CEE 335

Soils and Hydraulics Lab

Spring 2017

Course Coordinators:
Prof. Isao Ishibashi (soils)
Prof. Xixi Wang (hydraulics)

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA 23529
Table of Contents
Page

Course Instructions ..........................................................................................................................2

Lab Schedule................................................................................................................................. 3

Common Lab Permeability Test................................................................................................ 4

Soils Lab #1 Hydrometer Test ................................................................................................. 7

Soils Lab #2 Liquid Limit & Plastic Limit Test ....................................................................... 11
Soils Lab #3 Compaction Test .................................................................................................. 13
Soils Lab #4 Consolidation Test ............................................................................................... 15
Soils Lab #5 Direct Shear Test.................................................................................................. 17
Soils Lab #6 Unconfined Compression Test ............................................................................. 18

Hydraulics Lab #1 Pumps in Series and Parallel .................................................................... 20

Hydraulics Lab #2
Hydraulics Lab #3
Hydraulics Lab #4
Hydraulics Lab #5
Experiment Lab #6
Venturi Meter as a Flow Measurement Device ........................................ 26
Discharge over Sharp-Crested Weir ……………….........…………….. 29
Hydraulic Jump and Head Loss ……………………..……................... 39
Reynolds Experiment and Flow Regimes .................................................45
Optimal Operation of Piping Systems (Experiment Lab)...................... 48

Appendix
Losses in Piping Systems (User’s Manual) ..................................................................................49

1
CEE 335 Soils and Hydraulics Lab Spring 2017

Lab Assistants: Soils Lab Hydraulics Lab

Salman Al-Rubaye Shohreh Pedram
Office: Room 122 KH Office: Room 115 KH
Office Hours:_____________ Office Hours:____________________

Experiment Design Lab

There is a lab for which each group will design the experiment. The topics and requirements for
this lab are assigned at the beginning of the semester. A separate group report for the experiment design
is due on March 29 (Wednesday lab), March 31 (Friday lab ). After the instructor has reviewed the
reports and provided some constructive feedback, each group will conduct the experiment at a later
scheduled lab session. The final group lab report is due two weeks after lab experiment is
performed. Many of the regular lab sessions may be concluded in a shorter time than scheduled 110
minutes. It is anticipated that students will utilize this spare time effectively to work on the experiment
design.

Laboratory Reports
Individual (not group, except for the experiment design lab) written reports shall be neat and in
professional quality. Lab reports are due at the beginning of the following lab class. Late lab report
may be accepted with deducted points only if the instructor accepts the reason for the delay. Reports shall
include the following information:
1. Cover page ...test date, course name, type of test, members in the lab group, reporter's name, etc.
2. Purpose and principles...a brief description of the test's purpose and no more than four to five
sentences concerning the physical principles used to develop the measurements.
3. Laboratory equipment...a listing of the principal apparatus used during the test.
4. Procedure...clear and reasonably complete statements of the test method.
5. References...references on the test, which should include the ASTM Standard where applicable.
6. Data...neat and well-organized raw data and corresponding computations.
7. Results...presentation of test results may include tables, graphs and figures, etc.
8. Discussions... (a) discuss your results. What is the engineering significance of the results? Do you think
they are accurate?, etc., (b) comment on any possible sources of errors, etc.
. Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. & 8. in the report shall be typed.
. Students are encouraged to create spreadsheets for analyzing data and graphical presentation.
Note:
1. The lab grade for the experiments missed will be an automatic zero, except for those made-up with
the permission of the instructor. Make-up of the test will be only granted for exceptional cases.
2. Students are not allowed to leave the laboratory until the experiment is successfully over, and the area
is cleaned and all tools are returned to the proper locations.

Grading: (all lab reports including an experiment lab are equally weighted for grading purpose.)
A 90-100 (A-: 90-92.9)
B 80-89.9 (B-: 80-82.9, B+: 87-89.9)
C 70-79.9 (C-: 70-72.9, C+: 77-79.9)
D 60-69.9 (D-: 60-62.9, D+: 67-69.9)
F below 60

2
CEE 335 Soils and Hydraulics Lab Schedule Spring 2017

Soils Lab (at Room 122 KH)

Soil-1. Hydrometer test
Soil-2. Liquid limit and plastic limit tests
Soil-3. Compaction test
Soil-4. Consolidation test
Soil-5. Direct shear test
Soil-6. Unconfined compression test

Hydraulics Lab (at Room 138 KH)

H-1 Pumps in Series and Parallel
H-2 Venturi Meter as a Flow Measurement Device
H-3 Discharge over Sharp-Crested Weir
H-4 Hydraulic Jump and Head Loss
H-5 Reynolds Experiment and Flow Regimes
H-6 Optimal Operation of Piping Systems (Experiment Lab)

Common Lab (all at 122 KH) – permeability test

Lab Schedule by Groups

Date Lab schedule

1/11, 1/13 Introduction and organization meeting at KH136
1/18, 1/20 S-1
1/25, 1/27 H-1
2/1, 2/3 S-2
2/8, 2/10 H-2
2/15, 2/17 S-3
2/22, 2/24 H-3
3/1, 3/3 Permeability test
Spring Break !!!
3/15/ 3/17 H-4
3/22, 3/24 S-4
3/29, 3/31 H-5
4/5, 4/6 S-5
4/12, 4/14 H-6
4/19, 4/21 S-6
4/26, 4/28 Due for S-6 lab report

Soils lab sessions are divided into 3 groups (S-1, S-2, S-3).
Hydro lab sessions are divided into two groups (H-1, H-2).

3
Common Lab
Permeability Test

Purpose:
To determine the coefficient of permeability of soils by (1) constant head and (2) falling head
permeability tests in the laboratory.

References:
.ASTM D2434 Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant Head)

Specimens:
Sandy specimens with various grain sizes

Equipment and tools:

Permeability tube and sets filled with sandy specimens, caliper, graduated cylinder, stopwatch,
thermometer

Procedures:
1. Measure the dimension of the specimens (specimen tube diameter D, length L) and other
dimensions in the permeability test sets (head difference Δh for the constant head test, and the
inner cross- sectional area of the burette "a" for the fall head test).
2. Record the water temperature during the test for the temperature correction of k.

Constant Head Test (Fig.1 a)

3. Run the water through the system until a steady condition is established.
4. For a given time interval "t", collect the amount of water flow Q through the system in a
graduated cylinder. Repeat several measurements for t and Q.

Falling Head Test (Fig. 1 b)

5. At time zero, read the water height h1 in the burette and at time "t" read the same as h2 .
Repeat this measurement for several times.

6. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

4
 Fig. 1 Permeability test (a) Constant head test (b) Falling (variable) head test

Report:
.Test procedures
.Calculated values of coefficient of permeability k with types of soils
.Comparison of k with empirical values such as the Hazen's formula

Notes:
Coefficient of permeability k
Constant head test: k = (Q L)/(A Δh t)
Falling head test: k = 2.303 (a L) x log (h1/ h2 ) / {A (t2- t1)}

where Q: the amount of water collected during time period t in constant head test.
L: Length of soil specimen
A: Cross-sectional area of soil specimen
Δh: Hydraulic head loss in constant head test setup
a: Cross-sectional area of the burette in falling head test
h1: water height in the burette at time t1 in falling head test
h2: water height in the burette at time t2 in falling head test

5
Temperature correction for k
The value k is usually given at a test temperature of water at 20 oC. So that
k ( 20 oC) = k (T oC) x (ηT /η20 )
where ηT and η20 are viscosities of water at T oC and 20 oC, respectively and given in
Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Temperature correction for coefficient of permeability k

6
Soils Lab #1
Hydrometer Test

Purpose:
The hydrometer test is to determine the distribution of grain size of soils for the particle size less
than 75 μm (#200 sieve) based on the Stokes' law, while the sieve analysis mechanically
determines the grain size distribution of soils for larger than 75 μm (#200 sieve) particles.

References:
.ASTM D-422 Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils.

Specimens:
Oven dried fine soil passing #200 sieve.

Equipment and tools:

.Balance
.Mixing beaker
.Distilled water
.Calgon solution with deflocculating agent
- 4 % solution with distilled water of sodium
hexametaphoshate (Calgon)
.Mixing cup and mixer
.Hydrometer cylinders (1000 cc) - need two.
.Rubber stopper
.Hydrometer (ASTM 152-H type)
.Thermometer
.Stopwatch
Fig. 1 Hydrometer in solution
Procedure:
1. Take exactly 50 g of oven-dry well-pulverized soil in a mixing beaker.
2. Mix thoroughly the soil with 125 cc of Calgon solution and allow to soak for at least 16 hours.
3. Using distilled water, transfer the soil-water-slurry completely into a mixing cup. The cup
shall be more than half full. Stir it with a mixer for a period of 1 minute.
4. Using distilled water, transfer the dispersed soil-water-slurry completely into a 1000 cc
hydrometer cylinder A to its 1000 cc mark exactly.
5. In another 1000 cc cylinder B, take 875 cc of distilled water and 125 cc of Calgon solution.
Read the temperature of the solution. Insert the hydrometer into the solution and read it at the top
of the meniscus as Rz (zero correction), and also observe the meniscus correction Rm.
6. For the cylinder A prepared in Step 4, using the palm of the hand over the open end of the
cylinder (or with a rubber stopper), turn the cylinder upside down and back for 1 minute to
complete the agitation of the slurry. At the end of 1 minute (t = 0), place it on a flat table and
insert the hydrometer immediately. Read the hydrometer (at the top of meniscus) as R at 0.25,
0.5, 1, and 2 minutes. After the 2 minutes reading remove the hydrometer gently and place it in
cylinder B.
7
7. About 30 seconds before 4 minutes reading, inert the hydrometer gently into the soil-water
suspension. Take a reading exactly at 4 minutes after the initial time (t=0). Remove the
hydrometer gently and place it in cylinder B.
8. Repeat Step 7 for the elapsed times at approximately 8, 16, 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hours
from the initial time. Record the exact times and the hydrometer readings. Record the
temperatures in cylinder B occasionally.
9. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures.
.Computation of hydrometer test data
.Grain size distribution curve

Theory:
It assumes that the soil particles are spheres and individual particles settle in the water solution
with the velocity v given by Stokes' law;

γs - γ w 2
v = D Eq.(1)
18 η

where γs is the unit weight of solid (=Gs γw) , γw is the unit weight of water, η is the viscosity of
water (which is equal to 1.0197 x 10-5 g sec/cm2 at 20 oC and varies with the temperature) and D
is the diameter of falling soil particle. When a hydrometer is suspended in the water, it measures
the specific gravity of the water-soil suspension at a depth L as seen in Fig. 1. Therefore, the
average velocity v of the particle with D diameter can be determined from a fallen distance L at a
time t from the beginning of the test as;

L(cm) ( γ - γ ) (g/ cm3) D (mm) 2

v (cm/sec) = = s w [ ] Eq.(2)
t (min) x 60 18 η (g sec/ cm 2) 10

and by solving Eq. (2) for D,

30 η L (cm) L (cm)
D (mm) = = A Eq. (3)
γs - γ w t (min) t (min)

where the parameter A is a function of the viscosity of water (hence the temperature) and Gs ,
and given in Table 1. The ASTM 152-H hydrometer is calibrated at 20 oC for Gs = 2.65 particles
and those relationships between L and the reading R are given in Fig. 2. A hydrometer reading
of, say 30 at a time t means that 30 g of soil solids (with Gs = 2.65) in suspension are at the depth
L of 1000 cc of soil-water mixture at 20 oC. Therefore, the percent finer of a soil can be
calculated based on those measured values with the corresponding particle diameter D as;
8
 R cP
Percentfiner by weight (%) = x 100 Eq. (4)
Msoil

where Msoil is oven-dry mass of soil in a total test sample and α ={Gs x 1.65}/{(Gs -1) x 2.65} is
the correction for specific gravity for other than Gs = 2.65, and RcP = R + RT - Rz (corrected
hydrometer reading for percent finer computation). RT , and Rz corrections are given in the
following additional corrections.

Corrections:
Since the ASTM 152-H hydrometer was calibrated at 20 oC for Gs = 2.65 particles, the
following corrections are needed.
Temperature correction (positive or negative), RT = -4.85 + 0.25T, where T is the average test
temperature (oC).
Meniscus correction Rm (always positive) is the difference in upper and lower meniscus of the
suspension. This correction is needed since the readings will be done at the upper meniscus.
Zero correction Rz (positive or negative) is needed since the deflocculating agent is added to the
solution (not pure water).

Computations:

Description of soil:________________________ Sample No.:____________ Depth:__________

Gs:____________________, Hydrometer type: ASTM 152-H or others____
Dry weight of soil Wsoil :______________, Average temperature of test_____________oC
Meniscus correction, Rm :____________, Zero correction, Rz :_______________
Temperature correction, RT:___________

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Time Hydrometer RcP Percent finer RcL L A D
t (min) reading, R (%) (cm) (mm)

Create your own spreadsheet here.

__________________________________
Columns (1) and (2): readings during tests
Column (3): RcP = R + RT - Rz
Column (4): from Eq. (4)
Column (5): RcL = R + Rm , correction for L determination
Column (6): from the values in Column (5) and Fig. 2
Column (7): from Table 1
Column (8): from Eq. (3)

9
Table 1 "A" values in Eq. (3) as a function of Gs and Temperature

Fig. 2 Length L as a function of hydrometer reading (ASTM 152-H)

10
Soils Lab #2
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit Test

Purpose:
To determine the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) of Atterberg Limits (LL, and PL and
shrinkage limit) of a fine grained soil.

References:
.ASTM D4318 Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of
Soils.

Specimens:
Air-dried fine soils, passed No. 40 Sieve (0.425 mm)

Equipment and tools:

.Balance
.Mixing cup
.Spatula
.Distilled water
.Glass plate
.Liquid limit device
.Disposable aluminum cans for moisture content determination

Procedures:

1. Prepare several (say 8) moisture content cans (mark can ID # and measure tare weight).
Liquid Limit:
2. Mix about 250 g of soil and distilled water to make a uniform paste in the mixing cup.
3. Fill the portion of the liquid limit cup with the paste. Make a smooth surface with a spatula
and its maximum depth is about 8 mm.
4. Cut the groove along the center line of the fill with the grooving tool. When grooving keep
the grooving tool position normal to the inner surface of the cup.
5. Turn the crank at the rate of about 2 turns per second until the opening of the groove closes
for 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) length. Record that number of turns at the 1/2" groove closing as the
number of blow, N.
6. Take a part of the mix at the end of each blow test for moisture content determination using
previously prepared cans.
7. Bring the soil back to the mixing cup and add a small amount of distilled water and re-mix
the specimen thoroughly.
8. Repeat Steps 3 through 7. The targeted initial number of blow N is between 30 and 40 and
the smallest N shall be around 20 or less. Take moisture contents only for those N values.
9. Plot log N versus moisture content (w) relations (flow curve). Read the w value
corresponding to N = 25 from the flow curve to determine Liquid Limit, which is always
expressed as a percentage of the moisture content.

11
Plastic Limit:
10. Mix about 20 g of the specimen with a small amount of water in the mixing cup to make
rather hard paste.
11. Make the past into a small ball by hand and mix thoroughly. Then make it to a long thread
by rolling on a glass plate with your palm. If you can roll it into a less than 1/8 inch (3.13
mm) diameter thread without any break, that moisture content is still higher than the plastic
limit.
12. With a drier or by rolling the whole specimen in your hand for a while, make the specimen
with less moisture content than the previous try. Then repeat Step 11. When you can barely
roll into a 1/8" thread with several breaks (i.e., crumbled thread with 1/8" diameter), collect
those crumbled specimen for the moisture content determination. That moisture content is
defined as Plastic Limit, which is also expressed as a percentage of moisture content.

13. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
. Test procedures
. Liquid limit and plastic limit
. Plasticity index

Note:
Moisture content (water content) determination

moisture content, w = weight of water / weight of solid

Computation Table

Can ID No._________________ (1) marked at beginning of the test

Wt. of wet in can____________ (2) measured immediately after the test
Wt. of oven dry in can________ (3) measured after 24 hours of oven dry
Wt. of can__________________ (4) measured at beginning of the test
Wt. of water________________ (5) = (2)-(3)
Wt. of solid ________________ (6) = (3)-(4)
m.c., w(%)__________________ (7) = (5)/(6) x 100

12
Soils Lab #3
Compaction Test

Purpose:
To determine the maximum dry density of a soil and its optimum water content under a standard
compaction energy.

References:
.ASTM D698 Standard Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using
Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3 ))

Specimens:
Air dried soil specimen, passing No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve

Equipment and tools:

.Mixing pan
.Scoop
.Compaction mold
.Compaction hammer (or automatic compaction machine)
.Steel straight edge
.Specimen ejection jack
.Balance
.Moisture content determination cans

Procedures:
1. Prepare several (4) moisture content cans (mark can ID # and measure tare weight).
2. Weigh the compaction mold + base but without the extension collar as W1.
3. Obtain about 6 lb of air dried specimen without lumps (passing No.4 sieve) in a mixing pan.
4. Add about 5 % water to the soil and mix them thoroughly.
5. Pour the mixed soil into the mold with an extended collar in three equal layers. Each layer is
compacted with 25 drops of the hammer (5.5 lb weight and 12" drop). The final height of the
specimen shall be slightly above the top edge of the mold without the collar.
6. Remove the extended collar carefully from the mold. Using a steel straight edge, level the
surface of the soil along the top of the mold, so that the volume of the specimen is exactly
equal to the internal volume of the mold (1/30 ft3 ). Weigh the compacted soil + mold + base
with the balance as W2 .
7. Eject the compacted soil from the mold by a jack, and take representative specimen for
moister content determination.
8. Bring the soil back into the mixing pan and break the soil lumps.
9. Add additional 2 % water to the soil and mix it thoroughly.
10. Repeat Steps 5 through 9 until the water content exceeds its optimum water content (o.w.c.).
When you push the surface of compacted soils with the thumb, it will be very hard below or at
o.w.c. It become spongy and water starts to bleed out at higher than o.w.c..
11. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

13
Report:
. Test procedures
. Compaction curve (water content versus dry density of soil)
. Maximum dry density
. Optimum water content
. Zero-air-void curve in the compaction curve

Notes:

Compaction Energy = (Weight of Hummer) x (Height of Hammer Drop) x (Number of Drops)

x (Number of Layers) / (Volume of Mold)

for Standard (Proctor) Compaction

Compaction Energy = 5.5 lb x 1 ft x 25 drops x 3 layers / (1/30 ft3 ) = 12400 ft-lbf/ft3

Wet density of soil, γwet = Wwet /V = (W2 -W1 )/ (1/30 ft3 )

Dry (computed) density of soil, γdry = γwet /(1 + w)

Zero-air-void curve, γzav = Gs γwat /(1 + wGs )

where W1 and W2 are measured during the test, γwat is the unit weight of water (62.4 pcf) , w is
the measured water content, Gs is the specific gravity of solid, and γzav is the (computed) dry
density of soil for zero-air-void (fully saturated) for a given water content and a specific gravity
of solid.

14
Soils Lab #4
Consolidation Test

Purpose:
Students will observe a demonstration of a complete laboratory one-dimensional consolidation
test and a set of actual lab data will be given. Students will analyze the data to determine
consolidation parameters (coefficient of consolidation, e-log P curve, preconsolidation pressure,
etc.).

References:
.ASTM D-2435 Standard Test Method for One-Dimensional Consolidation Properties of Soils
.Text book (Chapter 9. Settlements) and class notes

Specimens:
Undisturbed cohesive soil in sampling tube

Equipment and tools:

.One-dimensional consolidation device - consolidation ring, loading unit, weights
.Porous stones and filter paper
.Wire saw
.Balance
.Water content cans
.Stopwatch

Procedures:
1. Measure the inner diameter and height of a clean dry consolidation ring and weigh it.
2. Eject the specimen from the sampling tube and trim it to fit exactly into the inside dimension
of the consolidation ring. Weigh the specimen in the ring. Take a small quantity of remaining
soil in a can for an auxiliary initial water content determination.
3. Place the ring with the specimen in the consolidation device.
4. Put the loading plate and loading piston in position.
5. Make the loading arm in balance by adjusting the counter weight of the arm.
6. Set the vertical dial gage at zero and be ready for loading.
7. Carefully put the initial load at the zero time and record the vertical dial gage at the time
intervals of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 min., and 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 hours.
8. At the end of approximately 24 hours, read the final dial gage reading for that load
application, and increase the load to the next level at the new zero time. Record the vertical
dial gage at the same (similar) time intervals.
9. Usually before the second load application, or sometimes during the middle of the first load
application, the water is poured into the device to fill above the top of the ring and it is kept
at that level until the end of the test.
10. Repeat Step 8 until the maximum pressure is attained. A typical sequence of consolidation
pressure is 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, (16) kgf/cm2 (24, 48, 98, 196, 391, 792, (1584) kPa).
11. After the final reading is completed under the maximum load, the specimen is reloading. The
load is reduced with several steps (typically 4, 1, 0.25 kgf/cm2 ). During each unloading step, the
15
initial dial gage (just before the unloading) and the final reading (typically after one to two hours
after the unloading) are needed to measure the rebounds. Therefore, this entire unloading process
usually takes one day.
12. At the end of the unloading process, remove the specimen in the ring and weigh it. The
specimen in the ring is then placed in the oven for water content determination.
13. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Computation of consolidation data
.Plot of log (t) vs. δ curve for t50 and Cv determination by log t method
.Plot of root (t) vs. δ curve for t90 and Cv determination by root t method
.Plot of e-lop p curve
.Determination of preconsolidation pressure Pc by Casagrande method
.Determination of compression index Cc

Note: e-log p curve computation table

Description of Soil________________________, Location______________________________

Specimen diameter D,__________________, Initial specimen height Ho
,_____________________
Water contents: beginning of test (whole specimen)_________________
beginning of test (auxiliary specimen)_______________
end of test (whole specimen)______________________
Weight of dry specimen Ws _________________, Height of solid Hs ,____________________

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

pressure final change in final heigh final avg. fitting time Cv from
dial specimen specime t of void specimen ht.
reading height n height void ratio during test
t50 t90 t50 t90
pi δi Δδi Htf,i Hv,i e Htavg,i

kN/m2 mm mm mm mmh mm sec sec mm2/s mm2/s

Create your own spreadsheet here.

Height of solid Hs =Ws /(γwat Gs ASpecimen )= Ws /(γwat Gs πD2/4)
C.1: Applied consolidation pressure
C.2: Final vertical dial reading for the end of each pressure pi
C.3: Δδi = δi - δi-1 (positive number for loading and negative number for unloading)
C.4: Htf,i = Htf,i-1 - Δδi
C.5: Hv,i = Htf,i - Hs
C.6: e = Hv,i / Hs
C.7: Htavg,i = (Htf,i-1+ Htf,i )/2
C.8: fitting times determined by log t and root t methods
C.9: Cv = (T50 Htavg, i2)/(4t50) and Cv = (T90 Htavg, i2)/(4t90)

16
Soils Lab #5
Direct Shear Test

Purpose:
To determine the angle of internal friction of granular soils by using a direct shear device.

References:
.ASTM D 3080 Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated
Drained Conditions.
.Text book (Chapter 11. Shear strength of soils) and class notes.

Specimens:
Air-dried granular soil

Equipment and tools:

.Direct shear device, .Balance, .Caliper

Procedures:
1. Measure the dimensions of shear box components.
2. Weigh the desired amount of dry granular soil.
3. Assemble the shear boxes. The upper and lower shear boxes are tighten together by two bolts.
At this stage the four corner bolts (with Teflon on the tips) are lowered as to just touch the
surface of the lower shear box.
4. Pore the entire amount of soil into the space in the shear box. Compact as directed.
5. Place the top loading plate and apply the desired vertical stress by loading piston.
6. Measure the specimen height.
7. Remove two tightened bolts from the shear boxes and turn the four corner bolts clockwise
with about a quarter turn to separate the upper and lower boxes.
8. Place the vertical and horizontal dial gages and adjust those to zero positions.
9. Start the shearing with a constant shearing speed. Record time, vertical and horizontal dial
gages, and shear force at time intervals as directed.
10. Stop the test after attaining the desired shear deformation.
11. Remove the vertical load.
12. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Density of the specimen
.Shear force and shear deformation curve and determination of shear strength
.Plot of vertical deformation versus shear deformation to see the volumetric behavior
.Plot of shear strength versus normal stress to determine the angle of internal friction (exchange
data with other groups to draw this τf versus σN curve)

17
Soils Lab #6
Unconfined Compression Test

Purpose:
To determine undrained strength of undisturbed cohesive soil by the unconfined compression
test.

References:
.ASTM D-2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compression Strength of Cohesive Soil
.Text book (Chapter 11. Shear Strength of soils) and class notes

Specimens:
Undisturbed cohesive soil

Equipment and tools:

.Specimen trimming device
.Wire saw
.Balance
.Water content cans
.Caliper (and Pi-tape)
.Unconfined compression loader

Procedures:
1. Trim an undisturbed specimen into a cylindrical specimen of a desired dimension. Make sure
that the bottom and top surfaces shall be perpendicular to the specimen axis. The height to
the diameter ratio shall be about 2 or more.
2. Take a small quantity of remaining soil for water content determination.
3. Measure the diameter and height of the specimen and weigh it.
4. Place the specimen in the unconfined compression loader and bring the loading plate to just
contact with the specimen. Set the vertical deformation gage reading to the zero position..
5. Load the loader with a constant speed as directed until the specimen fails. Record the vertical
dial gage reading and vertical load at time intervals as directed.
6. Observe and sketch the shape at failure. If the failure planes are observed, measure those
angles with a protractor.
6. Remove the specimen and place it in the oven for water content determination.
7. Thoroughly clean the tools and the testing area.

Report:
.Test procedures
.Stress versus strain curve
.Determination of unconfined compression strength qu
.Computation of cohesion as Cu = qu /2

18
Note:

Corrected specimen area

Since this is an undrained test (no volume change during the test), the specimen area shall be
corrected by assuming a constant volume during shear; (Initial volume) Ho x Ao = H x A (during
shear) = (Ho - ΔH) x A = constant. Therefore, A = (Ho x Ao)/(Ho - ΔH) = Ao /(1- ΔH/Ho) = Ao
/(1-εv ), where Ho is the initial specimen height, H is specimen height during the test, Ao is the
initial specimen area, A is corrected specimen area, ΔH is the vertical deformation, and ΔH/H o
(=εv ) is the

19
Hydraulics Lab #1: Pumps in Series and Parallel

INTRODUCTION
Pumps are used to transfer fluid in a system, either at the same elevation or to a new height. The
needed flow rate depends on the height to which the fluid is pumped. Each pump has a head-
discharge relationship that is inversely proportional (i.e., if a higher flow rate is needed, then less
head or pressure will be produced by the pump, and vice versa). This head-discharge relationship
is known as the pump characteristic curve and provided by the pump manufacturer.
In civil engineering applications, a single pump often cannot deliver the flow rate or head
necessary for a particular system. However, two pumps (or typically more in practice) can be
combined in series to increase the height to which the fluid can be pumped at a given flow rate,
or combined in parallel to increase the flow rate associated with a given value of head. The H32
pumping apparatus (Figure 1) will be used in this lab to demonstrate how the combined pump
characteristic curve (either in series or parallel) compares with that of the single pump. In theory,
if two pumps are combined in series, the pumping system will produce twice the head for a given
flow rate, whereas, if two pumps are combined in parallel, the pumping system is expected to
have twice the flow rate of single pump for a given head, as illustrated in Figure 2.
p2
p1

(a)

hydraulic
upstream bench
valve (b)

downstream valve

Figure 1. The (a) general layout and (b) typical connection of the H32.
20
 Figure 2. Characteristic curves of single pump and two same pumps in series or parallel.

OBJECTIVES
In this lab, you will:
Develop pump characteristic curves for a single pump, two pumps in series, and two pumps
in parallel by measuring pressure (p) and flow rate (Q) using the experimental apparatus.
Develop theoretical pump characteristic curves for pumps in series, and pumps in parallel,
based on experimentally-derived single pump characteristic curve.
Compare the experimental and theoretical pump characteristic curves for pumps in series
and those for pumps in parallel.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Before starting with the assistance of the instructor, you should compare Figure 1 with the
equipment to get familiar with the apparatus, valves, connections, and flow rate measurement.
The Characteristic Curve of Single Pump
Step 1: Adjust the valves on the apparatus so that a single pump is active.
Step 2: Keep the “upstream valve” fully open.
Step 3: Fully open the “downstream valve” and manipulate its connected plastic holes until water
start to flow. Make sure the water flow back into the hydraulic bench!
Step 4: Close the ‘downstream valve” and record the readings of p1 and p2 (Figure 1) in Table 1.
Step 5: Gradually open the “downstream valve” to control discharge and p2. For a given reading
of p2, measure the flow rate by collecting some volume (e.g., 5 L) of water in the
hydraulic bench and recording the time for three times. Record the values in Table 1.
Step 6: Record the readings of p1 and p2 in Table 1.
Step 7: Repeat Step 5 and 6 for five different discharges/pressure readings, plus with no flow.
The Characteristic Curve of Pumps in Series
Step 1: Adjust the valves on the apparatus such that two pumps are in series.
Step 2: Keep the “upstream valve” fully open.
21
Step 3: Fully open the “downstream valve” and manipulate its connected plastic holes until water
start to flow. Make sure the water flow back into the hydraulic bench!
Step 4: Close the ‘downstream valve” and record the readings of p1 and p2 (Figure 1) in Table 2.
Step 5: Gradually open the “downstream valve” to control discharge and p1. For a given reading
of p1, measure the flow rate by collecting some volume (e.g., 5 L) of water in the
hydraulic bench and recording the time for three times. Record the values in Table 2.
Step 6: Record the readings of p1 and p2 in Table 2.
Step 7: Repeat Step 5 and 6 for five different discharges/pressure readings, plus with no flow.
The Characteristic Curve of Pumps in Parallel
Step 1: Adjust the valves on the apparatus such that two pumps are in parallel.
Step 2: Keep the “upstream valve” fully open.
Step 3: Fully open the “downstream valve” and manipulate its connected plastic holes until water
start to flow. Make sure the water flow back into the hydraulic bench!
Step 4: Close the ‘downstream valve” and record the readings of p1 and p2 (Figure 1) in Table 3.
Step 5: Gradually open the “downstream valve” to control discharge and p2. For a given reading
of p2, measure the flow rate by collecting some volume (e.g., 5 L) of water in the
hydraulic bench and recording the time for three times. Record the values in Table 3.
Step 6: Record the readings of p1 and p2 in Table 3.
Step 7: Repeat Step 5 and 6 for five different discharges/pressure readings, plus with no flow.

RESULTS
Compare the experimental and theoretical pump characteristic curves for pumps in series and
parallel. Comparisons should be made both graphically and in terms of percent error. You can
process the data in Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet.
Calculations
You need to show sample calculations for a selected trial (i.e., for one flow rate/pressure
reading). This includes calculations of flow rate Q, measured pressure p, theoretical pressure
(pth), and percent error (i.e., . The calculation results should be presented
in Table 1 to 3.
Plots
You need to generate two plots: one for pumps in series and another for pumps in parallel.
The plot for pumps in series should show the: 1) single characteristic curve for pump 2 (i.e.,
p2 ~ Q in Table 1); 2) theoretical characteristic curve for pumps in series (i.e., pth ~ Q in Table
2); and 3) experimental characteristic curve for pumps in series (i.e., p1 ~ Q in Table 2).
The plot for pumps in parallel should show the: 1) single characteristic curve for pump 2
(i.e., p2 ~ Q in Table 1); 2) theoretical characteristic curve for pumps in parallel (i.e., pth ~ Q in
Table 3); and 3) experimental characteristic curve for pumps in parallel (i.e., p1 ~ Q in Table 3).

22
Discussion
Analyze any possible reasons for discrepancies between the experimental and theoretical
characteristic curves for pumps in series and parallel.
Given the data for reference pump 2 (N1 = 1850 rpm) collected/derived in this lab, use
affinity laws (Equation 1) to predict the values of discharge and pressure for pumps rotating
at N1 = 3000 rpm. Provide a table with the predicted values of discharge and pressure for a
single pump, two pumps in parallel, and two pumps in series.

(1)

where QN1 and QN2 are the discharges at rotating speeds N1 and N2, respectively; and pN1 and pN2
are the pressures at N1 and N2, respectively.

Table 1. Data and calculations for single pump.[1]

time t volume Qt = Vt/t Q p1 p2
trial
(s) (L) (L/s) (L/s) (bar) (bar)
0 NA NA 0 0

[1]
For a trial, Q is the arithmetic average of Qt, and p1 and p2 are the pressure readings.

Sample calculations:

23
 Table 2. Data and calculations for pumps in series.[1]
time t volume Vt Qt = Vt/t Q p1 p2 pth = 2·p2
trial Err%[2]
(s) (kg) (L/s) (L/s) (bar) (bar) (bar)
0 NA NA 0 0

[1]
For a trial, Q is the arithmetic average of Qt, and p1 and p2 are is the pressure readings.
[2]
.

Sample calculations:

24
 Table 3. Data and calculations for pumps in parallel.[1]
time t volume Vt Qt = Vt/t Q p1 p2 pth = p2
trial Err%[2]
(s) (L) (L/s) (L/s) (bar) (bar) (bar)
0 NA NA 0 0

[1]
For a trial, Q is the arithmetic average of Qt, and p1 and p2 are the pressure readings.
[2]
.

Sample calculations:

25
Hydraulics Lab #2: Reynolds Experiment and Flow Regimes

PURPOSE
The main objective of this lab is to determine the critical values of Reynolds number, at which
flow through a smooth pipe changes from laminar to transitional and then from transitional to
turbulent, and vice versa.

APPARATUS

The Reynolds apparatus Figure 1. Dye

(Figure 1) consists of a head Reynolds
tank, a glass tube with an apparatus. Dye needle
internal diameter of 10 mm, valve
and valves that control flow
Overflow
rates of the water and dye. pipe
The apparatus is positioned Head tank
on a hydraulic bench with
an indicator of water volume
to be collected in the bench.
The indicator is located on
the bench at the opposite Outlet valve
side of the pump. You will Glass tube
use this collection method
(i.e., collecting water in the Pump Indicator
(on bench) of volume
hydraulic bench during a (on bench)
time period ticked by a Inlet valve
stopwatch) to measure flow (on bench)
rate.

PROCEDURE
After carefully observing various components of the apparatus and fully understanding how to
control flow rates of the water and dye, you should carry out the following sequential tasks
1. Fill the tank up to the overflow pipe invert, above which any more water will be
automatically drained through the overflow pipe.
2. Open the outlet valve and adjust the inlet valve so that a constant head at the overflow pipe
invert is maintained.
3. Open the dye needle valve, and readjust the outlet valve and dye valve until a thin line of
dye is observed flowing in the glass tube. Also, readjust the inlet valve to maintain the
constant head. This is a laminar flow. Because of a very low flow rate, measure the flow
rate using a graduated cylinder and stopwatch.
4. Increase flow rate by adjusting the outlet valve until the dye starts to waver. Also, readjust
the inlet valve to maintain the constant head. This is the beginning of transition and occurs
26
 at a critical value of Reynolds number. Measure the flow rate using the collection method.
Judgment must be made to decide when the dye line begins to oscillate.
5. Increase flow rate by adjusting the outlet valve until a more pronounced wavering of dye
occurs. Also, readjust the inlet valve to maintain the constant head. This is the middle of
transitional region. Measure the flow rate using the collection method.
6. Increase flow rate by adjusting the outlet valve until the dye starts to break up at the tube
entrance. Also, readjust the inlet valve to maintain the constant head. The flow is now at
the beginning of turbulent region. Measure the flow rate using the collection method.
7. Increase flow rate by adjusting the outlet valve until full turbulence is observed (i.e., dye is
completely mixed). Also, readjust the inlet valve to maintain the constant head. Measure
the flow rate using the collection method.
8. Decrease flow rates in an opposite manner to steps 7 to 4 in this order, while readjust the
inlet valve to maintain the constant head. Measure the flow rates when turbulent just
changes to transitional and transitional just changes to laminar.
9. Shut off the dye, inlet and outlet valves.
10. Record temperature of the water.

DATA RECORD
Use Table 1 to record and process your observations and measurements.
Table 1. Observations, measurements, and data processing.
Volume of Water Collected Time Ticked Flow Rate Reynolds Number
No. Visual Dye Condition
(mL) (s) Q (m3/s) Re (Eq. 1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Internal diameter of the glass tube d = ______mm
Temperature of the water = ______ °C
Kinematic viscosity of the water ν = _________ m2/s

27
DATA PROCESSING AND REPORT
1. Sketch the appearances of dye line in the glass tube when flow in the tube is laminar,
transitional, and turbulent.
2. Calculate the Reynolds number for each of the flow measurements. Herein, Reynolds
number, Re, is defined as:

V d 4Q
Re (1)
v d
where V is the mean velocity in the glass tube; d is the internal diameter of the glass tube; ν is
the kinematic viscosity of the water; and Q is the flow rate.
3. Classify the three flow regimes (laminar, transitional, and turbulent) based on the
experimental values of Re. Make a comparison with the flow regime classifications given
by Moody diagram. Such a diagram can be found in a hydromechanics or water resources
engineering textbook.

28
Hydraulics Lab #3: Venturi Meter as a Flow Measurement Device

OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this lab are to: 1) study axial distributions of pressure and velocity of water
flowing through a venturi meter; and 2) determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.

INTRODUCTION
A venturi is a converging-diverging nozzle with a circular cross section. When connected to a
flow passage, a venturi can be used as a flow measurement device, which is usually known as
venturi meter. Other obstruction-type flow measurement devices are described in Holman (1978)
and Munson et al. (1998).
Herchel (1887) presented the first practical venturi meter. Its rationale is that when a fluid
flows through the venturi meter, the fluid accelerates in the convergent section and decelerates in
the divergent section, resulting in a drop in static pressure followed by a pressure recovery along
the flow direction (Figure 1). By measuring the difference between the pressure head at an axial
station upstream of the convergent section and that at the throat, the volumetric flow rate can be
determined.

Figure 1. Illustration of venturi meter and pressure head changes.

For an ideal (i.e., a frictionless) venturi meter and between any two sections along the flow
direction, Bernoulli’s equation can be written as:

V12 V22 Vn2

z1 h1 z2 h2 zn hn (1)
2g 2g 2g

where h1, h2, and hn are the pressure heads at sections 1, 2, and any other section n; V1, V2, and
Vn are the mean velocities at sections 1, 2, and n; and z1, z2, and zn are the distances above the
datum for sections 1, 2, and n. As the venturi meter is leveled, z1 = z2 =zn.
By rearranging Eq. (1), in terms of observed pressure heads at sections 1 and n as well as
mean velocity at section 1 (Figure 1), the ideal mean velocity at section n can be computed as:

29
 Vn 2 g (h1 hn ) (V1 ) 2 (2)

Based on the continuity equation, we have:

V1 A1 = V2 A2 (3)

where A1 and A2 are the cross sectional areas at sections 1 and 2 (Figure 1).

By substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (1), we have:

2
V22 A2
h1 h2 1 (4)
2g A1

Based on Eq. (3) and (4), the ideal volumetric flow rate, Qideal, can be calculated as:

2g(h 1 h2)
Q ideal V2 A 2 A2 2
(5)
A2
1
A1

However, because of frictions, the actual volumetric flow rate, Qactual, is less than Qideal given
by Eq. 5. The ratio of Qactual to Qideal is defined as the discharge coefficient (cv) of venturi meter,
that is:

Q actual (6)
cv
Q ideal
By substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (6), we have:

2g ( h 1 h2)
Q actual = cv A2 2
(7)
A2
1
A1

Theoretically, cv is a function of Reynolds number (Re) and venturi geometry, and has to be
determined before a venturi meter can be used for accurate flow measurement. In this lab, you
will measure pressure heads and flow rate of water through a venturi meter. Also, based on the
measurements, you will determine the functional relationship between cv and Re.
In terms of the velocity head at venturi throat, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as:

30
 2 2
hn h1 V 12 V n2 A2 A2
(8)
V 22 2 g V 22 A1 An

APPARATUS
The venturi meter is illustrated in Figure 2. It is set up on a hydraulic bench, which not only
supplies water to flow through the venturi meter but also measures the volumetric flow rate using
a collection method (see Lab #1). Pressure taps are installed on the venturi mater at a number of
axial sections. Each tap is connected to a piezometer tube to measure the local static pressure
head. All the piezometer tubes are connected at their upper ends to a common manifold; thus, all
pressures are measured with respect to the pressure in the manifold. The manifold pressure is
adjusted during the lab to control the mean levels of water in the piezometer tubes. The water
flow rate is controlled with an inlet valve (on the hydraulic bench) and an exit valve (on the
venturi meter).

Figure 2. Illustration and dimensions of the venturi meter to be used in this lab.

PROCEDURE
You should do the lab as follows and record your measurements in Table 1:
1. Level the venturi meter.
2. With the inlet and exit valves wide open, turn on the pump and allow water to flow
through the venturi meter at a maximum flow rate.
3. Adjust the two control valves alternately until a meniscus is visible in each of the
piezometer tubes. Adjust the manifold pressure if necessary.
4. Remove air bubbles in the piezometer tubes by tapping the tubes.
5. Adjust the two control valves such that a maximum difference between the piezometer
tube reading at section 1 (or A) and that at section 2 (or D; i.e., the throat) is attained.
6. Record the readings of all the piezometer tubes.

31
 7. Measure the times required to collect four different volumes of water in the collection
tank of the hydraulic bench. You must release the collected water before you do another
collection.
8. Reduce the flow rate by closing the exit valve such that the difference between the
piezometer tube reading at section 1 and that at section 2 is approximately 20 mm less
than the corresponding difference observed in the previous run.
9. Record readings of all the piezometer tubes.
10. Measure the flow rate as step 7.
11. Repeat steps 8 through 10 four more times.
12. Record temperature of the water.
13. Switch off the pump and let water drain out of the venturi meter.

DATA PROCESSING AND REPORT

You should process your measured data as follows:
1. For each of the six runs, calculate the average actual flow rate, Qactual, as:

(9)
where is the volume of water collected within time period ti; i = 1, 2, 3, 4 is the number of
water collection; and m = A, B, C, …, L is the piezometer tube station. These paired values of
and ti should have been recorded Table 1. Record your calculated Qactual,m in Table 1.
2. For each of the 11 stations and each of the six runs, calculate the actual mean velocity,
Vactual,n,m as:
(10)

where An is the cross sectional area of the venturi tube at piezometer tube station n. Record your
calculated Vactual,n,m in Table 2.
3. For each of the 11 stations and each of the six runs, calculate the ideal mean velocity,
Videal,n,m, using Eq. (2) as:
Videal,n,m 2g(h 1,m h n ,m ) (Vactual,1,m ) 2 (11)

where h1,m is the reading of piezometer tube A for run #m; and Vactual,1,m is the actual mean
velocity at section 1 or A for run #m. Record your calculated Videal,n,m in Table 2.
4. Compare Vactual,n,m (step 2) and Videal,n,m (step 3) that are recorded in Table 2.
5. For each of the 11 stations and each of the six runs, calculate the dimensionless parameter
(Rhideal,n,m) in terms of the ideal pressure head, hideal,n,m, the observed reading of piezometer
tube A, h1,m, and the actual mean velocity at throat section 2 or D, Vactual,2,m, using Eq. (8)
as:

32
 2 2
h ideal, n , m h1, m A2 A2
Rh ideal, n , m 2 (12)
Vactual , 2, m A1 An
2g

The calculations in this step can be carried out using Tables 2, 3, and 4.
6. For each of the 11 stations and each of the six runs, calculate the dimensionless parameter
(Rhactual,n,m) in terms of the actual pressure head, hn,m, the observed reading of piezometer
tube A, h1,m, and the actual mean velocity at throat section 2 or D, Vactual,2,m, as:
h n , m h1, m
Rh actual, n , m 2
Vactual, 2, m (13)
2g

The calculations in this step can be carried out using Tables 2 and 4.
7. For each of the six runs, plot Rhactual,n,m and Rhideal,n,m (Table 4) versus the distances from
piezometer tube A on a same plot, and connect the points of each series with lines (no
smoothing). As a result, you should have six plots of dimensionless parameters, each of
which has two lines. The distances can be determined from Figure 2.
8. For each of the six runs, plot Vactual,n,m and Videal,n,m (Table 2) versus the distances from
piezometer tube A on a same plot, and connect the points of each series with lines (no
smoothing). As a result, you should have six plots of mean velocities, each of which has
two lines. The distances can be determined from Figure 2.
9. For each of the six runs, compute the ideal volumetric flow rate, Qideal,m, as:
2
Qideal, m Videal, 2, m A 2 Videal, 2, m d2
4 (14)
where d2 is the diameter at throat section 2 or D; and Videal,2,m is the ideal mean velocity at throat
section 2 or D, which can be found in Table 2.
10. For each of the six runs, calculate the discharge coefficient, cv,m, using Eq. (6) as:
Qactual, m
cv, m
Qideal, m (15)

11. For each of the six runs, calculate the Reynolds number, Re,m as:
Vactual,1, m d1
R e, m
(16)
where d1 is the diameter at section 1 or A; Vactual,1,m is the actual mean velocity at section 1 or A,
which can be found in Table 2.
12. Plot cv,m versus Re,m and fit a linear trend line (no smoothing). The paired values of cv,m
and Re,m can be found in Table 5.
13. Compare the results with those available in a textbook and discuss any discrepancies and
possible error sources.

33
REFERENCES
Holman J.P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill Book Company,
Inc. 1978, pp 216-229.
Munson, Young and Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Third Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1998.
Herchel, C. The Venturi Water Meter: An Instrument Making Use of a New Method of Gauging
Water: Applicable to the Cases of Very Large Tubes and of a Small Valve Only, of the Liquid
to be Gauged, Transactions of ASCE, 17 (1887), pp 228-258.

DATA RECORDED AND PROCESSING

Table 1. Measurements of pressure head and flow rate for the six runs.
Reading of Piezometer Tube n, hn,m (mm)
Run Qactual,m Qactual,m
#m A D (L/s) (m3/s)
B C E F G H J K L
(1) (2)

Temperature of the water = ______ ° C; Kinematic viscosity of the water = _________ m2/s

34
 Table 2. Observed readings of the piezometer tubes and calculated velocities.
Run #m m=1 m=2 m=3
Piezometer Vactual,n,m Videal,n,m Vactual,n,m Videal,n,m Vactual,n,m Videal,n,m
hn,m hn,m hn,m
n (Eq. 10) (Eq. 11) (Eq. 10) (Eq. 11) (Eq. 10) (Eq. 11)
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

Run #m m=4 m=5 m=6

Piezometer Piezometer Videal,n,m Piezometer

Vactual,n,m Videal,n,m Vactual,n,m
hn,m hn,m (Eq. hn,m
n (Eq. 10) (Eq. 11) n (Eq. 10) n
11)
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L

35
 Table 3. Geometrics of the across sections of the venturi meter.
2 4 2 2
Piezometer Diameter d2 A2 d2 A2 A2
n dn (mm) dn An dn A1 An
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

Table 4. Dimensionless parameters of pressure head, defined in Eq. (12) and (13).
Run #m M=1 m=2

Piezometer Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m

h n ,m h n ,m
n
(Eq. 13) (Eq. 12) (Eq. 13) (Eq. 12)
A (1)

D (2)

36
 Table 4. (Continue ….)
Run #m m=3 m=4

Piezometer Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m

h n ,m h n ,m
n
(Eq. 13) (Eq. 12) (Eq. 13) (Eq. 12)
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
I
J

Run #m m=5 m=6

Piezometer Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m Rh actual,n ,m Rh ideal,n ,m

h n ,m h n ,m
n
(Eq. 13) (Eq. 12) (Eq. 13) (Eq. 12)
A (1)
B
C
D (2)
E
F
G
H
I
J

37
 Table 5. Discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.
Run Videal,2,m Qideal,m Qactual,m cv,m Re,m
#m (Table 2; m) (Eq. 14; m3/s) (Table 1; m3/s) (Eq. 15) (Eq. 16)
1

Diameter at section 1 or A is d1 = 26.0 mm; diameter at section 2 or D is d2 = 16.0 mm.

38
Hydraulics Lab #4: Discharge over Sharp-Crested Weir

INTRODUCTION
Sharp-crested weir is frequently used for measuring discharge in stream or channel. Once
installed in accordance with prescribed requirements and calibrated using observed data, sharp-
crested weir can provide accurate measurement of discharge. Herein, the purpose of calibration
is to establish a functional relationship between head (h) and discharge (Q) over weir. In this lab,
you will verify the power-law dependence of Q on h, and determine the value of sharp-crested
weir discharge coefficient, C.

EQUIPMENT
Five-meter-long flume; sharp-crested weir with air vent; dial vernier depth gauge; steel ruler; and
stop watch.

THEORY
A hypothetical sharp-crested weir and its flow are illustrated in Figure 1. Let “a” be the height
of the crest above the channel bed, while let “h” be the height of water surface above the crest at
approach section ①. With an assumption of uniform approach velocity, V0, the streamlines in
the approach flow can be assumed to have a same specific energy, E, which can be computed as:
V02
a h (1)
2g

① ②

Figure 1. The hypothetical sharp-crested weir and its flow.

39
 For a streamline with a distance of “z” above the weir crest, if its velocity at weir section ②
(Figure 1) is Vz and there is no energy loss from section ① to ②, based on Bernoulli’s equation,
we have:
V02 Vz2
a h a z (2)
2g 2g

If is very small in relative to other terms in Eq. (2) and thus can be neglected, we have:
Vz 2g(h z) (3)
Let “B” be the weir width along the direction perpendicular to the approach flow. The ideal
discharge, dQideal, between two streamlines apart from a distance of dz can be approximated as:
dQ ideal BVz dz (B 2g(h z) )dz
(4)
By integrating Eq. (4), we can get the ideal total discharge, Qideal, over the weir as:
h
(5)
Q ideal 2g(h z) Bdz
o

That is:
3
2 (6)
Q ideal B 2g h 2
3

Eq. (6) assumes that: 1) V0 is uniform across section ①; 2) no energy loss from section ① to
②; 3) is negligible; and 4) the flow over the weir is laminar. However, for real sharp-crested
weirs, these assumptions are likely invalid. With this regard, we need to introduce a
dimensionless discharge coefficient, C, into Eq. (6) to compute the actual total discharge, Q, as:
3
2
Q C B 2g h 2 (7)
3

PROCEDURE
You should carry out the following sequential tasks:
1. Use the screw jack to set the flume to be horizontal, as indicated by zero readings of the
linear and circular scales. If you do not know how to do this, ask the instructor.
2. Measure the weir height “a” and width “B” by a steel ruler.
3. Place the weir vertically in the flume at approximately 0.5 m upstream of the flume outlet.
4. With the tip of the dial vernier depth gauge resting on the weir crest, set the gauge scale to
zero. By doing this, the subsequent measurement of water level will be the height (h)
above the crest.
5. Turn on the flume pump.

40
 6. Steadily adjust the control valve (i.e., the long plastic handle beneath the flume channel)
until a convenient maximum flow is obtained. This maximum flow depends on the
available depth of flow in the flume to avoid overflowing.
7. Wait several minutes until the flow is stabilized. Then, measure the discharge using a
weighing technique (i.e., timing the collection of a known weight of water). The weighing
technique is described in the following section of “WEIGHING TECHNIQUE.” Also,
measure the height above the weir (h) using the dial vernier depth gauge at a distance of
0.3 m upstream of the weir. The discharge or h each should be determined as the average
of three samples.
8. Steadily close the control valve.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for five more measurements.
Note: It is important that at all times the underside of the weir flow profile must be separated
from the weir plate. For this purpose, a vent pipe is provided and can be used to maintain
separation by blowing air into this region from time to time (especially when discharge is small).
The approximate range of h over which readings may be taken is between 50 and 25 mm. No
measurement should be taken when it is no longer possible to ensure a separation.

DATA PROCESSING AND REPORT

1. For each of the six measurements, calculate h and Q in Table 1.
2. For each of the six measurements, calculate C and h/a in Table 2.
3. Prepare a table listing values of h, Q, C, and h/a, for the six measurements. Does C remain
constant?
4. Plot Q versus h3/2, and interpret your plot in reference to Eq. (7).
5. Plot C versus h/a, and investigate if C varies with h/a.
6. Plot Q versus h (i.e., the discharge-head curve for the sharp-crested weir).

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 Table 1. Measurements of discharge (Q) and height (h) over the sharp-crested weir.[1]
Discharge Sample #
Measurement 1 2 3 Q[2]
# Interval Water Mass Interval Water Mass Interval Water Mass (m3/s)
t1 (s) m1 (kg) t2 (s) m2 (kg) t3 (s) m3 (kg)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Height Sample #
Measurement 1 2 3 h[3]
# height height height (mm)
h1 (mm) h2 (mm) h3 (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
[1]
Weir height a = ________ mm = ________ m; weir width B = ________ mm = ________ m.
[2] ( ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ) [3]
. .

Sample calculation: Q = ;h=

Table 2. Calculations of dimensionless weir discharge coefficient (C).

Measurement
h (Table 1) (m) Qideal (Eq. 6) (m3/s) Q (Table 1) (m3/s) C = Q/Qideal h/a
#
1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample calculation: Qideal =

C = ; h/a =

WEIGHING TECHNIQUE
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The precision weighing unit of TecQuipment Hydraulic Bench, which has a 3:1 sloped side, is
designed for accurate measurement of relatively large quantities of water up to 36 kg.
Before proceeding with any measurement on the bench, students should familiarize
themselves with the following operations (Figure 2):
(a) Close the bench supply valve and direct the supply hose into the weigh tank via center of
the bench top.
(b) Slide the weigh beam stop out of line of the beam and lift the beam for 10-15 seconds to
ensure the weigh tank is empty.
(c) The weigh beam will be in its lower position with only the weight carrier on (Figure 2a).
Slide the weigh beam stop above the weigh beam.
(d) Switch on the pump.
(e) Open the bench supply valve.
(f) Start timing when the weigh beam comes horizontal and place selected mass immediately
on to the weight hanger. See Figures 2b and 2c.
(g) When the mass of water collected balances the mass of the weight hanger, the beam will
rise again to the horizontal position (Figure 2d). At this instant, stop the timer and record
the timing interval. Note: the mass of water collected is three times the mass used on
the weight hanger.
(h) Close supply valve or switch off the pump.
(i) To drain the weigh tank, depress weigh beam above weight hanger and slide weigh beam
stop away. Gently let weigh beam rise until it stops against the sump tank. Remove
weights and tank will continue draining. As the weigh beam returns to the horizontal, lift it
for 10-15 seconds to drain final amount from weigh tank (Figure 2e).

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Figure 2. Illustration of how to use the weighing technique.

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Hydraulics Lab #5: Hydraulic Jump and Head Loss

OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this lab are to: 1) study the formation of a free hydraulic jump in a horizontal
flume with a rectangular cross section; and 2) determine the head loss resulting from the jump.

APPARATUS
Five-meter-long flume; sluice gate; dial vernier depth gauge; steel ruler; and stop watch.

THEORY
Hydraulic jump occurs when: 1) a supercritical flow flows into a subcritical flow in open
channel; and 2) the momentum is preserved between pre- and post-jump sections. For
supercritical flow, Froude number , where V is the mean velocity; g is the gravitational
√
acceleration; and h = A/B is the hydraulic depth; A is the flow area; and B is the top width, is
greater than one, whereas for subcritical flow, F is less than one. Hydraulic jump is highly
turbulent with complex internal flow patterns and can dissipate a large amount of energy.
Hydraulic jump can be formed by adjusting channel bed slope, presenting a sluice gate (Figure
1), and/or creating an obstacle downstream of a spillway.

Figure 1. Illustration of hydraulic jump in horizontal channel by a sluice gate.

For a horizontal rectangular channel with a constant width and a constant unit-width flow
rate (q), the pre-jump water depth (h1) and the post-jump water depth (h2) can be determined by
applying momentum equation. Herein, h1 and h2, called “conjugate depths,” satisfies momentum
equation that can be expressed as:

(1)

By rearranging Eq. (1), we have:

√ (2)

45
where is the Froude number at section ② (Figure 1).
√

Once h1 and h2 are determined, we can apply energy equation to calculate the head loss due
to the jump as:
( ) ( ) (3)

By rearranging Eq. (3), we have:

( ) (4)

PROCEDURE
This lab will measure and record data of: 1) h1 and h2 using the dial vernier depth gauge; 2)
flume width B using the steel ruler; and 3) flow rate Q using the weighing technique (see Lab 2).
You should carry out the following sequential tasks:
1. Adjust the channel to a horizontal position (as you did in Lab 2).
2. Measure the channel width B.
3. Turn on the flume pump and adjust the flow control valve (i.e., the long plastic handle
beneath the flume channel) to achieve a flow depth of about half of the flume’s total depth.
4. Place the sluice gate vertically in the flume at a distance of 2.0 m downstream from the
flow source and adjust the gate opening to generate a hydraulic jump. Make sure that the
sluice gate opening must be kept large enough to avoid overflowing.
5. Wait for several minutes after installing the sluice gate until flow is stabilized.
6. Visually identify the pre- and post-jump sections.
7. Measure and record h1 and h2 using the dial verneir depth gauge.
8. Measure the flow rate using the weighting technique.
9. Adjust the flow control valve to achieve a smaller flow depth and adjust the gate opening to
generate another hydraulic jump.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for five more measurements.

DATA RECORDED AND PROCESSING

Based on the measured data in Table 1, you need to:
1. Compute flow velocities at the pre- and post-jump sections.
2. Compute Froude numbers at the pre- and post-jump sections.
3. Compute head losses due to the jumps.

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 4. Sketch water surface profiles of the jumps.

Table 1. Measurements of depths (h1 and h2) and flow rate (Q).
Discharge Sample #
1 2 3 Q[2]
Jump h1 h2
Water Water Water (m3/s)
# (m) (m) Interval Interval Interval
Mass Mass Mass
t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s)
m1 (kg) m2 (kg) m3 (kg)
1
2
3
4
5
6

[1] [2] ( ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ )
Flume width B = ________ mm = ________ m; .

Sample calculation: Q =

Table 2. Calculations of head loss.

Q
h1 h2 q= V1 = V2 = hf
Jump (Table 1) Fr1 = Fr2 =
(Table 1) (Table 1) Q/B q/h1 q/h2 (Eq. 3)
# (m3/s) V1/(gh1)0.5 V2/(gh2)0.5
(m) (m) (m2/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Sample calculations: q =

V1 = V2 =

Fr1 = Fr2 =

hf =

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Experiment Lab #6: Optimal Operation of Piping Systems

INTRODUCTION
Optimal operation of piping systems should consider maximizing flow rate (Q) and at the same
time minimizing total head loss (hL). hL includes friction loss (hf) and total minor loss (hminor),
which in turn consist of entrance loss (he), discharge loss (hd), contraction loss (hc), expansion
loss (hx), bending loss (hb), and fitting loss (hfitting). That is:

(1)

In this experiment lab, you will use the H16 Losses in Piping Systems (Figure 1) to find the
optimal operation point. Your tasks are as follows:
Review the user guide of the H16 Losses in Piping Systems
Design laboratory experiment to determine the relationship between Q and hL
Submit group report including a summary of the user guide and experiment procedures
by the due day for review
Conduct experiment
Document all types of losses, and relate Q and hL
Compare the above relationship with the relationships presented in the user guide
Determine the optimal operation point and the corresponding openings of the two valves
Prepare the final group report by due day

Figure 1. The H16 Losses in Piping Systems.

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 Appendix

H 16
Losses in Piping System

User’s manual

Provided by

TecQuipment

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