 2010 2010 Examination for cause of
failure by state authorities
in progress.
33 Andhra Pradesh Palemvagu Earth 13.0 U/C 2008 Flash flood resulting in
dam overtopping of the earth
dam.
34 Maharashtra Nandgavan Earth 22.51 1998 2005 Excessive rain causing
water flow over the waste
weir to a depth beyond
the design flood lift.
35 Madhya Pradesh Chandiya Earth 22.50 1926 2008 Breach.
36 Madhya Pradesh Piplai Earth 16.73 1998 2005 Breach
 CORROSION OF CONVEYOR STRUCTURES IN COASTAL AREAS
MANHAR C THAKKAR, Ph D PE FIE (India).

manhar_thakkar@hotmail.com
Abstract

Structural Steel Sections such as Angles, Channels, Tees and Beam, are having both the faces open to corrosion. The
location of Conveyor Structure in the coastal areas with high salinity, moisture, rain and wind enhances corrosion. In about
30 years, practically whole cross-section is reduced to such an extent of not structurally reliable. Painting system that were
used about 30-40 years back with two coats of primer and two coats of enamel paint. Repainting generally was not done
because of complexity of structure itself.

The author in this case study, compared performance of open sections against corrosion vis-à-vis closed sections. The
closed sections such as circular hollow section or square hollow section have to have much lower exposed area and lower
structural weight apart from other inherent advantages. The frequency of repainting can be increased for increasing the life
of structures.

INTRUDUCTION

Heavy industries got impetus in India after Independence. Having more than 7500 kms of coastal line, lot of
developmental activities are in coastal area, such as ports, power projects, steel plants etc. Mechanization here
involved material handling systems including conveyors.

Open type structural steel sections were developed for steel economy even with thinner sections. Painting was
typical. Two coats of primer and two coats of enamel paint.

Exposures to salinity, moisture, water, rain; was probably ignored and as a result, these structures corroded
after 30-40 years beyond repairs.

EVOLUTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM PROJECTS

Material Handling Project needs Conveyors. These conveyors used to be all in straight lines (in Plan) and
junctions were at Towers/Houses, before 20-30 years back in India. Structural framing for these conveyors
used to be from Structural Steel- Angles, Channels, Tees & I Beams.

These days conveyors are becoming curved (in Plan & Elevations), reducing Transfers avoiding
environmental pollution problems. In this regard Pipe Conveyors have proved useful. Tetrahedron Conveyors
[1], popularly known as Triangular Conveyors, which are used to these effects. These triangular conveyors
have no walkways. Maintenance of conveyors is carried by using Moving Trolley. As a result there is
considerable saving in structural steel weight.

1manhar_thakkar@hotmail.com
847-924-3647
39 Colonial Ct Streamwood IL 60107 USA
These Triangular Conveyor Gallery Structures (Fig. 1 and 2) constructed using structural Hollow Sections,
further enhances Structural Steel Weight reduction. Painting and repainting becomes much easier, cheaper and
quicker.
Fig. 1. Triangular Conveyor Gallery in West Coastal Area .All Joints are welded

Fig. 2. Triangular Conveyor Gallery in West Coastal Area .All Joints are welded.

STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

Open Sections: Structural Steel

Equal or Unequal Angles, Tee, Channels and I sections are conventionally used in typical steel construction
including conveyor structures. To get better structural performance, these sections are often combined in form
of composite sections such as back-to-back, toe-to-toe with battens or laced. The inherent weakness of the
constituent sections is still remaining unavoidable, particularly weather resistance. The exposed Surface Area
to Mass Ratio is much higher than closed sections. (Fig 3, 4 and 5)

Fig. 3 Web and Flanges of ISMB thoroughly corroded in Conveyor Structure in South-east Coastal Port Area
Fig. 4.Side Restraining Angle, with Bolts corroded. Conveyor Structure in South-east Coastal Port Area.
Nuts are completely corroded at Trestle supporting Conveyor Gallery in South-east Coastal Port Area.
Bolts for angle strut missing.

Fig. 5.End Portal Frame using ISMB completely corroded at Trestle supporting Conveyor Gallery in South-
east Coastal Port Area. Laminated Rust thru‘ Section. 2ISMC back-to-back in bottom boom of conveyor
gallery are also corroded.

IS:800 Earlier Provisions for Corrosion Protection- Minimum Thickness of Metal

IS: 800-1984 [2 ] ( Reaffirmed in1998)(since withdrawn) stated:

Clause 3.8.2 Steelwork Directly Exposed to Weather

Where the steel is directly exposed to weather and is fully accessible for cleaning and repainting, the thickness
shall be not less than 6 mm and where the steel is directly exposed to weather and is no accessible for cleaning
and repainting, the thickness shall be not less than 8 mm. These provisions do not apply to the webs of Indian
Standard rolled steel joists and channels or to packings

Clause 3.8.3 Steelwork not Directly Exposed to Weather

3.8.3.1 The thickness of steel in main members not directly exposed to weather shall be not less than 6
mm.
 3.8.3.2 The thickness of steel in secondary members not directly exposed to weather shall be not less
than 4.5 mm.

Clause 3.8.4 Rolled Steel Beams and Channels

The controlling thickness as specified under 3.8.2 and 3.8.3 for rolled beams and channels shall be taken as the
mean thickness of flange, regardless of the web thickness.

Clause 3.8.5 The requirements specified under 3.8.2 to 3.8.4 do not apply to special light structural work or to
sealed box section or to steel work in which special provision against corrosion, such as use of special paints
has been made or to steelwork exposed to highly corrosive industrial fumes or vapor or saline atmosphere. In
such cases the minimum thickness of structural and secondary members shall be mutually settled between the
customer and the designer.

These clauses were specifically meant for steel economy. Durability was probably not the criteria. Painting
systems prevalent at that time were not specific to corrosion-free structures.

IS: 800-2007[2 ] has dropped the requirement of minimum thickness of steel member, but added a new clause
15 for durability covering various types of coatings in different conditions of exposure and frequency of
coatings.

Closed Sections : Structural Steel

Hollow sections such as Circular Hollow Sections (CHS), Square (SHS) and Rectangular (RHS) Hollow
Sections offer many structural advantages.[1]

Advantages:

1. Surface Area exposed is much less as compared to Open Sections. Less Corrosion. (Table 1)
2. Lightweight as compared to Open Sections for same Structural Strength. (Table 1)
3. Smooth and Uniform Profiles, do not allow dust accumulation
4. Higher Torsional Rigidity
5. Uniform Concentric Strength
6. Laterally Stable
7. Low Wind Drag
8. Suitable for Exposed Environment in Coastal Areas.
9. Minimum Use of Gusset Plates.
10. Lower Fabrication Costs.
11. Painting Easier & Low in Costs.

Table 1 Structural Capacity Comparison between Open & Closed Sections in Axial Compression

OPEN SECTION CLOSED SECTION CLOSED SECTION

ISMC CHS SHS

IS:808 IS:1161 Yst 310 IS:4923 Yst 310

SECTION 2ISMC200 CHS200x8 SHS180x180x8

AREA Sq.Cm 57 53 53

rxx cm 8.02 7.47 6.97

ryy cm 3.5 7.47 6.97

ESA* Sq.Cm per m 160 69 71

Weight kg/m 61.2 41.7 52

Capacity kN** 814 941 931

SECTION 2ISMC150 CHS200x4.8 SHS150x150x6

AREA Sq.Cm 33.6 32.33 33.6

rxx cm 6.08 7.58 5.84

ryy cm 3.66 7.58 5.84

ESA* Sq.Cm per m 120 58 58

Weight kg/m 32.8 25.38 26.4

Capacity kN** 490 569 569

* Exposed Surface Area ** Capacity in Compression L=250 cm

CORROSION

Corrosion of steel occurs due to anode-cathode reaction helped by presence of air (oxygen) and water
(moisture or rain).The result is hydrated ferric oxide known as Rust, which does not have any structural
strength.

Corrosion is slow process which reduces life-span of structures, resulting it into total disrepair. Coastal Areas
have much faster process due to moisture, rain, wind and salinity.

For example ISMC 150 having Web depth of 150 mm , Flange width as 75 mm, Web thickness 5.7 mm and
Flange thickness 9 mm. Area 21.3 cm2. For C5-M Corrosivity (Table 2) Over 30 years of minimum and
average 50 microns of corrosion on each face, reduces thickness by 3 mm. Then net web thickness will be 2.7
mm and net flange thickness will be 6 mm. Reduced area will be 12.29 cm2. Thus 43% section loss, rendering
the section as unsafe structurally.
Table 2 Atmospheric corrosivity categories and examples of typical environments (BS EN ISO 12944-2)
[4]

PAINTING & DURABILITY

In earlier years the ―Generic Painting‖ called two coats of red oxide primer and two coats of enamel paint, was
being specified, even without mentioning Dry Film Thickness (DFT) for each of coatings. Coatings were
generally done using brushes. Surface preparation was done by removing loose rust by wire brush. Sand
Blasting was used in rare cases.

For coastal areas fall under Environmental Exposure Classifications (iv) and (v) (Tables 28 and 29 of IS:800-
2007) [3],the corrosion protection methods are specified for Coating System 4 with desired life of coating as
about 15 years as :

1. Surface Preparation - Blast Clean

2. Prefabrication Primer – 2 Pack Zinc Rich Epoxy 20 Microns
3. Post Fabrication Primer- 2 Pack Zinc Rich Epoxy 25 Microns
4. Intermediate Coat- 2 Pack Epoxy Micaceous Iron Oxide * Microns (*Thickness not mentioned)
5. Top Coat-2 Pack Epoxy Micaceous Iron Oxide 85 Microns

Conveyor Structures in coastal areas are not Fit-n-Forget type unless these are hot dip galvanized.
CONCLUSIONS

1. Conveyor structures should be designed considering ease of maintenance access and simple way of
repainting.
2. Inspection of conveyor structures should be carried out every 3 years for checking starting of
corrosion, buckled members, missing bolts and bearings.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Andrew Jennings of Conveyor Dynamics, Inc. The author is thankful to British
Standards Institution for permitting to include Table 2 Atmospheric corrosivity categories and examples of
typical environments (BS EN ISO 12944-2) [4].The author is also thankful to BIS for allowing to reproduce
here relevant clauses of IS:800-1984[1] (since withdrawn) and IS:800-2007[2].

REFERENCES

1. Manhar Thakkar, Tetrahedron Conveyor Structures for Bulk Solids Handling, Paper presented at
Bulk Solids Handling, Mumbai, India, October 2013
2. IS:800-1984,Indian Standard Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel(Second Revision),
Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, February 1985,Since withdrawn.
3. IS:800-2007,Indian Standard General Construction in Steel-Code of Practice (Third Revision)
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, December 2007.
4. BS EN ISO 12944-2:1998, Paints and Varnishes—Corrosion Protection of steel structures by
protective paint systems—Part 2: Classification of Environments, British Standards Institution.,
November 1998.

Manhar Thakkar got his BE (Civil) (1960) LDCE, M Tech (Structures) (1969) IITKanpur and PhD (1973).
Designed Maskati Cloth Market (1961-62). Worked as Faculty member App Mech Deptt SVRCET Surat
(1963-73). Joined TATA Motors(TELCO earlier) Pune as Structural Engineer. Designed Assembly Plants &
ancillary structures. Worked as Design Manager at ELECON ENGG Co. VVNagar for many Material
Handling projects. After moving to USA worked on several Material Handling projects and other
building/bridge structures. Obtained Licenses as Structural Engineer and Professional Engineer in Illinois.
Many papers in Journals of repute.
 A Drone based Condition Assessment of Irrigation Canal System –

An Innovative Approach
A. A. Kulkarni1* & R. Nagarajan2
1
Lead GIS Analyst, Stantec (ResourceNet) India Pvt. Ltd., Pune, India
2
Professor, Center of Studies in Resources Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India
* Corresponding Author: Dr. Amol Kulkarni (amol.gis@gmail.com)

Abstract

In spite canals are playing vital role in agriculture sector for conveying water from source to

farms, many canal systems are not satisfying the net irrigation demand even though the

available water feeding them is more than the demand. This may be due to many irrigation

canal projects are suffering from physical degradation like cracks in lining, massive

vegetation, silt deposition, surface deformations etc. Due to lack of timely inspection of

such damages and their repair & maintenance lead seepage, erosion, blocking of

navigational area and reduction in flow carrying capacity of canal sections. Thereby the

availability of water to the farmers is reduced and overall it impacts to the performance the

canal system. Such complex situations demand for quick assessment damage and

prioritization of repair work based on available resources.

This paper demonstrates the application of low altitude drones along with GIS technology

were used as innovative approach for identifying physical damages occurred to Dudhganga

Right Bank Main canal. It has been identified that canal isn‘t in good condition due to

hydraulic changes to its shape, surface irregularities, dense weed patches and damage to the

lining. The GIS based analysis was carried out using images captured during drone survey

and it results shown the physical degradation happened to the canal sections have increased

canal roughness factor by 40% and reduced velocity by approximately 14%.

Keywords: Drone Survey, Condition Assessment, Canal Degradation, GIS

 SEEPAGE CONTROL IN MASONRY DAMS WITH

MODERN TECHNOLOGY USING INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUES

AND EXECUTION METHODOLOGIES

CASE STUDY: THE BHAVANISAGAR DAM, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

R.SURESH BALAJI 1, G.CHANDRAMOULIE 2, P.SATHISH 3 AND
K.SURYACHAKRAVARTHY 4
1
Assistant Engineer, Water Resources Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
<balasuresh25@gmail.com>
(4/220/11 C Narayanan nagar, Gobichettipalayam, Erode District, Tamil Nadu-638452)
2
Assistant Engineer, Water Resources Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
mouliekarthi@gmail.com
(135, Main Road, Nagarpalayam, Gobichettipalayam, Erode District, Tamil Nadu-638452)
3
Assistant Engineer, Rural Development Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
<mcvsathish@yahoo.com>
(495-A, MCV Illam, Mettu Street, Perambalur District, Tamil Nadu-621212)
4
Project Engineer, Top A India Contractor, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
<suryachakravarthi@gmail.com>
(No.1/E, Ayyappa Nagar, Gobichettipalayam, Erode District, Tamil Nadu-638452)

ABSTRACT

Dams have played a vital role in the history of civilization and serve the people from the time immemorial. We
know that dams are instrumental and strategic infrastructures in the modern development of Irrigation and
Hydropower, besides helping in flood management as well. They also play a key role in the service domains of
drinking water supply, industrial water supply, aquaculture, recreation and navigation to certain extent. Tamil
Nadu is one of the States in India having significant number of dams and there is a constant need to strengthen
and maintain the dams to ensure that Dam structures and systems are properly maintained by regular
monitoring and rehabilitation. In this present context, our prime focus is to safeguard the existing dams, which
are considered as the hydraulic temples of modern India, for its enhanced strength and stability towards
extending their life span. Since the dams are the lifeline of the irrigation and hydropower systems, up-keeping
of these vital infrastructures is the fresh need of the hour. Hydraulic structures like masonry or concrete dams
are normally designed not only to curtail the loss of stored water through seepage, but also to withstand the
uplift pressure of water, as it seeps through them. While the water seeps the built up structures, it gradually
erodes the material of the construction even modifying its chemical composition to some extent, which may
create voids thereby rendering it structurally unsafe over time and leading to increasing water loss. It is well
known that no dam can be totally impervious. Dam Engineers need to ensure that the seepage through the dam
is well within the acceptable limits. If seepage measured is high, in order to maintain the dam against the ill
effects of excessive seepage, suitable remedial measures need to be taken on priority basis. The prime
challenges in the maintenance of dams are mainly related with the adoption of innovative technologies,
technically & structurally sound maintenance measures besides compliance of economically viable and fully
sustainable interventions. The work of rehabilitation and improvement of Bhavanisagar Dam in Tamil Nadu
has been executed at an estimated cost of Rs.1971 lakh under Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project
(DRIP) which was funded by the World Bank and monitored by the Central Project Management Unit, CWC.
The main scope of this project is to strengthen the masonry & earthen portion of the dam to the fullest extent
to upkeep the safety aspects and effective functioning towards sustainable development which ultimately leads
to safeguard and stabilize the cultivable command area and increasing the food production. Rehabilitation to
Masonry Dam which includes the upstream face treatment with Poly Ironite Ceramic Cementitious (PICC)
mortar utilizing crystalline technology or equivalent cementitious material was carried out in this Project. The
outcome of this technically sound intervention with modern technology using innovative techniques and
execution methodologies adopted in the rehabilitation work has proved its successfulness in seepage control in
the masonry segment of the dam structure.

Keywords: impervious, innovative technologies, command area, sustainable development, crystalline

technology

1. PREAMBLE:
Dams have played a vital role in the history of civilization and serve the people from the time immemorial. We
know that dams are instrumental and strategic infrastructures in the modern development of Irrigation and
Hydropower, besides helping in flood management as well. They also play a key role in the service domains of
drinking water supply, industrial water supply, aquaculture, recreation and navigation to certain extent.

In our Tamil Nadu State, we have already harvested about 97% of surface water by way of construction of
major, medium and small dam structures, in addition to the existing and newly created Tank systems. As such,
there is no scope in creating megascopic hydraulic infrastructures towards water resources development in
Tamil Nadu, except for creation of micro level miniature rain water harvesting infrastructures such as check
dams, sub surface dykes, percolation ponds, etc.
In the present context, our prime focus is to safeguard the existing dams, which are considered as the hydraulic
temples of modern India, for its enhanced strength and stability towards extending their life span. Since the
dams are the lifeline of the irrigation and hydropower systems, up-keeping of these vital structures is the fresh
need of the hour.
2. CAUSES OF DAM FAILURES:
The incident of failures demonstrates that depending on the type of dam, the cause of failure may be classified
as:
 hydraulic failures (for all types of dams)
 Failures due to seepage.
 (i) through foundation (all except arch dams)
 (ii) through cracks/joints failures in upstream side of masonry Portion
 (ii) through body of dam (embankment dam)
 Failures due to stresses developed within structure.

3. REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR SEEPAGE IN MASONRY DAMS

 Geo-membrane- jacketed with geo-membrane
 Guniting- flowable concrete is pressed on u/s surface. Guniting appears to have an edge over
pointing, as work is quicker and management of quality control is better. But guniting shall not be
considered as a preventive measure and can be considered as a remedial measure since it acts as an
additional line of defense.
 Upstream face treatment -In pointing process, voids in between the stones are first filled with stone
chips by placing cement mortar as binding material, the joints are filled with mortar extending on
both sides of joint. Damaged/deteriorated pointing should be repaired with modified repair mortars
like epoxy mortar, polymer modified mortar etc.

4. APPROACH TO REHABILITATION PROBLEM

 Identification of cause of damage/distress

 Estimation of short and long term effect of the distress on the structural safety.
 Planning of rehabilitation program to ensure the continued project benefits.
 Pre application studies in laboratory for selection of suitable material.
 Carrying out the actual rehabilitation work.
 In this paper, a case history of Lower Bhavani Project Dam (Bhavanisagar Dam), Tamil Nadu, India was
taken wherein the seepage controlling technique method was followed and done using the methodology of
―Upstream Face Treatment of Masonry Dam‖

5. ABOUT THE PROJECT

The Lower Bhavani Project (LBP) is the first major Irrigation Project executed in India after independence. It
was executed during 1948 -1955 at a cost of about Rs.1034 Lakh in the first Five Year Plan. The
Bhavanisagar Dam is the largest Earthen Dam of its kind in the Tamil Nadu State measuring 8780 meters in
length, in which Masonry Spillway Structure for a length of 464 meters is located in the river bed portion. The
Bhavanisagar is the second largest reservoir in Tamil Nadu with a water spread area of 75.35 Sq.KM and a
storage capacity of 929 Million Cubic Meters ( 32.80 TMC-ft).The Bhavanisagar Dam is constructed
across the Bhavani River just below
the confluence point of River
Bhavani and River Moyar and
located in the Erode District at about
16 KM west of Sathyamangalam
Town and about 36 KM North-East
of Mettupalayam Town, through
which an extent of 1,00,060 Ha of
irrigated command area is getting benefitted now.The masonry dam which is located in the central portion of
the dam across the river for a length of 464M and 62.18 M from the lowest foundation level consists of ogee
curve spill way section of 120.70M in profile length for discharging surplus water to a depth of 6M over the
spill way crest. In the masonry portion, a drainage gallery of size 1.52 x 2.13 M has been provided with three
Exits, two on the left and right flanks and the third at the center portion adjacent to the guide wall separating
the spillway and the river sluices. These galleries facilitate inspection inside the dam, besides enabling further
maintenance. Three numbers of V notches are provided in the drainage gallery at various sill levels for
monitoring the seepages.

Fig 1: Location Map Fig2: Top view

Fig3: Front view

6. REHABILITATION OF BHAVANISAGAR DAM

Tamil Nadu is one of the States in India having significant number of
dams and there is a constant need to strengthen and maintain the dams to
ensure that Dam Structures and Irrigation Systems are properly maintained by regular monitoring and
rehabilitation.
The prime challenges in the operation and maintenance of dams are mainly related with the adoption of
innovative technologies, technically & structurally sound maintenance measures besides compliance of
economically viable and fully sustainable engineering interventions.
Hydraulic structures like masonry or concrete dams are normally designed not only to curtail the loss of stored
water through seepage, but also to withstand the uplift pressure of water, as it seeps through them or through
their foundations. While the water seeps the built up structures, it gradually erodes the material of the
construction even modifying its chemical composition to some extent, and may create voids, thereby rendering
it structurally unsafe over time and leading to increasing water loss. (Mohanakrishnan, 2010)
It is well known that no dam can be totally impervious. Dam Engineers need to ensure that the seepage
through the dam is well within the acceptable limits. If seepage measured is high, in order to maintain the dam
against the ill effects of excessive seepage, suitable remedial measures need to be taken on priority basis.
The Government of Tamil Nadu has accorded Administrative Sanction for the work of Rehabilitation and
Improvement of Bhavanisagar Dam in Sathyamangalam Taluk of Erode District at an estimated cost of
Rs.1971 Lakh under Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) which was funded by the World
Bank and monitored by the Central Project Management Unit, Central Water Commission, India.
The main scope of this project is to strengthen the masonry & earthen portion of the dam to the fullest extent
to upkeep the safety aspects for a sustainable development and effective functioning which ultimately leads to
safeguard and stabilize the cultivable command area and increase in food production.In the above
rehabilitation project, works such as rehabilitation of chutes and parapet walls, rehabilitation of service roads
and dam bund roads, upstream face treatment work to the masonry portion, renewal and repairs to Hydro
Mechanical components, up gradation of electrical installations etc., have been taken up for execution.
7. REHABILITATION TO MASONRY DAM

Rehabilitation to Masonry Dam which includes the upstream face treatment with Poly Ironite Ceramic
Cementitious (PICC) mortar utilizing crystalline technology or equivalent cementitious material was carried
out in this Project. This treatment comprised the following work components as narrated below.

A. Reaming
Reaming (i) the existing vertical shaft of 200 mm dia by rotary drilling from dam top to the drainage gallery
level and (ii) the existing vertical drainage shaft of 200 mm dia inside the gallery using sophisticated
machineries, equipment, consumables, cleaning the drainage shafts, etc. complete complying with standard
specifications
B. Surface Preparation
Raking out the horizontal and vertical joints of RR masonry in the upstream face of dam to remove all the
loose pointing using hand grinding machine with diamond wheel (manual/ mechanical means), cleaning the
raked joints with wire brush followed by compressed air and water jets with variable pressure of 30 – 250 bars,
drying the raked joints.

Fig 4:
Surface Preparation- During Execution Fig 5: Surface Preparation (Water Jet)- During Execution

C. Cavity Filling
Providing and filling the deeper cavities of the RR masonry which are beyond 5 cm and up to 18 cm
using non-shrink, cementitious micro concrete mixed with water at ratio 0.16 to fill the gaps where normal
access is restricted and to achieve proper compatibility and placement without vibration. The micro concrete
shall contain no-chloride admixture and provides minimum compressive strength of 40 N/mm² in 7 days & 50
N/mm² in 28 days when tested in 70.7mm cube. The product shall have controlled expansion characteristics of
1 to 4% when tested as per ASTMC 827 – 1987.

Fig 6: Application of cavity filling - During Execution

D. Injection Grouting
Treating the internal cavities up to 1metre deep in the RR masonry using injection pressure grouting by
drilling hole of 25mm dia and 300mm deep in triangular pattern at inclined position. Fixing PVC nozzles of
12mm dia & 200mm deep using quick setting cement. Mix OPC 43 grade cement with water in ratio 0.35 - 0.4
as per the consistency required and by adding polymer rubber based latex @ 1 liter per bag of cement and
plasticized expanding non shrink grout admixture @ 225 grams per bag of cement and grouting the same by
using 2.812 kgf/Sq.cm (40 psi) grouting pump. The grouting material shall give minimum compressive
strength of 35 N/mm² in 28 days when tested in 10cm cube. On completion of grouting, the top portion of
the PVC pipe shall be cut and sealed with cement putty.

Fig 7: Drilling Hole- During Execution Fig 8: PVC Nozzle Insertion- During Execution

Fig 9: Water Permeability Test- During Execution Fig 10: Cement Grouting Test- During
Execution

E. Application of Pointing Mortar

Providing and filling the pointing mortar in the horizontal and vertical joints of RR masonry in the
upstream face of Dam to an average depth of 2 times the thickness of joint, (25mm thick and 50mm depth) by
applying a priming coat with solvent free epoxy bonding agent inside the joints with a brush and filling
properly these joints with ―shrinkage controlled non shrink, abrasion resistant, UV resistant, polymer
modified cementitious high specification repair mortar system‖ mixed with water in the ratio of 0.16, which
should prove fully adequate and will give compressive strength of minimum 45 N/mm² in 7 days & 70 N/mm²
in 28 days; tensile strength of minimum 4 N/mm² in 28 days; flexural strength of minimum 9 N/mm² in 28
days, permeability less than 5mm, Water Absorption less than 2%, Rapid Chloride permeability < 1800
coulombs and nicely pointed. On completion of the pointing treatment, a single component transparent
silicone based repellent coating is provided as a sealer coat by brush or spray application.
Fig 11: Epoxy Pointing Coat- During Execution Fig 12: Application of Pointing Mortar- During
Execution

Fig 13: Pointing Mortar- After Execution Fig 14: Pointing Mortar- After Execution

8. CONCLUSION

The dams are national property constructed for the development of the national economy. The safety of the
dam is a very important aspect for safeguarding the national investment and the benefits derived by the nation
from the project. In addition, an unsafe dam constitutes a hazard to human life and property in the
downstream reaches. The safety and health of the dams and their appurtenant structures are important aspects
to be focused for ensuring public confidence in the continued accrual of benefits from the national investment
made as well as to protect the downstream area from any potential hazard. (CWC, CDSO, 2017)
As the dams being the strategic infrastructures of national importance, the present engineering community is
developing knowledge in the construction and maintenance management with respect to updated technical and
practical perspectives. The rehabilitation carried out to the masonry dam which includes the upstream face
treatment with Poly Ironite Ceramic Cementitious (PICC) mortar utilizing crystalline technology or equivalent
cementitious material seems to be a technically sound intervention. The embedded modern technology using
innovative techniques and execution methodologies has proved its successfulness in seepage control in the
masonry segment of the dam structure, to a tune of 30% – 71% reduction of seepage at different storage levels.
Graph: Seepage Status before & after Rehabilitation

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors wish to extend their gratitude to the Field Engineers of TNWRD involved in execution and
quality control, Dam Safety Directorate of TN, SPMU & CPMU of DRIP, CWC, Consultancy Experts,
Procurement Agencies, etc., who had contributed the required technical support during the execution of this
rehabilitation project and helping for documenting this Paper.
10. REFERENCES
1) CBIP, (2014) Compendium of Technical Papers on Grouting Techniques
2) CWC, MoWR, (2017) Guidelines for safety inspection of dams.
3) GaurarBanwat et al (2017) Control of seepage in masonry gravity dam through suitable cementitious
grouting, International Journal of Engineering Science Invention Research & Development; Vol. IV,
Issue V, November 2017.
4) IS 8605:1977,Code of practice for construction of masonry in dams.
5) IS 13645:1993,Code of practice for guniting the upstream face of masonry dams.
6) IS 11155:1994, Code of practice for construction of masonry spillways and similar overflow
structures.
7) IS 14750:2000,Code of Practice for Installation, Maintenance and Observation of Seepage
Measuring Devices for Concrete/Masonry and Earth/Rockfilldams.
8) Mohanakrishnan, A., (2010) Seepage in Masonry Dams – a study in the high dams in Tamil Nadu,
India.
9) TNWRD, (2009) Quality Control Manual by DRCS wing
10) TNWRD, (2018) Periodical Monsoon Inspection Report for Bhavanisagar Dam.
11) TNWRD, (2015)Technically Sanctioned Estimate for Rehabilitation of Bhavanisagar Dam under
Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project.
12) Various Web Documents related to Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP)
11. A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ON THE AUTHORS
SURESH BALAJI 1 was born in Tamil Nadu, India, in 1987. He obtained the Graduation degree in civil
engineering and Master degree in Structural engineering from the ANNA UNIVERSITY, Tamil Nadu in 2008
and 2010. In 2011, he joined in WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT, GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL
NADU, INDIA and working as an ASSISTANT ENGINEER, specializing in the engineering fields such as
planning, analyzing, designing and execution of water resources projects, operation and maintenance of Dam
and also involving in Dam Safety management. Er.SURESH BALAJI is the ASSOCIATE member in THE
INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS (INDIA)
CHANDRAMOULIE 2 was born in Tamil Nadu, India, in 1986. He obtained the Graduation degree in civil
engineering and Master degree in Structural engineering from the ANNA UNIVERSITY, Tamil Nadu in 2008
and 2010. During 2010-12, he worked for L&T RAMBOLL CONSULTING ENGINEER, CHENNAI as an
DESIGN CONSULTANT where he expertise in design and execution of bridges and multi-storied structures
and also he worked as an SCIENTIFIC OFFICER for NPCL in RAJASTHAN during 2013-15 and from Since
2015 itself, he joined in WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT, GOTN and working as an ASSISTANT
ENGINEER. Er.CHANDRAMOULIE is the ASSOCIATE member in THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS
(INDIA)
SATHISH 3 was born in Tamil Nadu, India, in 1986. He obtained the Graduation degree in civil engineering
from the ANNA UNIVERSITY, Tamil Nadu, India in 2008. During 2008-10, he worked in CCCL
CONSULTING ENGINEER, CHENNAI as a PROJECT ENGINEER where he expertise in execution of all
type of building works and multi-storied structures. In 2011, he joined in RURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT, GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU, INDIA and working as an ASSISTANT ENGINEER,
specializing in the engineering fields such as execution of rural roads, bridges, buildings, water supply and
sanitation works. Er.SATHISH is the ASSOCIATE member in THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS
(INDIA)
SURYA CHAKRAVARTHY 4 was born in Tamil Nadu, India, in 1987. He obtained the Graduation degree in
civil engineering from the ANNA UNIVERSITY, Tamil Nadu, India in 2008. During 2008-2014, he worked
as an PROJECT ENGINEER in MCV CONSTRUCTIONS, PERAMBALUR, TAMIL NADU. In the year
2014-15, he worked as an PROJECT ENGINEER in MANSOOR AL-MASOORI LLC, MUSCAT and Since
2015, he is working as an PROJECT ENGINEER in TOP A INDIA CONTRACTORS, CHENNAI, INDIA
specializing in the execution of various multi-storied buildings, road and bridges, execution of water resources
projects in Tamil Nadu. Er.SURYA CHAKRAVARTHY is the ASSOCIATE member in THE INSTITUTION
OF ENGINEERS (INDIA)
 SYNOPSIS OF INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES

VIRAJ GUPTA
B.E Civil, MIE
DGM/Design, Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited

ABSTRACT: An understanding of the technical features of the various concrete structures is required in order
to understand the nature of faults which may occur, and the monitoring and repair of these faults to restore the
serviceability of the structures.

An effective maintenance program helps reduce costs, increase public safety, and ensure adequate levels of
service. To maximize efficient use of resources and minimize costs, maintenance programs shall be optimized.
When large-scale repairs and upgrades are implemented, these projects are typically referred to as
rehabilitation.

The identification of structural defects will be accomplished via visual inspection, photographic record and
non-destructive techniques. Three types of inspection are required to be carried out namely:

1. Routine Inspection
2. Detailed Inspection
3. Special / Damage Inspection

Maintenance works are required to be carried out following the inspection program as both are inter-related.
Routine maintenance tasks are to prevent the buildup of dirt and debris and to ensure that drainage system is
effectively removing water from the structure. Detailed maintenance task include sealing of cracks in concrete,
repairing damaged components in structural joints and leakages. Special inspections are to be done in the
events like earthquake, fire, vehicle collision etc.

Introduction

An understanding of the technical features of the various concrete structures is required in order to
understand the nature of faults which may occur, and the monitoring and repair of these faults to restore
the serviceability of the structures.

Objective

An effective maintenance program helps reduce costs, increase public safety, and ensure adequate levels
of service. To maximize efficient use of resources and minimize costs, maintenance programs shall be
optimized. When large-scale repairs and upgrades are implemented, these projects are typically referred
to as rehabilitation. Maintenance activities range from simple tasks to complex endeavors as indicated in
the hierarchy below:
• Removing debris
• Washing structures, flushing drains, tightening bolts,
• Servicing equipment, painting fixtures.
• Identification & repair of leakages.
• Tests, verifications, measurements, and calibrations
• Planned interventions
• Unplanned interventions
• Rehabilitation
Inspection is done to ensure the safety and serviceability during the service life of the structure. The
purpose of inspection of concrete structures can be classified as follows:
 • To ensure that the structure is safe and fit for the designed life and for the purpose it is
built for.
• To identify the potential sources of problem in structure.
• To record systematically and periodically the condition of the structure. This enables
the concerned authorities to identify any significant structural changes and defects.
• To provide procedures to be followed for carrying out maintenance repairs,
strengthening and replacement of the structural components.

Basics of Inspection

The identification of structural defects will be accomplished via both visual inspection, photographic
record and non-destructive techniques. The visual inspection must be made on all exposed surfaces of the
structural elements. All noted defects shall be measured and documented for location. Severe spalls in
the concrete surface shall be measured in length, width, and depth. Severe cracks shall be measured in
length and width. Corrosion on steel members shall be measured for the length, width, and depth of the
corrosion. The inspectors shall clear away debris, efflorescence, corrosion, or other foreign substances
from the surfaces of the structural element prior to performing the inspection.
In addition to visual inspection, structural elements shall be periodically sounded with hammers to
identify defects hidden from the naked eye. As a result of a hammer strike on the surface, the structural
element will produce a sound that indicates if a hidden defect exists. A high-pitched sound or a ringing
sound from the blow indicates good material below the surface. Conversely, a dull thud or hollow sound
indicates a defect exists below the surface. Such a defect in concrete may signify the presence of
delamination or that the concrete is loose and could spall off. Once the defect is found, the surface in the
vicinity of the defect shall be tapped until the extent of the affected area is determined.

Inspection Practices

Best practices shall be adopted to help maintain the quality of the inspection program. Some common
types of general inspection practices include cleaning, field measurements, and establishing survey
control.
Mobilization - Prior to conducting concrete structure inspections, a mobilization period of planning and
organizing for the inspection is a must for the inspection to be performed as efficiently as possible. A
vital part of the mobilization phase is the receipt and study of available structural drawings or previous
inspection reports. It is also critical that all health and safety plans, where confined space entry is deemed
necessary, be completed and inspectors be knowledgeable of their responsibilities. The planning and
scheduling of the inspection during the mobilization phase should lead to an efficiently run inspection
effort.
Cleaning – Debris, efflorescence, rust, or other foreign substances shall be removed to
better observe the condition of the defect.
Field Measurements – After visually inspecting all exposed surfaces, the defects and
deficiencies shall be properly measured and recorded.

Types of Inspection / Maintenance

For maintenance of the concrete structures, Periodic inspection shall be carried out.
Types of Periodic Inspection
Three types of inspection are required to be carried out:
a) Routine Inspection at close time intervals, once in every six months for the first year after
commissioning of works. Thereafter it shall be done yearly;
b) Detailed Inspection at longer time intervals, once in every five years or as required;
 c) Special/Damage Inspection shall be done in the event of accidents, earthquake and
major weakness noticed during routine or detailed inspection etc.
Types of Maintenance
a) Routine Maintenance
Routine maintenance and inspections are inter-related. Routine maintenance can be carried out during
routine inspections and vice versa. Majority of the routine maintenance tasks are to prevent the buildup
of dirt and debris and to ensure that drainage system is effectively removing water from the structure.
b) Detailed Maintenance
Detailed maintenance program is established and modified according to the needs identified in detailed
inspection reports. Detailed maintenance task include:
 Sealing of cracks in concrete,
 Repairing damaged components in structural joints,
 Repair leakage.
c) Damage/Special Maintenance
Special inspections are to be done in the event of unusual occurrences such as:
 Weaknesses are discovered in structure during the regular or routine inspection or by any other
observation.
 Extreme events like earthquake, flood, storm, fire, accidents, etc. take place.
 Derailment/ Collision of train/vehicle with the structure;

Inspection & MaintenaNCe of Common Elements

Following are the general inspection and maintenance requirements for concrete work.
Concrete
Routine Inspections – Concrete
A routine inspection of the concrete surface is a visual survey that aims to identify obvious defects and is
performed once in every six months for the first year after commissioning of works. Thereafter it shall be
done yearly.
Items to be looked for in routine inspection are:
 Spalling of concrete
 Evidence of cracking such as rust staining
 Leaching and stains from water
 Any noticeable surface deterioration
 Buildup of dirt, water or foreign material
Where significant defects are observed, a detailed or special inspection shall be carried out on the
defective area. Where a defect has been observed on a representative part of the structure, other similar
areas shall also be examined during the detailed inspection.
Detailed Inspection– Concrete
A detailed inspection of the concrete surface is a detailed visual survey that aims to identify obvious and
less obvious defects. The visual survey may also involve some diagnostic assessment. This inspection is
performed every 5 years and is carried out by qualified inspectors/ engineers familiar with the structure.
Help of specialists may be sought wherever felt necessary.
A comprehensive written report supported by photographs shall be produced following the inspection.
The report shall indicate the general condition of concrete including no visible as well as any defects.
Defects shall be adequately discussed and their position precisely measured to enable the defect to be
located on the design drawings. Where access to the concrete surface is not available, it will be necessary
to provide adequate staging, scaffolding, gantries etc to enable a safe close (within touching distance)
examination of representative parts of the structure.
Items to be looked for in detailed inspection are:
 Spalling of concrete
  Cracks
 Surface deterioration
 Leakage and Ponding of water etc.
Action to be taken
A. Spalling of Concrete
The cause of any spalling shall be identified before any repair is carried out. Where the cause is traced to
rusting reinforcement, the concrete shall be repaired. Where the cause is traced to high edge loading an
appropriate engineering solution is required to address the problem.
B. Scaling
Scaling is the local flaking or peeling of a finished surface of hardened concrete associated with the
gradual and continual loss of mortar and aggregate. The scaling is considered light when the coarse
aggregate below the surface is not exposed; however, the scaling is considered severe when the coarse
aggregate is clearly exposed.
The gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area classified as follows:
 Minor Scale – Loss of surface mortar up to 6 mm (¼ in) deep, with surface exposure of coarse
aggregates.
 Moderate Scale – Loss of surface mortar from 6 mm (¼ in) to 25 mm (1 in) deep, with some added
mortar loss between the coarse aggregates.
 Severe Scale – Loss of coarse aggregate particles as well as surface mortar and the mortar surrounding
the aggregates. Depth of loss exceeds 25 mm (1 in).
C. Cracks

Cracks can occur during curing (non-structural shrinkage cracks) or from external load (structural
cracks). They may extend partially or completely through the concrete member.
All cracks which are larger than 0.3 mm wide shall have their length and average width measured and
recorded both on the inspection sheet and on the concrete surface adjacent to the crack. Crack width shall
be measured with a simple cracks gauge.
If there is evidence of rusting of the reinforcement, the defective ones shall be repaired. If the crack is
leaching, monitor and observe the crack.
If the crack is dry and there is no evidence of rust, record and monitor the crack. If the crack continues to
grow, a special investigation as advised by an expert agency will be required to understand the cause of
the crack and the appropriate method to be adopted.

D. Rust marks
Rust marks which are not obviously superficial shall be explored by carefully chiseling away the
concrete locally to check whether the source of stain is from reinforcement or other steel items close to
the concrete surface. The repair shall be carried out using approved methodology.
Where inadequate cover to the reinforcement is suspected, the concrete cover can be checked using a
cover meter. If inadequate cover is found, specialist advice shall be sought from a concrete technologist
or experienced agency familiar with concrete repairs.
E. Stains from water
Stains from water shall be traced to their source, if possible. If the water emanates from a ring joint crack
in the concrete, a construction joint, or an expansion joint, measures may be taken to seal the crack or
joint from the opposite side or by epoxy injection if considered necessary in serious cases. It should be
however, noted that the high cement content in the concrete used in the tunnel structure will tend to seal
small cracks, and no action may be required. Cracks that are not major shall be monitored for a period
before a decision to seal is made.
F. Surface deterioration

Concrete, whose surface has deteriorated and its soundness is doubtful, shall be tested with a hammer.
Impact testing can also be carried out to determine relative strength of concrete. Poor concrete shall be
fully investigated by expert agency.
G. Buildup of dirt, water and foreign matter
 The source of any water shall be investigated and rectified. Dirt and foreign matter shall be cleaned as
part of the regular maintenance. Where persistent problem exist, the installation of appropriate preventive
measures shall be investigated.
H. Other causes of Concrete deterioration:
 EFFLORESCENCE
This is a deposit of water-soluble calcium hydroxide, usually white, formed on a surface, the substance
having emerged from below the surface.
 HOLLOW AREA
This is an area of a concrete surface that produces a hollow sound when struck by a hammer. It is often
referred to as delaminated concrete.
 HONEYCOMB
This is an area of a concrete surface that was not completely filled with concrete during the initial
construction. The shape of the aggregate is visible giving the defect a honeycomb appearance.

Non-Destructive Testing
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques can be used effectively for investigation and evaluating the
actual condition of the structures. These techniques are relatively quick, easy to use, cheap and give a
general indication of the required property of the concrete. This approach will enable us to find suspected
zones, thereby reducing the time and cost of examining a large mass of concrete. The choice of a
particular NDT method depends upon the property of concrete to be observed such as strength, corrosion,
crack monitoring etc. The subsequent testing of structure will largely depend upon the result of
preliminary testing done with the appropriate NDT technique. Non-destructive testing shall be taken only
by agencies qualified for purpose

The NDT being fast, easy to use at site and relatively less expensive can be used for
(i) Testing any number of points and locations
(ii) Assessing the structure for various distressed conditions
(iii) Assessing damage due to fire, chemical attack, impact, age etc.
(iv) Detecting cracks, voids, fractures, honeycombs and weak locations
(v) Assessing the actual condition of reinforcement
Variety of NDT methods have been developed and are available for investigation and evaluation of
different parameters related to strength, durability and overall quality of concrete. Each method has some
strength and some weakness.
The various NDT methods for testing concrete are listed below –
A. For strength estimation of concrete

These tests are to be performed when there is a doubt on the integrity/strength of the concrete element
observed during routine or detailed inspection such as surface deterioration, cracks, spalling of concrete,
corrosion to reinforcement, etc.
(i) Rebound hammer test
(ii) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester
(iii) Combined use of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ester and rebound hammer test
(iv) Pull off test
(v) Pull out test
B. For assessment of corrosion condition of reinforcement and to determine reinforcement
diameter and cover
(i) Resistivity meter test
(ii) Micro cover meter
C. For detection of cracks/voids/ delamination etc.
(i) Infrared Thermographic technique
Damage/Special Inspection
Damage inspections are performed in response to natural disasters or human activities that damage the
concrete structure. Damage may occur by train impact, vehicle collision, fire, flood, earthquake or
explosions.
Impact Event
This type of damage usually occurs in the vicinity of train movement and to the areas
accessible to traffic. It is also not uncommon for train to crash against railings, and
walkways.
The items within the said region shall be inspected after an impact
Fire Event
During a fire, the safety of users and responders is the first priority. The structure will usually require
emergency ventilation measures to exhaust the smoke, vent superheated gasses, and maintain a tenable
environment for the evacuees and first responders. Monitors shall be used to evaluate the explosive gas
levels after a crash.
When evaluating damage, it is useful to estimate the intensity of the fire. This information can be used to
support follow-up evaluations regarding the performance of a particular structural system during a fire
event. One technique for estimating the highest temperature achieved is to identify objects that have
melted and note any color changes in materials. These observations might provide an indication about the
maximum temperatures experienced.
Concrete – Concrete and masonry usually perform well during fire events; but when
temperatures exceed about 570 ºF, permanent damage may result. As the
temperature rise, the concrete may experience discolorations that progresses from
pink to white to a grey-buff at very high temperatures. The discolorations shall be noted
in the inspection findings.
A hammer shall be used to sound areas of concrete that have been exposed to fire;
the concrete shall be checked for delamination or damage such as cracking,
distortion, spalling, or any other indications of damage. Reinforcement that is exposed
shall be identified.
Seismic Event
Concrete structures are made resilient to seismic shaking; however, large ground
movements from a seismic event may still result in extensive damage to major
components. The greatest risk of severe damage for a structure occurs from:
 An active fault intersecting the structure;
 A landslide intersecting the structure; or
 Liquefiable soils.
It is good practice to have an inspection plan ready for immediate implementation in
areas with seismic activity. Following an earthquake of 5.0 or more on the Richter scale,
all concrete structures within 100 kms of the epicenter shall be inspected. The
inspection team should use caution following an earthquake since aftershocks may
follow; and when the structure is located in a low lying coastal area, it could be at risk
for a tsunami. After the danger has cleared, inspect for:
1. Cracks, slides, or slope failures in embankments near the structure.
2. Rock falls and loose rock.
3. Tilt in walls adjacent to structure.
4. Fallen or loose material such as tiles that may fall.
5. New cracks or failures in the concrete surfaces.
6. All suspended items and overhead attachments to the structure such as suspended
ceiling, jet fans, lighting system, and signals, Check for sound anchorages.
7. Offsets due to displacement across a fault.
 8. Increased or unusual flow of water within the tunnel, especially if tunnel is
submerged.
9. Functional systems, such as drainage, ventilation and lighting, communication
equipment, and safety systems shall be inspected as a general precautionary
measure.
Blast Event
Blast events can cause widespread or local damage, and this damage can be hard to
predict. Expert agency in urban search and rescue, structural engineers, security, and
law enforcement experts will likely be required to be at the scene to ensure safety and
evaluate the damage. The structure site may be treated as crime scene, and access
to the site may be limited by the authority in-charge. Before conducting a damage
inspection, inspectors should be aware of issues associated with a blast event such as
poor air quality, the possibility of hazardous materials, and the potential other
combustible or dangerous materials.
When damage occurs from a blast event, the impact, fire, and seismic damage
procedures shall be followed as appropriate. In addition, all potentially impacted
windows and doors shall be inspected for damage from the shockwave.

Safety Practices

Another significant duty of the inspection team is to ensure that safety practices are followed at all times.
Along with the safety of inspection personnel, the inspection teams should use caution when inspecting
to prevent danger to the public. Some of the ways in which team members can be made safer on the job
include the proper inspection attire, appropriate safety equipment, accident awareness, and enforced
safety rules. Safety equipment or personal protective equipment (PPE) is designed to reduce the
occurrences of injury and death. The head is normally protected using hard hat, Safety Vest, goggles, ear
plugs, and dust mask or respirator should be used as necessary.
The inspection may reveal severe defects that could pose danger to the traveling public or inspection
team members and shall be categorized for a ―critical repair.‖ The use of structural member shall be
stopped until the severe defect is removed or repaired.

8 REFERENCES

US Department of Transportation federal Highway Administration- Technical Manual for Design and
Construction of Road Tunnels-Civil Elements: Published No. FHWA-NHI-10-034, December 2009.

US Department of Transportation federal Highway Administration- National Bridge Inventory (NBI):

Published by United States, 2014.

Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited - Guidelines for Inspection & Maintenance of tunnels: Published
in October, 2018.

Research Designs And Standards Organization (RDSO) - Guidelines for Civil Engineering Inspection,
Maintenance and Safety in existing Tunnels: Report No. RDSO/2012/GE:G-0015

Research Designs And Standards Organization (RDSO) - Guidelines for safety in Tunnels during
Construction: Report No. RDSO/2012/GE:G-0016

BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF AUTHOR:

―Viraj Gupta graduated (B.E. degree) in Civil Engineering from Punjab Engineering College (PEC),
Chandigarh in June 2007. He is a Member of Institution of Engineers (M-1597485). From 2007 to 2012 he
worked for RITES Ltd as Manager (Structures), specializing in analysis and design of Metro stations &
depots, Buildings, Bridges and other structural engineering works. In 2012 he joined Larsen and Toubro as
Engineering Manager, where he worked on the design of viaduct and stations of Delhi Metro projects. Since
2015, he has been working with Delhi Metro rail Corporation as Deputy General Manager, where he has
handled various metro structures of Delhi, Mumbai, Noida-Greater Noida Metro.‖
 Technical Session IV
Repair Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of Buildings

Session Chair : Dr. Urmil Dave,

Prof. Nirma University, Ahmedabad
 RESTORATION OF HEAVILY CORRODED COKE BUNKER –
CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS

Mr. SEKHAR BANERJEE, TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS LTD.

Mr. DULAL K DAS, TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS LTD.
Mr. SANJOY CHOWDHURY, TATA CONSULTING ENGINEERS LTD.

ABSTRACT

Stock house is a structural steel building housing series of bunkers for storage of various raw materials
required for steel making. The raw materials are fed to the Blast Furnace in pre-determined sequence as per
the process requirement. Hence, Stock house is in the heart line of the production process and cannot be
completely shut down / by passed. The present building is the Stock house of a steel plant abroad being used
to store coke. The building is about forty years old and size being 40m x 9.5m x 35m (height). There are four
rectangular steel bunkers of capacity 250 MT each for storage of coke. The bunkers are housed at 33M above
ground and depth of each bunker is 12.0 m. Due to ageing / improper maintenance the bunkers are affected by
heavy corrosion. Drone survey of the structure revealed distresses in the skin (wall) plate and vertical
stiffeners. At many places, the plates are worn out to such an extent that holes are formed through the plate
thickness. Apart from that, reduction of thickness and laminations at different locations of the vertical girder
were also found. Bunker building is considered a critical structure both from design-analysis and construction
point of view. The health of the structure called for immediate replacement/ strengthening of various structural
elements, - mostly the vertical stiffeners and skin plates in the vertical girder. Connections of the vertical
girder with the building columns were covered with plates and possibility of corrosion in the connections is
unlikely. Sequence of replacement along with the methodology were brainstormed. The main challenges are, -
restoration without total shut down, handling of the structural members for removal and erection, working at
heights and associated risks. The present paper describes the distresses in brief and discusses challenges and
mitigations of restoration/ strengthening a critical and distressed structure in a real case scenario keeping in
mind the safety and constructability factors.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING & BUNKERS

Stock house in the Steel Plant supplies Coke for Iron making through Skip bridge to the Blast furnace. The
present building was designed and commissioned around 1970. Long section of the bunkers is shown in Fig.-
1. Two tripper conveyors feed all the four Bunkers.
The stock house consists of four bunkers (Fig.- 2), which are supported between main building columns in
longitudinal and transverse direction. Vertical plates form the vertical girder system which withstand the
vertical and horizontal load from the stored material in case of intermediate bunkers (Fig.- 3). In case of end
bunker there is a girder at the waist level which resist the horizontal load and this waist girder along with the
vertical plate form the vertical girder system (Fig.- 3). The skin plates at vertical as well as hopper portion was
stiffened with vertical stiffeners.
 Fig.- 1: Typical elevation of stock house bunkers

Tripper Entry

Fig.- 2: Bunker marking,4C1,4C2,4C3&4C4

Bunker Top

Vertical stiffeners

Vertical wall plate

Girder at waist level

Vertical stiffeners

Hopper plate
Typical Cross Section showing
Bunker girder at intermediate location

Hopper
Typical Cross Section showing bottom
Bunker girder at end location

Fig.- 3: Typical cross section of Intermediate & End bunker

Each of the vertical girder was divided in to three segments with vertical splicing within them. At each of the
three segments, three vertical stiffeners were welded and the stiffener in between two vertical walls was
connected through bolts with wall plate (Fig.- 4).
 Welded stiffeners.

Bolted stiffeners.

Fig.- 4: Detail of vertical bunker girder and stiffener arrangement

The Hopper portion of the bunkers was lined with Ceramic tiles for smooth transition of material and protect
the wall plate. Vertical girders were not covered with liners.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Due to corrosive nature of coke and lack of maintenance of the bunkers, vertical girders, stiffeners & major
connections were found severely damaged during inspection. As a result, the storage capacity of each of the
four bunkers were reduced to such an extent that supply of the desired quantity of the coke to the Blast furnace
was at stake.
Further damage in bunker girders and cascading effect of that could have led to a catastrophic failure of the
entire building leading loss of life and property.

HEALTH OF THE BUNKERS

a. Vertical wall plate was found severely damaged and found whole section loss nearly for entire length of the
girders system (Fig.- 5)
b. Vertical stiffeners were corroded heavily jeopardizing the stability of the structure.
c. Drone survey revealed corrosion of the Hopper plate near Waist level (Fig.- 5)
d. Horizontal girders at the top and its connection to the vertical girder of the Bunker were corroded at several
locations due to abrasion of the material during feeding through the Tripper conveyor installed over the
Bunkers.
 Fig.- 5: Drone photo - Damages in wall plate &stiffeners Fig.- 6: Drone photo - Hopper plate

CHALLENGES FOR RESTORATION

A. Plant shall be under operation during restoration work.

B. Access to the inside of the Bunkers from the top is not possible as the space is occupied by Tripper
conveyors and other equipment to feed the bunkers.
C. The building is surrounded with other Stock house and massive building and conveyors to handling others
material for Iron making.
D. Working at height (approximately 30m above ground).
E. Working inside the bunker for modification work.

SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGE “A”

The restoration has been planned to be done into two parts,

a. Restoration of bunker vertical wall.
b. Restoration of damaged skin plate of Hopper at waist level.

Above works are to be done under the plant in operation, i.e. the Tripper conveyor feeding coke to the top of
bunkers (EL. 33.0 M) would be running and minimum two bunkers needed to be under service at any instant.
The Tripper conveyor is supported on bunker vertical walls along grids 1 to 6 (Fig.- 2). One bunker had been
planned to be restored at a time. The bunkers adjoining the transverse wall are emptied and movement of
Tripper was not allowed over these bunkers by putting temporary stoppers. For example, at first, bunkers 4C3
and 4C4 had been emptied to restore bunker walls along grid 1, 2, A & B of 4C4. Stoppers would be fixed
south of grid 3 and bunkers 4C2 & 4C1 would be in service for storage of coke. At second stage, stoppers
would be placed just on the north of grid 3 and bunker 4C1 & 4C2 would be emptied while 4C3 & 4C4 would
be in service. Bunker 4C1 would be restored. But, a very important point to be noted that the corroded walls
along grids 1 to 5 would be subjected to conveyor load to continue feeding during the restoration. It was
observed that top 1.5 m of wall was under good condition and hence this part was conceptualized as a girder to
withstand the conveyor load and found to be adequate. Bunkers 4C3 & 4C2 were planned to be restored
similarly by proper planning of the stopper locations followed by sequential replacements of the vertical
stiffeners and wall plates.
During sequential modification work each vertical stiffener were planned to be replaced one by one. On
replacement of all vertical stiffeners, vertical wall plates are cut into pieces and replaced. At this stage,
adequacy of all the new stiffeners to transfer the vertical load from Hopper portion to the undamaged top
segment of the girder was checked.
Barring some part at the waist level, entire inside of the hopper was found to be lined with Ceramic blocks.
Outside of the hopper was found to be in good condition. Due to the presence of the liner in the inside and
good condition of the hopper as visually observed from outside it may be concluded that barring a small strip
all along the waist the balance part of the hopper was in serviceable condition. The corroded strip of hopper
plate at waist would be retrofitted at the end.

SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGE “B” & “C”

These challenges pertain to constructability. Following activities were performed to overcome the challenges:

a. 3D Model of the whole building had been developed (Fig.- 7) showing all the structural components and
scaffoldings. This ensured flawless sequencing of activities, accessibility, required head-rooms, and
elimination of clashes between utilities, scaffolding and structural elements.
b. External scaffolding (Fig.- 7) from ground to bunker waist had been indicated clearing the adjoining
installations.
c. Internal scaffolding had been provided at various levels (Fig.- 8) to enable restoration at the wall and waist
level.
d. Lifting lugs were welded with the main columns to lift all the construction material up to top of the
scaffolding platform.
e. Temporary opening (Fig.- 9) had been provided by cutting the Bunker walls between two vertical stiffeners
for man and material entry inside the bunker.
f. Stiffeners had been planned to be replaced in three small segments for ease of handling.
g. Wall had been segmented (Fig.- 10) into small panels and planned to be replaced in sequence so that
stability of the elements and structure would not be disturbed at each stage of replacement.

Scaffolding for access

 Fig.- 7: 3D Model including Scaffolding

Staged Scaffolding inside bunker

Fig.- 8: Scaffolding inside the Bunker

Fig.- 9: Man entry opening in the Bunker wall

Fig.- 10: Marking and removal sequence of the vertical girder.

SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGE “D” & “E”

These challenges basically pertain to safety aspects. A safe and comfortable movement for man and materials
had been ensured by providing internal and external scaffoldings as stated earlier. Separate stair at two
locations had been provided for ease of ingress and egress. Sufficient width of walkway and handrailing had
been provided for smooth and safe movement. Plates had been provided to cover the bunker at the top to
prevent fall of coke/ equipment spares/ any other things inside the empty bunker where work would be in
progress.

CONCLUSION

Many industrial plants have surpassed the life and most of them being steel structures are in dilapidated
condition due to ageing, bad maintenance and corrosion. Construction of new plant is impracticable due to
huge capital investment and requirement of land. These structures are required to be restored with minimum
shut down or partial shutdown as the loss of production in case of permanent shut down cannot be affordable.
Hence, restoration and rehabilitation of the structures is the call of the day. There is huge demand for
Restoration and Retrofitting of structures all over the world. Each structure has got unique problems and risks.
Hence, solutions to each structure are also unique and cannot be standardized. Structures are required to be
thoroughly inspected and distresses along with the locations are recorded minutely and cause of the distress
are studied. Nowadays with the advent of technologies like drones, laser scanning, - it is possible to inspect the
structures thoroughly at heights and inaccessible locations. It has been observed that the distress in steel
structures are generally attributable to corrosion and bad or no maintenance. Hence, it is essential to establish
a constructible restoration scheme followed by suitable painting for longevity. Safety and stability of the
scheme at various stages of construction are required to be considered and ensured. All these factors demand
in-depth engineering acumen, coordination, appropriate construction methodologies and sophisticated tools in
the design office. The case study presented above encompasses these factors and yielded the desired solution
for sustained life of the plant.

BIOGRPHICAL DETAIL OF AUTHOR

Mr. SEKHAR BANERJEE:

Sekhar Banerjee graduated in Civil Engineering from IIEST, Shibpur in 2009.From 2009 to 2019 he has
worked for Engineering consultancies, specializing in design of various Steel structures related to Steel Plants
& Oil & Gas plants. He was involved with several abroad projects in UK, Netherland & UAE & worked as per
BS EN, NEN-EN, ASCE & IS Codes. He has been working in TCE since last five years as a Structural design
engineer.
Mr. SANJOY CHOWDHURY
Sanjoy Chowdhury graduated in Civil Engineering from B.E. College (now IIEST), Shibpur in 1983 and did
Masters in Structures from I.I.T. Kharagpur. He has worked both in Public Sector and Private sectors. He has
got experience in Design engineering, Constructions, Tendering & Contracts. He has been involved in design
of various Power Plants, Restoration and rehabilitation of various Steel and Concrete structures and working in
TCE since last eleven years.
 Comparative Studies of Mechanical Properties & Durability of Concrete
Imparted with Cellulose Fibre & Partially Replaced Spent Foundry Sand

Principal author :- Homi R. Bhasvar

co-author 1 :-Mayank J. thesia
Co-author 2:- Dr. Lalit S. Thakur
Contact no:- 9712958448/9429477627

E Mail ID : Homi Bhavsar <homibhavsar.cv@bitseducampus.ac.in>

ABSTRACT

Now a days, A combination of interesting mechanical, physical & chemical properties and

their environmental benefits has been the main driver for use of alternatives for

conventional concrete. spent foundry sand (SFS) & cellulose fibres exhibit a set of large

advantages, such as wide availability at relatively low cost, bio-renewability, ability to be

recycled, biodegradability, non-hazardous nature, zero carbon footprint, and interesting

physical and mechanical properties. An experimental program was carried out to study the

influence of spent foundry sand (SFS) as partial replacement for fine aggregates (natural

sand) on grades of concrete mixtures and of cellulose fibre concrete by adding cellulose

fibre in different percentage in concrete. control concrete mixtures (M20) and (M25) were

designed to have 28-day compressive strength of 20 MPa and 25 Mpa. Then ,fine aggregate

(natural sand) was replaced with three percentages (15%, 20%,25%) of SFS by weight and

adding cellulose fibre by 1%, 1.5%, 2% Comparative performance of concrete was

investigated by measuring compressive strength, durability test up to 28 days. Among all

the results, it can be concluded that by partial replacement of SFS & addition of cellulose

fibres enhances the strength and durability of concrete and also with considering the

economical point of view.

 APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS TO REDUCE COEFFICIENT OF
ROUGHNESS IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Dr. Khadeeja Priyan FIE*, Akash Kevadia**, Dad Pratik Mahesh**, Pandya Mohit
Mahesh**,Lakhani Rohan Nileshbhai**
*Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering, GCET, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120,
**Students, Department of Civil Engineering, GCET, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120, India
Abstract
In the recent past, Nanotechnology has emerged as a revolutionary technique in science and
technology. Nano science & technology has wide technological applications in various
fields of Engineering. Nanotechnology is a technological approach intended to develop new
materials to get better properties and functions by restructuring matter in the order of
nanometres (less than 100 nm). The main advancement of this technology in Civil
Engineering is the Nano science of cementations materials in construction industry mainly
road construction, water proofing, soil stabilization and painting. Nanomaterials used in on
road construction that are effectively proved that these materials improve coating and
compaction, compatible with all binders, excellent bond strength, waterproofing, soil
stabilizing and good bonding agent for soils. In the recent past this technology has been
emerged as a proven technology in the creation of multifunctional cementatious composites
with superior mechanical performance and durability. Various Nano materials such as Nano
fly ash, Nano alumina, Nano Titanium oxide and Nano silica are used in construction.
Though researchers have identified many novel properties of nanomaterials such as high
ductility, self-healing, self-sensing capabilities, self-cleaning, electrical resistivity etc., its
applications in commercial scale are limited with fewer marketable products.
Its application in water interface is still in the premature state. All the hydraulic structures
are designed either to store or to carry water with high discharge and velocity. Roughness
coefficient, a factor influencing the material of construction of the structure is an important
factor in the design of hydraulic structures. Identifying suitable construction materials to
reduce this coefficient is a great challenge for water resources engineers. The reduction of
this coefficient can be achieved by applying coating of nanomaterials on the bottom and
sides of channels. The cost of construction and maintenance cost can be minimised by
reducing the roughness coefficient using nanomaterials in open channels. Nano materials
are applied on the sides and bottom of the test specimen prepared and tested in a tilting
flume in laboratory was used as the experimental set up.
Finer particles have larger surface area and larger surface area of binders result in high early
strength due to faster hydration reactions. When Nano silica is added to concrete mixture, it
results in denser mix and forms calcium silicate which prevents the entry of water particles.
Smooth and homogeneous surfaces are produced which will result in increase of velocity
and discharge in channels. This research paper explains various properties of nanomaterials,
its application in construction and the experimental results of reduction in the roughness
coefficient in lined open channel. Considering various properties of nanomaterials, more
and more practical applications need to be found out for marketing these green materials in
construction industry.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, nanomaterials, coefficient of roughness
 PROVIDING BARRIER FREE ACCESS TO THE GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS IN
GUJARAT STATE UNDER ACCESSIBLE INDIA CAMPAIGN
N.V.PRAJAPATI
Assistant Engineer, R & B Design Circle, Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

1. ABSTRACT: This paper highlights about providing barrier free access to the all the existing public
buildings in the state of Gujarat under Accessible India Campaign. There are approximately 80,000
existing Government public buildings in Gujarat state which include various types of buildings such as
Jilla seva sadan, Taluka seva sadan, schools, colleges, hospitals, health centres, police stations, Training
institutes, University buildings, etc. under Roads & Building Department, Government of Gujarat. As
per new Act, The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (No. 49 Of 2016), [27th December, 2016],
Implemented By Ministry Of Social Justice And Empowerment, Department of Empowerment of
Persons with Disabilities, All the existing public buildings shall be provided with barrier free access for
the disable persons. As per this Act, this task shall be completed within five years from the publication
of the Notification.
This paper includes the various aspects of providing barrier free access to the Government public
buildings in Gujarat state under Accessible India Campaign. There are different elements addressed
under the Accessible India Campaign such as disabled toilet, access to the building by providing ramp,
lift etc., display of signages, tactile marking, etc.
As the quantum of existing Government public building is very large, it is highly challenging to finish
this work in stipulated time period of five years. In this paper, Author has attempted to describe these
challenges involved.
Barriers to accessibility are obstacles that make it difficult for Person with Disabilities to move around
in public places and access buildings. There are several barriers, both visible and invisible. Persons with
disabilities face discrimination and barriers restrict them from participating in society on an equal basis
in everyday life. In recent years, there has been a remarkable change in approach to ensure that
persons with disabilities enjoy the same standards of equality, rights and dignity with the rest.
Harmonization of the three guidelines viz Central Public Works Department Guidelines 1998, Bureau of
Indian Standards, National Building Code, 2005, Manual on Barrier Free Environment, Office of the
Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities, 2002 was undertaken by Ministry of Urban
Development with the guidance of the Central Coordination Committee constituted under the
provisions of the Persons with Disabilities Act 1995. Ministry of Urban Development, Government of
India constituted a Committee that comprised of expert organizations that helped in preparing the
present guidelines. The Guidelines are intended to be a reference for various aspects of planning by
State Governments, Development Authorities, Planning Organizations and the Private Sector. These
Guidelines intend to address the needs of persons with disabilities and elderly persons with a wide
range of accessibility elements and standards and not limited to disabilities only, thus paving the way
for universally accessible and inclusive India. To implement harmonized guidelines to make all the
existing public buildings with barrier free access within stipulated time as existing building is having
aging problems, limitations of space, current occupancy etc., provision of ramp, disabled toilets, lift,
signages, tactile markings, movement of wheelchair on the floor etc. Author have attempted to discuss
these challenges in this paper.
Key word: AIC-Accessible India Campaign, DEPwD- Department of Empowerment of Persons with
Disabilities, UNCRPD- UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, ICT-Information &
Communication Technology.
2. INTRODUCTION
Accessible India Campaign (AIC) is the nationwide flagship campaign of the Department of
Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD), Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. The
aim of the Campaign is to make a barrier free and conducive environment for Divyangjans all over the
country. It was launched by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi on International Day of Persons
with Disabilities on 3rd December, 2015.
This paper studies the the Rights of Persons with Disabilities laid by UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) which casts an obligation on all the signatory governments to take
appropriate measures to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to
the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including
information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities and services open or
provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas. As a part of signatory country to the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Department of Empowerment of Persons with
Disabilities, Government of India, has launched Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan)
as a nation-wide Campaign for achieving universal accessibility for Persons with Disabilities. The
accessibility of urban, rural and remote areas based on universal design increases safety and ease of
use not only for persons with disabilities, but also for all other members of society.
Access audits are an important means of ensuring accessibility and must cover all stages of the process
of planning, design, construction, maintenance and monitoring and evaluation. Access to assistive
devices and related support services is also a precondition for persons with disabilities to optimize their
level of independence in daily life and live in dignity. Ensuring the availability of assistive devices for
those living in low resource settings involves encouraging research, development, production,
distribution and maintenance.

3. ABOUT THE CAMPAIGN

The campaign is based on the principles of the Social Model of Disability, that disability is caused by the way
society is organised, and not the person’s limitations and impairments. The physical, social, structural and
attitudinal barriers prevent People with Disabilities from participating equally in the socio-cultural and
economic activities. A barrier-free environment facilitates equal participation in all the activities and
promotes an independent and dignified way of life. The campaign has the vision to build an inclusive society
in which equal opportunities are provided for the growth and development of Persons with Disabilities
(PwDs) so that they can lead productive, safe and dignified lives.

India is a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Article 9 of UNCRPD casts
an obligation on all the signatory governments to take appropriate measures to ensure to persons with
disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to
information and communications, including information and communications technologies and systems, and
to other facilities and services open or provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas.

The measures, which shall include the identification and elimination of obstacles and barriers to accessibility,
shall apply to, Buildings, roads, transportation and other indoor and outdoor facilities, including schools,
housing, medical facilities and workplaces; Information, communications and other services, including
electronic services and emergency services.
The Governments shall also take appropriate measures:

 To develop, promulgate and monitor the implementation of minimum standards and guidelines for
the accessibility of facilities and services open or provided to the public;

 To ensure that private entities that offer facilities and services which are open or provided to the
public take into account all aspects of accessibility for persons with disabilities;

 To provide training for stakeholders on accessibility issues facing persons with disabilities;

 To provide in buildings and other facilities open to the public signage in Braille and in easy to read
and understand forms;

 To provide forms of live assistance and intermediaries, including guidelines, readers and professional
sign language interpreters, to facilitate accessibility to buildings and other facilities open to the
public;

 To promote other appropriate forms of assistance and support to persons with disabilities to ensure
their access to information;

 To promote access for persons with disabilities to new information and communications
technologies and systems, including the Internet;
4. OBJECTIVES OF THE ACCESSIBLE INDIA CAMPAIGN
4.1. Enhancing the proportion of accessible government buildings

An accessible government building is one, where persons with disabilities have no barrier in entering it and using
all the facilities therein.

Standards of accessibility should be as consistent as possible with international standards, such as those of the ISO,
taking into account the local context. In regards to the built environment, ISO 21542:2011, Building Construction -
Accessibility and Usability of the Built Environment, delineates a set of requirements and recommendations
concerning construction, assembly, components and fittings.

4.2. Enhancing proportion of accessible airports

An airport is accessible, if a person with a disability has no barrier in entering it, using all the facilities, and boarding
and disembarking from airplanes.

4.3. Enhancing the proportion of accessible Public Transport

Public Transport is accessible, if persons with disabilities get an equal opportunity to travel and use public and
private transportation infrastructure independently.

The revised National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), 2014 includes universal accessibility in all the planning and
implementation interventions. Indian Roads Congress code 103:2012 Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities provides
inclusive roads and street design standards.

4.4. Enhancing the proportion of accessible railway stations

A railway station is accessible, if a person with a disability has no barrier in entering it, using all the facilities, and
boarding and de-boarding from trains.

4.5. Enhancing proportion of accessible and usable public documents and websites that meet internationally
recognized accessibility standards

The Public documents should be available in accessible formats to obtain and utilize information in daily life. Public
documents refer to all documents issued by the national government as well as all sub national documents. They
include all publications such as laws, regulations, reports, forms and informational brochures.

Standards of accessibility will ensure conversion of public documents published as of a specified year and all current
websites meeting the relevant International Organization for Standardization (ISO) criteria that are found in ISO /
IEC 40500: 2012, Information Technology – W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0.

4.6. Enhancing the pool of sign language interpreters

A sign language interpreter is one, who meets professional standards in the official sign language.

4.7. Enhancing the proportion of daily captioning and sign-language interpretation of public television news
programmes

The proportion of public television news programmes that meet agreed upon standards of daily captioning and sign-
language interpretation. Public television refers to programmes that are produced, funded or subsidized by the
government.
5. HARMONISED GUIDELINES FOR BARRIER-FREE BUILT ENVIRONMENT FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITY

These Guidelines intend to address the needs of persons with disabilities and elderly persons with a wide range of
Accessibility elements and standards and not limited to disabilities only, thus paving the way for universally
accessible and inclusive India. The Harmonised Guidelines are comprehensive guidelines inclusive of all provisions
updated and harmonized to act as an easy reference Practitioner’s Guide for Barrier Free Designs with universal
access, responding to the varying needs of the persons with disabilities. Some of this Guidelines for Barrier Free
Built Environment for Disabled and Elderly Persons, have been discussed in this paper.

5.1. Universal design elements within building premises

5.1.1. Site planning

Each building and its site should be planned and designed as an integral unit from the very beginning of the design
process considering Walks and paths, Levels, grooves, Tactile pavers, Obstacles such as lighting columns, bollards,
signposts, seats and trees, Kerb ramp, Parking, Lighting for walkways.

5.1.2. Space allowances

For persons using mobility aids/ white cane, space allowance complying with Section 3.1 of the Harmonised
guidelines should be provided. Adequate space should be allocated for persons using mobility devices, e.g.
wheelchairs, crutches and walkers, white cane etc. as well as those walking with the assistance of other persons.

Figure 5-1.1: Knee clearance Figure 5-1.2: Space requirement for crutch user

Figure 5-1.3: Radial range and object detection by the visually impaired
5.1.3. Floor surfaces

5.1.3.1. Floor surface should be stable, firm, level and slip-resistant and preferably matt finish and should not have
any projections, drops, or unexpected variation in level. Also:
 Complex patterns should be avoided.
 Floor patterns that could be mistaken for steps, for example stripes, should not be used for floors in
corridors.
 Floors should be levelled. If this is unavoidable, the slope of floors should be no greater than 1:20. If
greater, floor should be designed as ramp.

5.1.3.2. For people with low vision, lines of brightly coloured tape may be placed on the floor surface to assist
mobility in poorly lighted areas.

5.1.3.3. Where carpets are used in circulation area, they should:

 Be securely fixed
 Have firm cushion, pad or backing; and
 Have exposed edges of carpets fastened to floor surface and trim along the entire length of the exposed
edge.

5.1.4. Approaches

5.1.4.1. Approach to building should, be provided at the level of approach for Persons with Disabilities to alight
from and board a vehicle. Where transfers have to be made from a vehicular surface to a pedestrian surface, the
driveway and the pavement or footpath surfaces should be blended to a common level or ramped. Difference in
level between the driveway and footpath level surface should be avoided. Where the difference is unavoidable,
such drop shall have a kerb ramp.

5.1.4.2. Passenger alighting and drop off points A passenger alighting and boarding point should provide an access
aisle of at least 1500mm wide by 6000mm long adjacent and parallel to the vehicle pull-up space, the accessible
aisle must be at the same level as the vehicle have a kerb ramp if there are kerbs between the access aisle and the
vehicle pull-up space; wherever possible, be sheltered and have identification signage (symbol of accessibility) for
alighting area. Tactile floor guidance be provided from the building drop off area leading up to entrance of the
building.

5.1.4.3. Access to building

An access route should be provided connecting all major entrances & exits of the building from the alighting and
boarding point of taxi stands and car park lots for Persons with Disabilities.

 The building should have all accessible entrance doors served by an approach as mentioned above.

 In multi storey buildings, the accessible entrance must have an accessible route leading to the elevators.

 The accessible entrance, if different from the main entrance, should be located adjacent to the main
entrance and not at the rear of the building. The accessible entrance should be clearly signed and easy to
locate.

 Symbol should be displayed at all other non-accessible entrances to direct Persons with Disabilities to the
accessible entrance.

 Clear, firm and level landing of at least 1800mm x 1800mm should be provided on either side of the
entrance door.

 The clear width of the accessible entrance door should not be less than 900mm (Figure 5-10), preferable
1m and the width of the corridors or passageways leading to and from such access door should not be less
than 1200mm

 Internal floor surfaces should be anti-skid/ non-slip and of materials that do not impede the movement of
wheelchairs/other mobility aids.

 If mat is provided it should be flushed with the floor finish.

5.2. Signages

Signs are important to people who are unfamiliar with their surroundings. They are to provide information. They
can inform the user of a route, a hazard, or a facility. Signs also communicate an identity for the building or
environment they serve. Signage contributes greatly to the aesthetics and first impression of a building. Signs must
be clear, concise, and consistent.
5.2.1. Signage Provisions

 Information and direction signs should be provided at junctions of circulation routes and key destinations
such as doorways, at reception points, at facilities such as telephones, drinking water facility, toilets, and
in areas where hearing enhancement systems are fitted.
 Directional signs should readily identify and provide a logical sequence from a starting point to a point of
destination and a clear indication of return routes to named exits. The names of destinations should be
consistent throughout the signing system.
 A clear indication of the existence of steps or ramps on a route should be provided at both ends of the
route.
 Signs to facilities for Persons with Disabilities should incorporate the International Symbol for
Accessibility.
 A building should include spaces where announcements can be transmitted through a hearing
enhancement system. Signs should be provided to inform persons with hearing impairment of locations in
the building where these systems are fitted, and where they can obtain the necessary equipment for
hearing enhancement systems.
 Universally recognized symbols/pictograms should be used to replace text, wherever possible. Other
symbols should supplement text, but should not be used in isolation. Symbols are an essential aid for
people with learning difficulties.
 A wall mounted or ceiling hung information board should be provided at lift landings, floor level landings
of staircases, and at other major decision points (junctions/intersections) in main circulation routes.
5.2.2. Types of Signages

According to the purposes it serves, Signage can be of following types:

 Directional
 Information
 Identification
 Instructive
 Health & Safety

5.2.3. Location

Signs should be provided at all sites, campus, developments and buildings in appropriate locations including
approach to building / facility / service, entrance / exit, main lobby or reception, public facilities such as library,
toilets etc., departments and offices, fire exits and parking and garages.

5.3. Level changes

5.3.1. Kerb ramps

Kerb ramps are provided where the vertical rise is less than 150 mm; it should have a slip-resistant surface; should
be designed not to allow water accumulating on the walking surface; do not require handrails; should not project
into the road surface; should be located or protected to prevent obstruction by parked vehicles; and should be free
from any obstruction such as signposts, traffic lights, etc. should not be used if they project in.

Figure 5-3.1: Kerb ramp detail

5.3.2. Gradient
The gradient of a Kerb ramp should not be steeper than 1:12; the flared sides should not be more than 1:10.

5.3.3. Width
The width should not be less than 900mm min.

5.3.4. Flared Sides

Kerb ramps should have flared sides where pedestrians are likely to walk across them as shown in the figure 7-4;
and the gradient of the flared side should not be steeper than 1:10.

5.3.5. Ramps
Ramps allow persons in wheelchair to move from one level to another. However, many ambulant Persons with
Disabilities negotiate steps more easily and safely. Hence, it is preferable to provide accessibility by both steps and
ramps.

5.4. Access to toilet facility

Following considerations have been made in the Harmonised guidelines to provide easy excess to the disabled
persons.

 Unisex Accessible Toilets (multi-use)

 Toilet Cubicle for Wheelchair Users
 Toilet cubicle for Ambulatory Disabled
 Toilet Doors
 Water Closet, Water Closet Grab Bars, Washroom Accessories
 Urinals
 Signage of accessible toilets
 Shower Cubicles
 Public toilets

5.5. Fire evacuation needs

Placement (accessibility) and visibility of alerting devices is very important. Fire alarm boxes, emergency call
buttons and lighted panels should be installed between heights of 800mm and 1000 mm from the finished floor
surface. These should be adequately contrasted in colour and tone from the background wall and should be
labelled with raised letters and also in Braille. Audible alarms with Voice Instructions‟ should be installed that can
help guide them to the nearest emergency exit.

5.6. Alighting and boarding areas

5.6.1. Car Parks

International symbol of accessibility (wheelchair sign) should be displayed at approaches and entrances to car
parks to indicate the provision of accessible parking lot for Persons with Disabilities within the vicinity. Directional
signs shall be displayed at points where there is a change of direction to direct Persons with Disabilities to the
accessible parking lot. International Symbol of Accessibility should be clearly marked on the accessible parking lot
for drivers/riders with disabilities only. Accessible parking lots that serve a building should be located nearest to an
accessible entrance and / or lift lobby within 30 meters. In case the access is through lift, the parking shall be
located within 30 meters. The accessible route of 1200 mm width is required for wheelchair users to pass behind
vehicle that may be backing out.

5.6.2 Taxi/Auto Rickshaw Stands

At least one accessible route should be provided from the alighting and boarding point of the taxi stand to the
walkway that leads to the accessible building entrance. Directional signs should be installed to direct Persons with
Disabilities to an accessible entrance.

5.6.3 Bus Stops

At least one accessible route should be provided from the alighting and boarding point of the bus stand to the
walkway that leads to the accessible building entrance.

5.6.4 Railway Stations and Airports

5.6.4.1. There should be a tactile layout map of the station with Braille and audio labels placed at the entrance.
Tactile map should be marked by floor tactile guidance for persons with visual impairments to access it.The
lobby/corridor width should be at least 1800 mm.The floor surfaces should be non-slip and level.There should be
directional signs indicating all the facilities and the various platform numbers. The signage should also be displayed
in Braille/raised numbers to aid people with visual impairments.

5.6.4.2. Reservation and Information counters should have clear floor space of at least 900 mm x 1200 mm in front
of the counters; there should be at least one low counter at a height of 750 mm to 800 mm from the floor with
clear knee space of 750 mm high by 900 mm wide by 480 mm deep. At least one of the counters should have an
induction loop unit to aid people with hearing impairments.

5.7 Transport and road planning

5.7.1. Accessible buses

Buses, trams, taxis, mini-buses and three-wheelers should be designed as far as practicable to include facilities that
can accommodate people with disabilities. New vehicles when purchased should comply with accessibility
standards to enable all people, including those in wheelchairs, to use the service provided. Equally important,
travel routes to bus stops should also be barrier-free to ensure that persons can travel from their homes to their
chosen pick-up point. Training should be provided for drivers to help them become aware of the needs of Persons
with Disabilities.

Figure 5-7.1: Low floor bus boarding from road level and bus stand platform

5.7.2.2. Taxi

Taxi should be adapted to allow passengers to get in and out of them while remaining seated in their wheelchairs
 Figure 5-7.2: Accessible taxi

5.7.3 Rail Transport

Whether over-ground or underground, rail travel is a highly effective mode of transport. Every train should contain
fully accessible carriages. For persons with hearing impairments, an electronic signboard (digital display) should be
displayed on each platform at conspicuous location for all announcements made by the railways. Staff should be
trained in methods of assistance and be at hand on request. All new railway stations should be designed to be fully
accessible, while those being retrofitted should comply with standards given in these Guidelines.

5.7.4 Water and Air Transport Crafts

5.7.4.1 Water transport crafts

Ship and Ferry Interior Doors should be at least 900 mm wide. Aisles should be at least 800 mm wide.An accessible
toilet and shower cubicle should be provided on board the ship, complying with Section 8.2 and 8.12 of the
guidelines. Wheel stoppers and ring-strap or other appropriate safety grip should be provided for wheelchair
users.

5.7.4.2 Air Transport Crafts

All aircraft should have the capacity to safely accommodate wheelchair passengers. All airports should be fully
accessible and have appropriate boarding facilities. Special attention should be given to accessible toilet facilities
on board aircraft.

5.7.4.3 Aircraft Interior

Doors should be at least 900 mm wide; Aisles should be at least 750 mm wide; an accessible toilet cubicle should
be provided on board the aircraft, complying with Section 8.2 & 8.12; and Plugs should be accessible for
passengers requiring their respirators to be plugged into electricity outlets.

5.8 Access audit checklist

Many buildings and areas would require redesigning and retrofitting to ensure a barrier free environment for
persons with disability and the elderly. A comprehensive audit checklist has been formulated to review the
accessibility of spaces for ready reference.
6. COMPONENTS OF THE ACCESSIBLE INDIA CAMPAIGN.
For creating universal accessibility for Persons with Disabilities, the campaign has been divided into three verticals:

 Built Environment

 Transport

 Information & Communication Technology (ICT) ecosystem.

6.1. Built Environment

The Built Environment Accessibility component of Accessible India Campaign entails following targets:

1. Completing accessibility audit of at least 25-50 most important government buildings in 50 cities and
making them fully accessible by the end of this year;

2. Making 50% of all the government buildings of National Capital Territory and all the State capitals fully
accessible by the end of this year.

3. Completing accessibility audit of 50% of government buildings and making them fully accessible in 10
most important cities/towns of States not covered in targets (i) and (ii) by December 2019.

The Department has completed the accessibility audit of 1653 buildings which were identified by state
governments through empaneled Access Auditors. The Access Audit Reports for 1469 buildings were submitted to
the State Nodal Officers for submitting financial proposal for retrofitting of these building. The proposals for 575
buildings have been received under the scheme. Funds amounting to Rs 45.42 Crore have been disbursed to States
for 242 buildings. An amount of Rs.148 lakh has been released to auditors for conducting access-audit.

6.2. Transport System

Transport accessibility component of Accessible India Campaign aims to make all international airports fully
accessible immediately and domestic airports. Out of 32 international airports 25 have been provided with
accessibility features namely, ramps, accessible toilets, lifts with braille symbols and auditory signals.

Railways is the most popular mode of transport in our country. In order to make one of the biggest rail-networks in
the world accessible, all A1, A & B categories of railway stations are to be made fully accessible.

Under Accessible India Campaign, Department aims to make 10% of government owned public transport carriers
to be made fully accessible.

To achieve the same, the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways has issued instructions to States and Executive
Directors of State Undertakings to ensure that Government owned Public Transport is made fully accessible to the
PwDs.

6.3. Information & Communication Technology Ecosystem

Accessibility of Information and Communication System is another crucial pillar of Accessible India Campaign. The
target set under this vertical is to make at Central and State Government websites accessible.
The work-order has already been issued for making 917 state government websites accessible. In addition to this,
100 Government websites of 56 Ministries/Departments are being made accessible by the Ministry of Electronics
& Information Technology.

Department launched ‘Sugamya Pustakalaya’- an online library for Persons with Print Disabilities centred on
achieving ‘Universal Accessibility’.

The Department has also organized awareness workshops at Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Raipur, Bhubaneswar,
Chennai and Ranchi to provide an insight into various contours of Accessible India Campaign.

To create mass awareness on Accessibility, a Motorcycle Rally ‘Ride4Accessibility’ was organised on July 24.2016 at
India Gate, Lodhi Garden, Vasant Kunj and South Extension, in which more than 600 motorbike riders and 6000
youth/students participated.

In order to create a foot-print in digital space, the Department is constantly exploring the Social Media for
providing updates on AIC through blogs, reports, live broadcasts, pictures etc.

The Department has a dedicated website – www.accessibleindia.gov.in and a mobile application whereby, it can be
reached for recent updates and happenings.

CONCLUSION
Various aspects of providing barrier free access have been covered in this paper for the Government public
buildings in Gujarat state under Accessible India Campaign. There are different elements addressed under the
Accessible India Campaign such as disabled toilet, access to the building by providing ramp, lift etc., display of
signages, tactile marking, etc. As the quantum of existing Government public building is very large, it is highly
challenging to finish this work in stipulated time period of five years.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Author is grateful to Shri. S. K. Patel, Chief Engineer, R & B Department, Government of Gujarat for providing
inspiration to write this paper and giving opportunity to participate in such technical forum.

REFERENCES

1. Department has a dedicated website – www.accessibleindia.gov.in and a mobile application.

2. Harmonic guidelines of Accessible India campaign published by Government of India, Ministry of Urban
Development in 2016.
3. National building code 2016-Buero of Indian standard, 2016.
4. ‘Sugamya Pustakalaya’- an online library
 TOWARDS A NORMATIVE FRAMEWORK FOR THE ASSESSMENT
AND RETROFIT OF EXISTING MASONRY BUILDINGS IN INDIA
KRISHNACHANDRAN S1; ARUN MENON2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, India, krishnchandran@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, India, arunmenon@iitm.ac.in
ABSTRACT

Rapid urbanization results in the demolition of existing structures and construction of new ones with better seismic
resistant features. However, the same approach might not be practicable in developing countries from the
perspectives of economic feasibility and environmental sustainability. Hence, strengthening of existing structures to
satisfactory performance limits from time to time has major role in countries like India. Post earthquake damage
assessment surveys suggest that unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings do not show satisfactory performance under
earthquakes unless they have adequate seismic resistant features ensuring acceptable seismic performance and life
safety for inhabitants [1]. Both at material level and component level, URM has considerable variability in
properties across the globe and hence the universal applicability of global seismic assessment guidelines could be
questionable. Due to these reasons, it is important to have a seismic assessment framework and strengthening
methodology derived from the universally accepted assessment fundamentals but catered to the specific regional
level details.

Normative frameworks across the world involve the initial phase of developing assessment procedures for the
evaluation of existing buildings based on engineering principles and quantitative methods. This is followed by
creating guidelines involving the techniques for the rehabilitation of existing structures and methods for the safe
implementation of these techniques. These guidelines are regulatory in nature, but based on the results and
conclusions derived from the evaluation process. In the Indian context, there exist comprehensive databases
covering the typologies of unreinforced masonry buildings and strengthening guidelines. However, a normative
framework involving quantitative basis for the assessment of existing unreinforced masonry structures is absent.
Hence, the strengthening guidelines are merely prescriptive in nature and the analytical basis for choosing a
particular strengthening scheme becomes uncertain.

This paper looks at identifying and addressing the basic concerns and challenges in creating a quantitative basis for
setting up an assessment framework for URM structures in India, by comparing with the global seismic assessment
guidelines.

SEISMIC ASSESSMENT: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AS PER INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES

 Seismic assessment frameworks across the globe involve the following stages (Figure 1) in developing a
comprehensive assessment methodology.

Figure 1: Stages of seismic assessment of an existing structure

The initial part consists of collecting relevant information and documentation of the building through the review of
as built drawings and rapid visual screening. This stage involves gathering information including construction
documentation and as built drawings followed by visual inspection and on-site investigations to estimate the
material properties. Further, structural assessment is carried out using accepted guidelines and assessment
frameworks developed for the evaluation and assessment of existing buildings. At preliminary level, these are initial
seismic assessment procedures which are deficiency based, focused on identifying the seismic hazard and critical
structural weaknesses in the system. This may be followed by detailed seismic assessment based on analytical
procedures depending on the level of complexities in the system. With respect to this stage, the critical step is to
identify the target performance level. ASCE 41-13[2] defines four performance limit states as operational,
immediate occupancy, life safety and collapse prevention. ASCE 41 adopts a 3 tier investigation scheme for the
seismic assessment of a structure. Tier one analysis involves a quick check analysis process with structural checklist
to ascertain whether the structure conforms to the requirements for safe performance during an earthquake. Tier 2
analysis procedure is a deficiency based analysis scheme in which additional analysis is conducted if the structure is
observed to be non-compliant with the checklists as per Tier 1 analysis procedure. Tier 3 evaluations involve
rigorous and systematic assessment procedure involving system level structural analysis, element level analysis and
non structural component analysis. Non typical building types and configurations including structures with different
lateral load resisting systems are to be evaluated by Tier 3 evaluation scheme. However, the New Zealand
assessment guidelines [3] consider strengthening existing unreinforced masonry buildings to life safety performance
level. The structural assessment consists of an initial assessment phase where the structure is given a rating
qualitatively which compares its performance with a building designed as per the current standards. Further,
depending on the seismic vulnerability of the building, detailed assessment procedures are also specified. The level
of complexities involved and the level of judgments required for these two assessment methodologies are explained
in Figure 2.The detailed seismic assessment procedure involves a weakest link approach where
elements/mechanisms are categorized in the decreasing order of their seismic vulnerability as local out-of-plane
collapse of parapets, out-of-plane stability of walls, wall to diaphragm connection strength, diaphragm stiffness and
strength and the in-plane strength of walls. The capacity attainment of a member is limited by the capacity of the
previous (more vulnerable) member in the link. For example, the strength of in-plane walls is limited by the
diaphragm strength and stiffness which in turn is limited by the out-of-plane stability of masonry walls. This is
attributed to the fact that the inertial forces from the out-of-plane walls are transferred to the diaphragm and then to
the in-plane walls and hence the capacity attainment of the most vulnerable element is limited by the strength of the
least vulnerable element. The final step in the assessment framework involves techniques for the rehabilitation of
existing structures and methods for the safe implementation of these techniques which are regulatory in nature but
based on the results and conclusions obtained from the evaluation process.
 Figure 2: Initial and Detailed Seismic Assessment(Level of Complexity)[2]

SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF URM BUILDINGS: INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

In the Indian context, there exist comprehensive databases covering the typologies of unreinforced masonry
buildings [4]. Further, the methodology to carry out Step 1 in the form of rapid visual survey is prescribed in IS
13935[5]. The recommendations for data collection from as built drawings and the knowledge factors to be used in
the absence of drawings are prescribed in IS 15988[6]. However, the absence of step 2(initial assessment) and step
3(detailed assessment) makes the link between data collection and strengthening schemes merely prescriptive in
nature. For the scheme of retrofit to be rational and scientific, the assessment procedure should be both analytical
and qualitative.

The rapid visual screening identifies the seismic hazard and potential structural weaknesses in the system. This helps
in arriving at the grade of damageability of the structure. Structural damages are classified into five grades including
negligible, moderate, substantial, heavy and very heavy structural damage [5]. Strengthening interventions are
prescribed based on the seismic hazard (Zone) and damage grade. Thus, the strengthening methodology derives
directly from the review of structural documentation, rapid visual screening and potential structural weaknesses
which makes the choice of the methodology of retrofit questionable. Thus, the path between evaluation phase and
strengthening phase is qualitative in nature and this dictates the need of a normative framework involving
quantitative and analytical basis for the assessment of existing unreinforced masonry structures.

Indian seismic evaluation framework for existing masonry buildings warrants the use of prescriptive guidelines for
the retrofit of existing masonry structures. IS 13935 indicates that for both ordinary and important masonry
buildings, the retrofitting requirements can be directly assessed by comparing the building under consideration with
the safety requirements in IS 4326[8] and IS 13828[7]. However, for buildings of historic importance, a rational
assessment procedure using IS 1893(Part 1), Maximum Considered Earthquake demand and a higher importance
factor of 2 compared to 1.5 for important buildings. IS 13828[7] defines the strengthening method based on the
design seismic coefficients which is a function of basic seismic coefficient, importance factor of the building and the
foundation flexibility. Hence, the assessment scheme summarized in Figure 1 is warranted for historically important
buildings only and the scheme of conducting the assessment is not stated explicitly. Therefore, considerable gap
exists between the Indian prescriptive guidelines and the international guidelines for the seismic assessment of
existing masonry structures.

SEISMIC ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK FOR URM BUILDINGS IN INDIA: GAPS AND CHALLENGES

Existing Buildings versus Current Seismic Standards

The primary requirement of a guideline for the assessment of existing structures is that the results of assessment
should be consistent with respect to the code updates happening over time. International codes and guidelines are in
the process of continuous evolution and hence, one of the main challenges in seismic assessment is setting up the
benchmark of comparison between the buildings constructed over different periods of time. Buildings are
constructed according to the then existing code recommendations and therefore, conducting structural assessments
for existing buildings as per the requirements of the current code provisions need not provide a realistic estimate of
the structural deficiencies. Hence, a basis of assessment is required which maps the previous assessment standards to
the current ones and is uniform with respect to the changes in the code regulations over time.

From this context, the New Zealand assessment guidelines [3] provide a rational and quantitative way of addressing
this problem. From the phase of initial seismic assessment itself, the structure is given an earthquake rating as per
New Building Standards (NBS) which reflects how the building compares with the seismic strength of a new
building constructed as per the current building code. As per these standards, a building which is designed and
constructed as per the current seismic standards is assigned an NBS rating of 100. Further, a building is categorized
as earthquake prone if it fails to meet 34% NBS, i.e., the current building standards. An earthquake-risk building is
one which has a rating between 34%-67% and. any building which has a rating of above 67% is considered to have
medium-low risk under earthquakes. Hence, buildings are assigned grades based on their performance relative to a
building with 100% NBS rating

%NBS Structural Performance Seismic Grade

80-100 Low Risk A

67-80 Medium Risk B

34-67 Earthquake Risk (High risk) C

20-33 Earthquake Prone(Very high risk) D

0-20 Earthquake Prone(Extremely high E

risk)

Table 1: Seismic Vulnerability Classification (New Zealand Standards)

The initial evaluation procedure determines the NBS rating of a building which consists of three steps. Each factor
considered in these steps is assigned with numerical factors to arrive at a quantitative estimate of the NBS rating
which is then qualitatively interpreted with the help of Table 1. In step 1, the nominal percentage NBS is a function
of the age of the building, building type, soil type and the structural system type. Further, depending on the presence
of near faults, seismic hazard, return period and ductility present in the structural system, the rating value gets
modified. In the final step, potential structural weaknesses including the effect of plan irregularities, vertical
irregularities, short columns, pounding effects and site characteristics (landslides, stability issues etc) are taken into
consideration and the %NBS is updated based on the severity of these effects. In addition, the NBS rating could be
modified based on the detailed seismic assessment, if being carried out.

Definition of Seismic Input

The New Zealand code defines seismic input in the form of elastic site spectrum as

C (T1 )  C h (T1 ).Z .Ru .N (T1 , D)

where Ch(T1) is the spectral shape factor, Z corresponds to the hazard factor, N(T1,D) corresponds to the near fault
scaling factor and Ru corresponds to the return period factor. This seismic input is then scaled down by applying
ductility factors as well as structural performance factors. The structural performance factors correspond to the
material overstrengths, redundancy and the increased energy dissipation due to the damping from foundation and
non structural elements. The ductility factors represent the capacity of a system to accommodate inelastic
displacements.
ASCE 41 defines the seismic demand as

V  C1 .C 2 .C m .S a .W

Where C1 and C2 are modification factors which account for the difference between maximum inelastic
displacements to the linear elastic displacements.

As per the Indian assessment guidelines, there exists ambiguity in defining the seismic input for the assessment of
masonry buildings. The code [5] prescribes using Maximum Considered Earthquake(MCE) demands for historically
significant buildings, however no analytical assessment scheme is prescribed for buildings categorized as ordinary
and important. Hence, the definition of seismic input needs to be clearly articulated in the assessment protocol.
International guidelines follow the principle of applying the seismic demand corresponding to maximum considered
earthquake levels and reducing the force resultants at member level in proportion to the member ductility levels.

Characterization of Material Properties

The most critical shortcomings in assessment procedures come with respect to the characterization of material
properties for unreinforced masonry structures. While undertaking the seismic assessment of an existing structure, it
is essential to consider the residual capacity of the structure, for which masonry compressive strength, flexural
tensile strength and shear strength are required. While Indian codal framework for unreinforced masonry buildings
[5-11] does not specify the methodology to assess these parameters, the global assessment guidelines [2,3, 12]
provide the following tests for the estimation of the same. Masonry compressive strength can be estimated by
extracting a prism specimen from the existing structure and subjecting it to vertical compressive stress in the
laboratory until strength is reached [14]. Instead, the units can be extracted and prisms can be made with substitute
mortars with similar chemical properties and peak compressive strength can be estimated. However, the most widely
used method for estimating the compressive stress in existing masonry structures is the flat jack test [15] due to its
non-destructive nature and in-situ determination of compressive stress. This consists of creating slots in two mortar
bed joints. Flat jacks are inserted to the slots and pressurized and the layer of masonry between is subjected to
vertical compressive stress. For masonry that is relatively weak, softening can be observed by a reduction in slope of
the stress-strain curve, and compressive strength can be inferred. The disadvantage is that typical flat jacks may not
be able to reach the high pressures needed to approach the ultimate strength of the masonry in compression. The
flexural tensile strength of masonry structures can be estimated by using the bond wrench test [17]. The method
incorporates the use of a device called bond wrench which applies an out-of-plane bending moment at the top of the
specimen until it fails and the flexural tensile strength is calculated. Another method is by extracting samples for
masonry and subjecting them to uniform pressure or three point loading to estimate flexural tensile strength. Bed
joint shear strength is estimated by measuring the in situ shear strength between masonry unit and the bed joints
above and below the unit. Horizontal force is applied to initiate sliding in the test unit through a hydraulic jack and
the force per unit area gives the shear strength of the joint [16]. Further, shear strength of the masonry wallet is
estimated by diagonal compression tests [18] where a masonry panel is subject to compressive forces along the
diagonal until the panel cracks.

Confidence Levels for Material Properties

In most of the situations, as built construction documentation will not be available for existing URM structures. This
makes it necessary to resort to comprehensive testing programme to estimate the material properties. Most of the
aforementioned test methods are destructive or semi-destructive in nature and hence, non-destructive testing
methods are resorted. However, the variability of material properties in URM and the scatter of results in the
estimation of these properties make it necessary to have a range of default lower bound values for material
properties which can be relied upon in situations where the feasibility of employing a testing programme is limited.
Hence, a documentation involving the construction typologies and the range of material properties is essential in this
context. The role of the extent of documentation and inspections in analysis is incorporated by the use of knowledge
factors in the estimation of material properties. The extent of material testing, condition assessment and the
reliability of the results determine the knowledge factor. These reflect the effect of the confidence levels with which
a mechanical property is estimated during assessment by reducing the value of probable material strengths
depending on the confidence levels during assessment. EC8[12] defines confidence levels as limited, normal and full
based on geometry, the level of details and the mechanical properties of materials. On similar lines, the Indian
assessment guidelines also have incorporated knowledge factors as a function of the documentation and testing
resources available [6]

Failure Mechanisms and Analytical Formulations

Another aspect to be considered with respect to Indian assessment guidelines is the absence of analytical
formulations for the capacity calculations for unreinforced masonry structures. The failure modes of a masonry
structure can be categorized based on local mechanisms and global mechanisms. In-plane walls act as the primary
lateral load resisting system and global failure mechanisms are defined with respect to these in-plane walls. Out-of-
plane URM walls are considered to be secondary elements not contributing to the global capacity of the structure.
The stiffness of the out-of-plane walls are neglected in the global analysis of the structure. However, out-of-plane
mechanisms are local mechanisms that cause premature collapse before the structure attains its full in-plane
capacity. Masonry walls can be subjected to inelastic deformations with small out-of-plane displacements generated
due to seismic actions. While designing URM structures, the stability of the out-of-plane walls is prescriptively
ensured in Indian codes [11] by limiting the slenderness ratio of the walls. However this might not be conservative
while doing an assessment scheme particularly when the wall is cracked. Hence, international guidelines
recommend that the wall should be subjected to an inelastic displacement based analysis considering the effects due
to the restraints offered by diaphragm and cross walls. Most of the displacement based formulations are based on the
limit analysis of masonry walls considering the formation of hinges at predefined crack locations and applying the
principles of dynamic stability.

The in-plane failure mechanisms of URM walls are categorized into three [20]; rocking, shear cracking and sliding.
Rocking mechanism causes flexural overturning, followed by the crushing of the compressed toe of a URM wall.
Shear cracking is characterized by the formation of inclined diagonal cracks along the bed joints and perpend joints.
Sliding is caused by the formation of a tensile crack along the bed joint and sliding happening along the cracked bed
joints. Rocking and sliding are relatively ductile mechanisms characterized with large inelastic displacements. The
in-plane capacity of a URM wall is the minimum peak strengths associated with the aforementioned mechanisms.
The capacity of a structural wall is limited to a drift level corresponding to the minimum of 0.01 for rocking piers
and 0.003 for sliding piers as per international guidelines. The capacity of the member corresponding to these drift
levels is checked with the in-plane seismic demand. Linear analysis or non-linear analysis can be performed for
unreinforced masonry structures. During linear analysis, to account for the effect of ductility, force reduction factors
are prescribed which reduces the force at each performance level. This characterization has a direct implication on
classifying the mechanisms based on their relative ductility by which mechanisms are classified into force controlled
and deformation controlled.

Mechanism NZSEE[3] ASCE 41[2]

Flexural Rocking Lw Lw
0.9(α p  0.5Pw ) 0.9( p  0.5 Pw )
heff heff

Shear Sliding 0.7(t nomLwc   f ( P  Pw )) PD

0.75(0.75vte  )
An
An
1.5

Diagonal cracking fa f
f dt An  1  f dt ' An  1  a
f dt f dt '

Toe crushing Lw fa Lw fa
0.9( p  0.5 Pw ) (1  ) 0.9( p  0.5 Pw ) (1  )
heff 0.7 f m' heff 0.7 f m'
 Table 1: Failure Mechanisms in URM walls

Ductility and Force Reduction Factors: Member level versus System level

International guidelines for assessment address the problem of the ductile response of structures at member level
than at system level as compared to the design provisions. Design codes prescribe response modification factor
based on the structural system used. However, in structural assessments, the structure is subjected to the full
unreduced seismic demand and the force reduction factors are dependent on member level ductility. For
unreinforced masonry structures, the member level ductility is mechanism based which depends on the levels of
axial stress (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Shear Capacity - Axial load interaction for URM walls

Figure 4: Force-Deformation response for deformation Figure 5: Force-Deformation response for force
controlled mechanism controlled mechanism

Mechanisms with low levels of axial stresses (shear sliding and rocking) are ductile mechanisms with moderate to
high levels of energy dissipation which are defined as deformation controlled. However, mechanisms with
intermediate - high axial stress levels (diagonal cracking and toe crushing) are brittle mechanisms defined as force
controlled. Deformation controlled mechanisms (Figure 4) have force reduction factors greater than 1 depending
upon their relative ductility whereas force controlled mechanisms (Figure 5) have force reduction factors set as 1.
Hence, the relative importance for the member level ductility based on mechanisms is accounted for by the use of
force reduction factors in the global assessment scheme.

Effect of Diaphragms and Connection Behaviour

Diaphragms are considered to be primary elements in the overall load path of a structure. Diaphragm related failure
modes are considered as one of the common failure mode for URM structures [19]. Partial or complete out-of-plane
wall failures due to diaphragm induced displacements were observed in URM failures during many earthquakes.
Diaphragm is one critical element whose both strength and deformation capacities are critical in the global
assessment of a structure. The diaphragm deformation limits should be within the allowable limits so that the out-of-
plane walls are laterally stable and adequately supported. Further, the diaphragm should possess adequate capacity
to transfer the shears to the in-plane walls. Hence, the strength, stiffness and deformability of the diaphragms play a
significant role in determining the force distribution to in-plane lateral load resisting elements. Also, the connectivity
of walls with the diaphragms determines the stability of these walls. In this context, significant research has been
carried out and still in progress in characterizing the diaphragm properties with respect to the material and
construction typology [21, 22]. However, no research has been undertaken so far in characterizing the diaphragm
properties in India and hence a critical link remains unaddressed in the seismic assessment framework. The other
important issue is the diaphragm to wall connection behavior. Lack of proper connection with the diaphragm creates
local mechanisms and hence the type and behavior of connections need to be properly understood before carrying
out assessment. For this, a list of the common connection types and the experimental characterization of their
responses need to be developed.

CONCLUSIONS

The global seismic assessment framework for unreinforced masonry buildings is undergoing lots of advancement in
the past few years. There are differences in the assessment formulations across different guidelines; however the
fundamental framework has significant similarities as indicated above; the most important factor being the
considerable uniformity attained with respect to the assessment framework including material testing standards and
capacity formulations for URM walls. Differences arise from the capacity formulations and behavior
characterization for individual members at local level including diaphragm behavior and connections; however the
research gap is currently being addressed by research community across the world. In this context, the Indian
assessment scenario lacks a rational scheme of assessment for URM buildings based on scientific methods. Further,
the material testing guidelines has to be updated giving due consideration to the material properties required for
structural assessments. The lack of these guidelines affect the choice of strengthening approach for URM buildings
negatively. The success of a strengthening scheme depends completely on the logical assumptions and the rationale
used for assessment and hence, there needs a systematic set of assessment guidelines as shown in Figure 1 giving
due importance and consideration to all the aforementioned factors.

Symbols & Notations

An Area of net mortared section of a wall

c Cohesion

fa Axial compressive stress due to gravity loads

fm Masonry compressive strength

fdt Masonry diagonal tensile strength

heff Height to resultant of seismic force

Lw Length of wall
 PD Superimposed dead load at the top of the wall

PW Self-weight of the wall

tnom Nominal thickness of the wall

α Factor which takes into account the effect of boundary conditions

β Factor which incorporates aspect ratio of the wall into consideration

μf Coefficient of friction

References

1. FEMA P-774, ―Unreinforced Masonry Buildings and Earthquakes”, 2009

2. ASCE 41-13, ―Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings”, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Reston, VA, USA, 2013
3. Technical Guidelines for Engineering Assessments, New Zealand, ―The Seismic Assessment of
Existing Buildings: Part A, Part B, Part C‖, NZSEE, 2017
4. “Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Building Types in India”, Technical Document (Tech ‐ Doc ) on
Typology of Buildings in India, National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) ,2013
5. IS 13935:2009, ―Seismic Evaluation, Repair and Strengthening of Masonry Buildings-Guidelines‖,
Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi,2009
6. IS 15988:2013, ―Preliminary seismic evaluation aid for reinforced concrete framed structures”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, ManakBhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi,2013
7. IS 13828:1993, ―Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings- Guidelines‖,
Bureau of Indian Standards, ManakBhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi,1993
8. IS 4326:1993, ―Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings-Code of Practice‖, Bureau
of Indian Standards, ManakBhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi,1993
9. IS 1893 (Part1):2016, ―Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design Structures (fifth
Revision).” Bureau of Indian Standards, ManakBhavan, 9 Bahadur Shah ZafarMarg, New Delhi,
2016
10. ―National Building Code of India:2016‖, Bureau of Indian Standards, 2016
11. IS: 1905-1987 (2002), ―Indian Standard Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced
Masonry. 3rd Edition‖, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
12. Eurocode 8 (2005), ―Assessment and retrofit of buildings-Part 3: General rules, seismic actions and
rules for buildings”. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization,2005
13. TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11, Masonry Standards Joint Committee of the Masonry Society,
“Building code requirements for masonry structures”. The Masonry Society, Boulder, CO, 2011
14. ASTM C1196-09, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ―Standard test method for in
situ compressive stress within solid unit masonry estimated using flat jack measurements”,West
Conshohocken, PA, 2009
15. ASTM C1531-09 ,American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ―Standard test methods for in
situ measurement of masonry mortar joint shear strength index” , West Conshohocken, PA, 2009
16. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ―Standard test method for measurement of
masonry flexural bond strength‖,2010
17. TMC 1072-10 , American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ―Standard test method for
diagonal tension (shear) in masonry assemblages” ASTM E519/E519M-10, West Conshohocken, PA,
2010

18. Adham SA. ―Static And Dynamic Out-of-Plane Response Of Brick Masonry Walls‖ S.A. Adham
Agbabian Associates, El Segundo, California, 1985
19. Bruneau, M.,‖State-of-the-art report on seismic performance of unreinforced masonry buildings”.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 120(1): 230 -25 1,1994
20. Magenes, G. and G.M. Calvi , ― In-plane seismic response of brick masonry walls‖, Earthq Eng Struct
Dynam, 26: 1091-1112,1997
21. Nakamura Y, Derakhshan H, Griffith MC, Magenes G, ―Influence of Diaphragm Flexibility on Seismic
Response of Unreinforced Masonry Buildings‖, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 21:935–960,2017
22. Wilson A, Ingham JM,‖In-Plane Orthotropic Behavior of Timber Floor Diaphragms in Unreinforced
Masonry Buildings‖. 140(1):1-11. ASCE ST.1943-541X, 2014
 Testing of Steel Braced frame subjected to Monotonic Lateral Loading
Parthav P. Patel, Sagar H. Tejani, Darshan A. Vora and Digesh D. Joshi
Civil Engineering Department, Institute of Technology, Nirma University,
Sarkhej-Gandhinagar Highway, Post: Chandlodia, Ahmedabad-382481.
Phone: (02717) 241911-15 Fax: (02717) 241917
Email id: 15bcl129@nirmauni.ac.in, 15bcl109@nirmauni.ac.in, 15bcl124@nirmauni.ac.in and
digesh.joshi@nirmauni.ac.in

Braced frame structural system is one of the lateral load resisting system, which increases the
stiffness of the building. Different types of bracings are used for high rise buildings having
different geometrical configurations to enhance their lateral load resistance. This paper
presents behaviour of steel braced frame when it is subjected to monotonic lateral loading.
Behaviour of reduced scale one-storey, one-bay portal frame having size 1 m × 1 m, is evaluated
by conducting experimental studies. Two different configurations of diagonal bracings
subjected to axial compression and axial tension are tested under monotonic lateral loading
and their performance is compared with bare frame. Lateral load is applied to frames with the
help of double acting hydraulic jack of capacity 250 kN and stroke length 300 mm. Beam and
column of braced frames are fabricated using ISMB 100 sections, while angle section ISA 40 ×
40 × 6 is used as bracing member. The analysis and design of frames is carried out using
STAAD.Pro software. Collapse load for frames is also calculated using plastic analysis approach.

The response of test specimen is measured in terms of ultimate load carrying capacity, lateral
deflection, deflection profile of columns, failure initiation and propagation. From the results of
experimental studies, it is observed that ultimate load carrying capacity of braced frame with
diagonal compression and diagonal tension is 120.51% and 125.64% higher, respectively, as
compared to bare frame. It is also observed that, provision of bracings significantly reduces
lateral deflection of the frame. The reduction in maximum lateral deflection for braced frame
with diagonal compression and diagonal tension is 73.3% and 86.37%, respectively, as
compared to lateral loading. For bare frame, failure is mainly observed within the weld, near far
end beam column junction. For braced frame having diagonal compression, buckling in bracing
is observed due to axial compressive force. After buckling of bracing, upon further loading, out
of plane deformation of frame is also observed during later phase of loading. For braced frame
having diagonal tension, failure is observed near beam column junctions. Local failure of
members in form of warping and bending is also observed within braced frames.

Keywords: Steel braced frame, diagonal bracing, axial compression, axial tension, lateral
loading