M.

Mekin MEÇİN – 0507 437 3087

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İNGİLİZCE TEMEL DÜZEY: ÇEVİRİ-ANALİZ (12. HAFTA)

WATER

Water is the most important liquid whihc/that we know. It is everywhere whihc/that

we look. Water is in the ground and in the air that we breathe. All animals, plants

and humans need water to survive. Water has formed our earth
since its beginning. It also prevents the earth from becoming

too (very, rahter, so, quite, much,

fairly, pretty) hot or too cold. Water

never disappears. We use the same water over and

over again.

Chemistry of water

Water consists of (made up of) very small

molecules. Each of them has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The
chemical formula of water is H20.

Water can (could, mey, might, able

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to) be a solid, a liquid or a gas, depending on

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(resting on, relling on, basing on) the

temperature whihc/that it has. At 32° F (0° C) water freezes and turns into
(changes into, develops into, transforms into)
ice. It expands and becomes lighter. As a result (therefor, hence,
thus, so, consequently), ice floats on water. That is why you

should (must, have to, has to, had

to, ought to, need to) let water out of pipes during the

wintertime because (since, as;

because of, owing to, due
to, for) it may freeze and burst the pipes. At 212°F (100°C)

water boils and escapes as a vapour into the air. Between

(among) these two states water is a liquid. Most of the world’s water is in
liquid form. It can be found everywhere on earth.
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Water molecules always move. In ice they are very

far apart from each other. They move very slowly or often not at all.
Molecules in water vapour move very quickly.

Water in our daily lives

Water has been important for people for thousands of years.

Without water there would be no life on earth.

We use water in our houses for cooking, bathing and washing the dishes. Water is
used to grow food. In many dry areas farmers must bring water
to the fields through (by, via, by means of,
whereby; thanks to) canals and expensive irrigation
systems.

Industries and factories also (as well, too, either) use

water. Fruits and vegetables must be cleaned before they

can be processed and sold in supermarkets. Water is used

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for example (for instance,

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for cooling in many areas,

to illustrate) in steel production.

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Many countries around (across, over,

throught) the World (globe) use water to produce (üretim,
tüketim : consamption) energy. Power stations burn coal which turns water
into steam. Countries with many mountains and rivers use the power of water
to produce electricity.

Water is important for our free time. People enjoy themselves at seaside

resorts or on cruise trips.

Transportation was at first carried
out on waterways. Ancient civilizations traded goods across

the Mediterranean Sea . Today oil, coal, wheat and other products are
transported on waterways.

Water and the human body

The human body is made up (consist of) largely of water. Up to (by,

by the time, so far, until, till, ever)
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75% of our body is water. Water helps us digest food. Chemical

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reactions in our body would not be possible without

water. It also needs water to help carry away the substances that we do

not need any more. Water regulates our body temperature so that (in
oder to, so as to, for) it always stays the

same. Although (though, even though, even if,

even so, despite, in spite of; but, however,
though, still, yet, nontheless, nevertheless;
while, wheras; unlike, on the contrary to;
on the other hand, on the other side) we can live
without food for a few weeks, without water we would die within a few days. A
normal human needs about 2 to 3 litres of water a day to survive.

World water supply

The amount of water whihc/that we have on earth is always the same. However,

clean water, is getting (becoming) rarer because of pollution.

Most of the world’s water, about (some,

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around, almost, nearly,

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over, estimate, practically)

97% is in the oceans. 1.4 billion cubic kilometres is saltwater. Only 3% is
the freshwater in lakes, rivers and glaciers.

Much of the world has enough fresh water but there are regions that are too dry
and don’t get enough rain. Developing countries often
do not have enough water for their populations which/that are growing. Other areas
do not have enough water because people waste it.

Water cycle

Water moves in a steady cycle. It never goes away

or disappears but it changes from solid to liquid to

gas.

When the sun heats up water, it becomes a gas and evaporates. As it rises, it cools
down and clouds form. Clouds have many very small droplets of water in them.
When they get too heavy, they fall down to the ground as rain or snow.

Although some of this precipitation rises directly into

the atmosphere, again most of it gets into the ground and remains in aquifers.

Snow and ice remain on glaciers and ice caps until it gets warmer. Then it
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starts melting and the liquid flows into lakes and rivers.
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Water has shaped the surface of the earth for many years. It

causes (leads to, reslt in,

contrbute to, ended in) erosion,

makes mountains smoother, rivers carve themselves into valleys and makes them
wider. Ocean waves form coastlines.

Water Treatment
Not all (whole, entire) water is safe to drink or to

take a bath in. Some of it needs to be cleaned or purified before we can use
or drink it. This is done in three basic steps:

1. Water first flows through a basin which has chemicals in it.

The bacteria , mud and other dirty substances that are in the water stick
to these chemicals and move down to the bottom of the basin.
2. Water then goes through a filter whihc/that is made up of sand and gravel.

Other particles are filtered out.

3. In the last phase chlorine is added to the water. It kills the bacteria that somehow
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get through.
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Dirty water and used water is carried away through sewage

systems. It often smells bad and has a lot of bacteria in it. Most cities have

treatment plants that turn used water into clean water that can be
used to irrigate fields.

CHİNA FACES PROBLEMS WİTH DRİNKİNG WATER

A report whihc/that was released by China, shows that the country

is facing a serious problem with drinking water. According to

the study about 80% of the country's shallow ground water is not clean
enough to drink or bathe in. It can only be used for industrial

purposes (aims, goals, targests).

Dirty drinking water exists especially (particularly,
notably, exclusively, dramatically,
above all) in the countryside, where the population gets water from
shallow wells. This water has become more and

more contaminated through farming, factories and household

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waste.
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While air pollution has caught the attention of the country's politicians, the

situation of underground water has widely

been ignored (neglected).

China may be facing another big environmental problem.

According to the report large cities are not affected (impacted,

enfluenced) by water pollution because they get their

water from underground reservoirs that are often hundreds or thousands of feet

deep. In addition (besides, as

well as) , cities operate purification plants that get

(make, get, have) rid of harmful substances before drinking

water gets to the people.

On the other hand (on the other side) the use of shallow underground water

in rural areas has grown considerably in the past decade. The

report states that nitrates and ammonia are the major pollutants. In some

areas heavy metals were also found in the water.

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Authorities found out that while none of the 2000 investigated wells had a
Class I water quality, over 70% were classified in the worst two categories,

those unfit for drinking.

WATER - ANOTHER GLOBAL CRİSİS

Each (per) human needs about 20 litres of water a day for the basics - washing,
cooking and drinking. But there are many places around the world, where people get
five litres of water and less to live on. The situation is worst in

Africa, especially some communities of Eastern Africa.

Why do some places have so little water and how will the availability of
water change in the future? Across the world 1.6 billion more people

have access to clean drinking water than twenty years ago.

But population growth and climate change could alter this picture. In some
regions water is becoming

very scarce, especially in places

where consumption is already very high.

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There are several rivers, for example, that don’t even reach the sea any more. The
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Yellow River in China and the Murray-Darling in Australia are two examples. Mud

and sand have to be removed from the bottom of the

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rivers so that they don’t dry up. The Aral Sea in Central Asia and Lake Chad
in Africa have shrunk in size because the rivers that flow into them
have dried up. In Tanzania, streams are drying up

because people are taking out more and more water

to irrigate crops.

According to an international committee on climate change the warmer, it gets the

more rainfall whihc/that we are going to have, simply because warmer air can hold

more moisture. But the weather patterns are probably going to shift,
meaning more water in regions that don’t have that much rainfall today.

Southern Europe and Northern Africa, as well as parts of Australia and

South America will experience less

rainfall, whereas more rain may fall in India, Bangladesh

and Burma. Monsoons in these areas may become heavier, meaning that the water
may run off and cannot be used.

With about 2.5 billion people more on our earth by the year 2050 we will need more

drinking water as well. Those people will need more food. Because

farming uses up about 70% of all the water supplies, water for cooking,
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washing and drinking will diminish.

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Industrialized nations will be able to cope with (deal with,

over come, tackle, handel) the problem in a better way
because they have the money to do so. Western Australia and some Middle Eastern
countries are building desalination plants, which are expensive ways of getting
clean water from the ocean.

Governments and societies will have to decide much more

carefully what to do with water. Even in the Amazon rainforest, where water should
be plentiful, a combination of human settlement, deforestation and the drying of

some streams have brought about a decline in the water supply.

DEVELOPİNG COUNTRİES

Developing countries are the poor countries of our world. While most of them
are located in many parts of Africa and Asia, some countries in South
and Central America are also referred to as developing countries. About 70%
of the world’s 7 billion people live in underdeveloped countries.

Many of these nations have an economy that is based on farming.

They do not produce enough of the goods that their growing population
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needs. As a result, many people in developing countries live

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in poverty.
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In developing countries, governments control many sectors of the economy.

Industries, banks and the energy sector often belong to the

state. Today, some countries are slowly opening

up to foreign investment. They are allowing

private companies and businesspersons to bring in money to
finance various projects.

In the last few decades, countries around the world have

grown from developing countries to fully industrialised nations. In Asia, for
example, the so-called “Four Tigers” - South Korea, Singapore, Hong
Kong and Taiwan - managed to develop to industrial nations

between the 1960s and the 1990s.

Drawing a line between developed nations and developing countries is not very easy.
Some countries are in-between, but still growing at a rapid pace. Among them are
China, Brazil, India, Mexico and others.

Economic experts use the GDP per capita of a country

to determine whether (if) it is a developing country

or not. While the wealthiest countries of the world have a GDP of

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over 40,000 US dollars, most of the poorest countries are under $1,000 per year.
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Countries with a GDP per capital of under $4,000 are referred to as

developing countries.
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Characteristics of a developing country

 Low income – Developing countries get most of their income from selling farming
products and raw materials. They often do not have industries that produce

expensive goods for the world markets. People live in poverty because
they do not have the money to buy everyday goods.

 Hunger and starvation – Especially in Africa,

widespread droughts lead to food shortages so that

these countries are dependent on (upon) food
imports.
 Debt - Governments borrow money

and accumulate huge debts that they cannot

pay back.

 Unemployment – Up to 50% of the population in developing countries,

especially younger people, have no job. A large part of the
population works in farming. Industries cannot be develop because of
many unskilled workers.

 Lack of infrastructure – Many developing countries do not have basic

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services that their population needs. There are not enough roads for
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transportation. They lack schools and colleges, as well

as doctors and hospitals.

 High population growth – Many Third World countries grow at the rate of up to
3% per year and more.

 Exploding cities – Many people are leaving the countryside and are moving to the
big cities, where they live in slums, ghettos and shantytowns on the outskirts.

As a result, these metropolitan areas are

becoming overcrowded and do not have facilities for millions of

new residents.

 Sanitation – Many developing countries lack clean water. Dirty water is

often untreated and people use it for washing and drinking.

 Lower life expectancy – The population in developing

countries does not live as long as in wealthier countries. While people in Japan
and Northern Europe have an average life expectancy of over 80, the population
in Central Africa lives to the age of 50 on average.

 Corruption is a problem in many Third World countries. Money does

not reach the people who need it. It is rather used for government project or
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buying weapons.
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 Political conflicts - Some developing countries still suffer from

the effects of colonialisation, which are difficult

to overcome. Conflicts between rival groups lead to power

struggles and unstable governments. In some of these countries, civil

wars have been going on for many years.

AİR POLLUTİON

Air pollution is caused by (drive from, result

from, stem from, orginate from) many things
 the increasing number of cars on our roads

 growing cities

 the fast development of our economy

 industrialisation

Air pollution, as we know it today, started with the Industrial Revolution in Europe

in the 19th century. In the last few decades, it has

become the major problem for our environment.
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Clean air is normally made up of nitrogen (76

%), oxygen (22%), carbon dioxide and a few other gases.

When harmful elements get into the air, they may cause (lead
to, result in, contrbute to) health problems and can

also damage the environment, buildings and soil. They make

(get, have) the ozone layer thinner and thinner and lead to
the warming of the earth’s atmosphere and climate changes.

Our modern life style has led to dirtier air over the years.

Factories, vehicles of all kinds, the growing number of people are some things that

are responsible for air pollution today. But not all pollution in the
air is caused by people. Forest fires, dust storms

and volcano eruptions can lead to the pollution of the atmosphere.

Major pollutants and where they come from

Carbon monoxide is a colourless gas that is set free when wood, petrol or
coal are not completely burned. It is also in products like cigarettes.
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Because of it, less oxygen enters our blood and it makes

us confused and sleepy.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that gets into the atmosphere when we burn
coal, oil or wood.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are gases that come from air-conditioning systems

or refrigerators. When they get into the air, they rise high into the atmosphere ( about
20—50 km above the earth’s surface). There, they get into contact with other gases

and destroy the ozone layer. We need the ozone layer because it protects us
from the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
Lead is in petrol, paint, batteries and other products. It is very dangerous if it gets into
our bodies. In some cases it can even cause cancer .

There are two types of ozone that we know of: Natural ozone is in the upper part of

our atmosphere, but on the ground, people produce ozone too. Traffic and

factories cause ground ozone. It is especially dangerous to

children and older people. It makes them tired and doctors suggest not to
go outdoors when there is too much ozone in the air.

Nitrogen oxide causes smog and acid rain. It is produced

(am, is, are; was, were; be, been +
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V3) s like (such as,

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when you burn fuel

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including, involving) coal and oil. It can lead

to breathing problems especially when children go outside in the wintertime.

Sulphur dioxide is a gas that gets into the air when coal is burned in power plants.
Paper factories and other chemical industries also produce sulphur dioxide.

This pollutant can lead to lung diseases.

Acid rain

Another result of air pollution is acid rain. It happens when sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide get into the air. When it rains, the water that comes down on us has
these dangerous substances in it.

Acid rain can also be

caused by volcanic eruptions.

Volcanoes send poisonous gases high up into the atmosphere.

Acid rain leads to the destruction of forests, lakes and soil.

Many lakes and rivers have been poisoned over the

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decades and even some types of fish have disappeared.

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Buildings also corrode because of acid rain.

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The pollutants can travel in the air for a long time before they come down to earth.
That’s why it’s sometimes hard to tell where dangerous pollutants originate. Acid
rain that destroys forests and lakes in Austria and Germany may come from power
stations in Eastern European countries.

What can we do about air pollution?

The job of cleaning up our air is difficult but not impossible. Choosing other forms of

energy, like solar energy, wind energy or tidal energy could be

used for controlling pollution.
Cities like London have shown that better air quality can
be achieved in a short time. But we individuals can also help make the air
around us cleaner!

 Walk or ride a bike to school or to your friend’s home.

 Take a bus or a train to work

 Organize car pools.

 Don’t use spray cans anymore!

 Make sure that your parents get a pollution check on the car every year !

 Trees give us oxygen and take in carbon dioxide. They clean the air around us.
Take care of them!

 Switch off the lights when you leave the room. Only use the number of lights that
you really need.

 Don’t overheat your room during the winter months. It’s better to wear a pullover
than to be in a room that is too warm.
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Smog
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Smog is a combination of smoke and fog. It occurs

(happens, rises, takes place,
brings about, emerges) when gases from

burnt fuel get together with fog on the ground. When heat and sunlight get together
with these gases, they form fine, dangerous particles in the air.

Smog occurs in big cities with a lot of traffic. Especially in the

summertime, when it is very hot, smog stays near the ground. It is dangerous to
our breathing and in smog areas we can’t see very well.

Smog was first discovered in Great Britain

in the 19th century, during the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. At that time
people used coal for heating and cooking. Factories also used coal to produce iron
and steel. Smoke got together with wet, foggy air and turned yellow. The smog often
stayed over cities for many days. It caused lung diseases and breathing problems.
Thousands of people died in London every year.

Today, cities that have a high population and that are located in hot
areas and subtropical areas have the biggest smog problems -Los Angeles, Mexico
City or Cairo.
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A lot has been done to prevent smog

recently (since, for, until, till,

so far, up to, by, by the
time, recent years) . Factories use coal that

doesn’t have that much sulphur in it. And cars are much cleaner today. In some
cities, cars aren’t even allowed to drive on smog days.

ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeology is the study of buildings and objects that people made a long time
ago. Archaeologists take a look at how people lived before writing was invented.
They examine their daily life and what they left behind. They also try to find out why
cultures and civilizations fell apart or why people of the time hunted certain animals.

Because history is such a vast field, archaeologists mostly concentrate on

certain periods of history, for example ancient Greece, or ancient Egypt.

Work of an Archaeologist

An archaeologist has many different tasks to do. Besides fieldwork

they excavate objects and try to reconstruct historical sites. They
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also examine their findings and try to learn more about a certain period in history.
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Fieldwork is the discovery of sites that are worth studying. Sometimes

archaeologists know where to look for, however, at other times they make such
discoveries by chance. Some objects are close to the surface and can be found
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easily while others can only be traced with the help of satellite images or
other advanced methods. For archaeological sites under the earth’s surface or under
water, they use sound technology and radar.

After fieldwork is completed an archaeologist starts to excavate the site. They

use various instruments like shovels and picks, but must be careful not to damage
or destroy valuable objects and findings. Architects use special brushes
to scrap away soil and set objects free. The objects which/that they discover are
called artefacts. They are labelled and often covered with chemicals so that they can
be preserved. Sometimes field laboratories are set up in order to catalogue the
objects that are found.

When finished with digging out ancient objects, archaeologists must interpret what
they have found. They try to determine how old artefacts are and from which period
they come. Sometimes scientists from other fields help with their work.

An archaeologist can date an object by comparing it with the other objects that have

been nearby. Artefacts are compared with rock layers in order

to figure out their approximate age. Other methods use the rings of the trees, which
proves to be highly accurate.

Radiocarbon dating is the most accurate method of finding out how old something is.
Every living object has traces of radioactive carbon in them. The amount of
carbon decreases after a living thing dies. Archaeologists can compare the carbon in
artefacts to living objects and can calculate their age. This method is
very accurate for objects that go back thousands of years.

History of archaeology

Archaeology first emerged during the Renaissance period of the 1400s. At that time
many people were curious about older things. They found pleasure in
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the classics and were anxious to find out how the ancient Greeks
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and Romans lived.

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In the 18th century excavations began in Italy. During that time the historic sites of
Pompeii and Herculaneum were set free. Scientists found streets, baths houses as
well as paintings and statues from the old Roman towns. In the 1870s Troy and other
sites on Greek islands were excavated.

The most exciting finding of modern archaeology occurred in 1922 when the British
archaeologist Howard Carter found the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen in
the Valley of the Kings. Inside the tomb was a mummy in a gold coffin which
was virtually untouched.

Later on other parts of the world became the centre of archaeological interest. In
1940, caves with prehistoric wall painting were found in southern France. Other
important sites include the Aztec civilisation in Mexico and the Terracotta Army of
ancient China.

Today most archaeologists work at universities or government departments, which

also provide funds for their work. Sometimes they get money from museums or
private organisations.

LANGUAGE

Language is what people use to communicate with each other. They can do this by
speaking, writing, waving their hands or moving with their body to show others what
they mean. Speaking goes back to the first humans; writing emerged about 5,000
years ago.

Elements of language

People learn to speak in a natural way, but they must be taught to write. Spoken
language comes from sounds that form words and sentences that have
a certain meaning. We use language to express our ideas and feelings.
Words can describe things, objects or actions. Some words are used
to connect parts of a sentence. Languages have rules, called grammar. Sometimes
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grammar is easier, at other times people find it hard to learn all the rules of a
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language.
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Thousands of languages have developed around

the world during history. They all use different sounds and different words. Almost all

languages are influenced by other languages and borrow words

from them. Kindergarten, for example, is a word whihc/that is borrowed from German.

Written languages use an alphabet to form words and sentences. The Latin alphabet
is the most popular, used by many important languages. Other languages, for
example Chinese and Arabic use other writing systems.

Languages in our world

There are about 7000 languages spoken in our world today. Only very few are so
called world languages, widely spoken by millions of people, the rest
are local languages that are only spoken in certain areas.

The most common languages are Mandarin Chinese, English and Spanish.

Almost all countries have an official language that is used when you go
to authorities or which is taught in school. Sometimes a country may have second
languages that have developed through the ages. In India, Hindi is the official
language, but most Indians can speak English quite well because of its history as a
British colony. In Canada, English and French are recognised as official languages.
In Switzerland, people speak German, French and Italian.

Within a country, people often speak dialects of the same language. In England,
different dialects of Standard English are spoken between London in the south and
Scotland in the north.

Languages that are related to each other form groups. Germanic

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languages are English and German, as well as the Scandinavian

languages. French, Italian and Spanish are Romance languages. All of these belong
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to the Indo-Germanic language family. Chinese, on the other hand belongs to the
group of Sino-Tibetan languages.

Some societies also have minorities who do not speak the official

language. Especially in countries in which immigration has played an

important part in history, you can find several spoken languages. In the United States
Spanish is the most common language next to English, but there are hundreds of
thousands who speak Polish, Russian or Italian because their families have gone to
the US during some point in history.

All over the world, millions of translators translate one language into another. Such
people are especially needed in international organizations, like the United
Nations or the European Union.

Changes in language over the ages

When people get into contact with other civilizations, they need
a common language to communicate. During the Age of
Exploration, European navigators simplified their language to communicate with
the natives of North and South America. Such languages are called pidgin
languages.

Even standard languages change over centuries. English during the time
of Shakespeare is much different from the English whihc/that we speak today.

Future of languages

Over the past centuries, English has become the dominant world language, mostly
because of the British Empire and the rise of the United States as a global political
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and economic superpower. Many linguists say that Mandarin Chinese will become
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the new number one language, because it is the mother tongue of over 1 billion

people. China is on the verge of becoming a new economic

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superpower and many international corporations already advise their workers to

learn Mandarin.

In the past, some attempts have been made to create a global language for
everyone. A Polish scientist, Ludwik Zamenhof, invented Esperanto at the beginning

of the 20th century. His goal was to form a neutral language with easy
words and grammar that is not so difficult to learn. Linguists claim that up to a
million people use and speak Esperanto today.

Languages that are not actively spoken any more die out over a period.
Linguists claim that 90% of the world’s 7000 languages will become extinct within
the next 50 years. Other languages, like Latin or ancient Greek, died out centuries
ago, but are still needed in fields like medicine, biology, history or archaeology.
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