A WORTHWHILE TASK TO TEACH SLOPE

Author(s): Lauren L. Wagener

Source: Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, Vol. 15, No. 3 (OCTOBER 2009), pp.
168-174
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41182982
Accessed: 08-09-2017 02:08 UTC

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 Lauren L. Wagener

A WORTHWHILE TASK

TO TEACH SLOPE
168 MATHEMATICS TEACHING IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL • Vol. 15, No. 3, October 2009

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 Ir*4

Consider théi^gssibi^ slope.

It is a fundamental algebraic ГсопщЛ that has
connections to advanced mathematics and to
the éorld outside the classroom.

We live in a world in which rapid are able to calculate the slope ac- earns enough money to pay for it.
change is a way of life. In fact, more curately but have difficulty moving He currently earn $15 per week
changes in technology have occurred beyond simple calculation-based mowing lawns. If camp starts in
during the past fifty years than in all comprehension to a more global 30 weeks, will he be able to earn
previously recorded history (Dubinsky understanding of slope as a rate of enough money to go?
2000). Now more than ever, students change (Walter and Gerson 2007).
must become skilled at navigating In other words, students are not Table 1 presents the total amount
change to have some control over prepared to apply their knowledgeearned during Joe's first five weeks
their future lives. Mathematics helps of slope in a meaningful way to the of work. Writing the amount earned
provide the roadmap necessary for world outside the algebra classroom each week until he reaches 30 weeks
understanding change. However, this or see connections between slope and
would be time-consuming. Instead,
understanding must be broad enough other mathematical concepts. we can find a formula to describe the
so that they can connect the math amount earned based on the number
they learn in the classroom to life of weeks worked. Look at the table
An Alternative Understanding of Slope
outside the classroom. In elementary school, students beginand observe that the pattern can be
Teachers' task selections are crucial to understand discrete patterns of described with the formula у = 15л:, in
for students to develop deeper, more change, specifically, where input val-
which у is the amount earned and x
connected mathematical understand- ues can be ordered and counted. The is the number of weeks worked. In 30
ing. In this article, I will explore - most basic pattern of change is linear. weeks, Joe will have only earned $450,
In a discrete linear pattern of change, not the necessary $1000.
1. two conceptualizations of slope, a given amount is added to each term Observe that the set of possible
2. determine which concept allows to get the next term. In other words, input values is the natural numbers,
for the greatest connection to slope the amount of change between con- N = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... }, which is a
as being a rate of change, and secutive terms remains constant. countable and ordered set. Therefore,
3. discuss selecting and implement- The problem below illustrates a the pattern is discrete. By working
ing worthwhile mathematical tasks constant rate of change. 1 additional week, the total amount
to help students understand this earned increases by $15. Thus, this is
topic. Joe wants to go to summer camp. an example of a discrete linear pat-
However, the camp costs $1000, tern of change with a constant rate of
SLOPE AS "RISE OVER RUN" and he can only attend if he change of $15.
g Slope is often conceptualized simply
£ as a line's "rise over run" (i.e., the И Fi Я Т^ш Ш^^^ш№п3^^у^Ш^^кш^Ет^штШЯМ19шп^№№^Е№^вшм^^^^ш^^Е№^^^^^Е
§ change in y over the change in x on
| the Cartesian plane) (Joram and Weeks 12 3 4 5
o Oleson 2007; Walter and Gerson
Amount $15 $30 $45 $60 $75
о 2007). Using this definition, students

Vol. 15, No. 3, October 2009 • MATHEMATICS TEACHING IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL 169

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Since mathematics is In a prealgebra or first-year algebra
course during late middle or early high
found in every aspect school, students encounter continu-
ous, rather than discrete, patterns of
of life, it is important change. The input terms can still be
ordered, but they are not countable.
for teachers to For any two inputs, other input values
lie in between. This problem illustrates
provide experiences a continuous pattern of change.
Suppose that Saras car gets 25
miles per gallon of gasoline. She plans
that help students to drive to a friend's house and wants
to determine how much gasoline she
find connections and will use. Because the distance to the
frienďs home is not known, she must
develop an determine a formula for the amount
of gasoline needed for any given num-
appreciation for math ber of miles.
In this formula, the number of
and its use in their miles will be the input, and the
amount of gasoline will be the output.
lives outside school. The set of possible input values is the
set of real numbers, Ж. We cannot
create a list of the first five possible
distances, as we did with the previ-
ous example, because for any two
distances, there are possible distances
in between, for which we must also
be able to calculate the gas usage.
Thus, this is an example of a continu-
ous pattern of change, which can be
represented by the formula y = #/25, in
which y is the amount of gasoline and
x is the number of miles she will drive
for any number of miles, including
fractional values.
A fundamental aspect of any
pattern is its rate of change. Similar
to discrete linear patterns, continu-
ous linear patterns of change (linear
functions) have constant rates of
change. However, continuous patterns
of change do not have consecutive
input terms. Therefore, the constant
rate of change for a linear function,
called slope, is defined as the uniform
proportion of change in the output
value to change in the input value.
In other words, if we pick any two
inputs, xx and x2, and determine their
corresponding outputs,^ and y2, re-
ffO'TÉftNEMATICS TEACHING IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL • Vol. 15, No. 3, October 2009
яг
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spectively, then the slope will be given
by this proportion:
У2-У1
x2- xx
From the previous example, inputs
of 25 and 75 miles result in outputs of
1 and 3 gallons, respectively. Thus, the
slope is
3-1 _ 2 _ 1
75-25" 50 " 25'
With this value, we are able to
determine how much the output will
be altered by any given change in the
input. If Sara originally expects to
travel 30 miles to her friend's house,
but the house turns out to actually be
50 miles away, she will need to drive
an additional 20 miles. Multiplying
the additional miles by the slope, we
find that she will need
- .(50-30) = - .20
25 25
_20_4
~25~5
= 0.8 gal.
of gasoline to get to her friends house
in addition to what she originally
anticipated.
Although the two conceptualiza-
tions of slope are similar, the depth
of understanding differs greatly. In
the first example using the formula
y - #/25, students may be able to
use slope to determine the steepness
of a line but often cannot see the
connections between slope and their
prior mathematics background or
real-life-applications. On the other
hand, the second conceptualization
of slope, using the value 1/25, is
clearly bound to prior mathemati-
cal and real-life experiences with
patterns and change, which conse-
quently makes it a better choice for
developing a deeper understanding
of slope.
MATHEMATICAL TASK to highest cognitive demand, the
SELECTION mathematical task groups are -
"Students develop their sense of what
it means to 'do mathematics' from 1. memorization,
their actual experiences with math- 2. procedures without connections,
3. procedures with connections, and
ematics, and their primary opportuni-
ties to experience mathematics as a 4. doing mathematics.
discipline are seated in the classroom
activities in which they engage" LOW-LEVEL TASKS
(Henningsen and Stein 1997, p. 525).With memorization, students do not
As a result, selecting "worthwhile" have to truly understand or justify
mathematical tasks plays a central the information; all they need to do
role in teaching mathematics (Ar- is repeat it. Thus, any problem that
baugh and Brown 2004; Jones and simply asks students to state a formula
Tarr 2007; Stein and Smith 1998). Ais a memorization task. Being asked
"worthwhile" task develops and con- to recall the mnemonic "rise over run"
nects mathematical ideas, concepts, for calculating slope from two points
and proficiency; piques students' on a coordinate plane is a memoriza-
interests; and has multiple reasonable tion task.
solutions to encourage students to hy- Two types of procedures have Worthwhile tasks,
no context. The first, called naked
pothesize and reflect on their supposi-
tions (NCTM 1991). This definition,
problems, includes the following two which require
in conjunction with the following examples:
categorization of mathematical tasks, students to do the
will help teachers choose appropriate 1. Determine the slope of the line
tasks.
Stein and Smiths (1998) catego-
passing through (1,2) and (4, 6).
2. Find the equation of the line with
mathematics, do not
rization of mathematical tasks (see slope 2 and a jy-intercept of (0, 4). have clear solution
the sidebar titled "Levels of Cognitive
Demand") begins with the separation The second type is called pseudo-
of mathematical tasks into levels of word problems, such as those typically
paths and often
cognitive demand: higher and lower. found in traditional textbooks. An
Lower-level demands involve memo- example is listed below: have many possible
rization and use of algorithms without
context or meaning. Higher-level Mary makes $30,000 per year. Her
correct answers.
demands also involve memorized facts salary increases by $2,000 per year.
or algorithms but in a way that gives understanding or on making connec-
mathematics meaning and connects a. Write an equation for the tions, and little or no explanation or
to underlying concepts and between amount of money that Mary will justification are required.
various representations. Stein and make in x years. Teaching math through low-level
Smith divided both the higher- and b. Find the amount of money that tasks (i.e., memorization and proce-
lower-level mathematical tasks into Mary will be making in 10 years. dure without context) is important
two groups, again on the basis of the for ensuring that students know and
level of cognitive demand. Pseudo-word problems are includ- have practiced using important facts
Higher-level mathematical tasks ed in the procedure-without-context and procedures. However, it does not
are separated into procedures with category because completing the task allow students to make connections or
connections and doing mathematics; is algorithmic (i.e., there is little ambi- determine the relevance of concepts.
lower-level mathematical tasks are guity for what needs to be done). The Therefore, teachers must find ways to
divided into memorization and pro- focus is on completing the task and further develop students' understand-
cedures without connections. Thus, in obtaining an answer instead of on the ing; one way is through the use of
order from lowest cognitive demand development of deeper mathematical worthwhile mathematical tasks.

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WORTHWHILE TASKS IMPLEMENTING SUCH A TASK egy for determining if a relationship
exists. I do not tell the students how
Worthwhile tasks, which require Selecting a worthwhile task is just the
students to do mathematics, do not
beginning. Teachers must also main- to approach a problem because doing
have clear solution paths and oftentain the level of cognitive demand so would lessen the cognitive demand
have many possible correct answers.throughout the task's implementation by making it more procedural. As
To complete such a task, students (Doerr 2006; NCTM 2000; Stein and each group settles on an approach,
cannot simply remember memo- Smith 1998). The Hooke's law prob- students are asked to implement their
rized facts or complete a rehearsedlem is an example of just such a task.procedures and make a determination
algorithm; instead, they must use on the basis of their results. To check

their acquired knowledge to deter-The Hooke's Law Problem that all students are participating in
mine how to approach the problemA hands-on activity that can be used the activity, I typically make sure that
and ensure that every step of the to introduce the concept of slope to each group member has a job: One
solution process is justifiable. The first-year algebra students is shown in student attaches the weights to the
Hooke's law problem (fig. 1) is an figure 1. The problem examines the spring; another measures the distance;
example of a worthwhile task for length of a spring in relation to the and the third records the results.

teaching the concept of slope as a weight pulling on it. I begin the lesson As soon as all the groups finish,
on the Hooke's law problem by havingI ask the class to come to an agree-
rate of change. It also gives students
the opportunity to solve a new type students, in groups of two or three, ment about the relationship through a
of problem. discuss the problem and create a strat- whole-class discussion. Once agree-
ment is reached, I present Hooke's
law, which states that the amount by
ШЕЕПЫ^^^^О^^ЯШяшмЕЯМ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Ш which a material body is deformed
(the strain) is linearly related to the
Use the spring to determine if there is a relationship between the amount of force causing the deformation (the
weight attached to the spring and the length of spring stretch. Describe your stress). A springs obeys Hooke's law,
procedure. If there is a relationship, explain the relationship. Justify your so we should find that the distance the
answer.
spring has been stretched away from its

Instructor notes: equilibrium position (i.e., the position

where it would naturally come to rest)
1. The relationship should be approximately linear, and the constant slope is
called the spring constant, or Hooke's law. is directly proportional to the restoring
2. The following materials, usually found in science classrooms, will be force (i.e., the amount of weight at-
needed: a spring, a rubber band, a ring stand, two clamps (one for the tached to the spring). In other words,
ring-stand clamp and one for the C-clamp), a spring scale, a ruler or me-
terstick, and a set of weights (or "known masses"). The following diagram
illustrates the assembly of these items.
in which x is the spring's displace-
I
^Г~
ment, F is the amount of weight
attached to the spring, and k is the
Spring s' spring's constant. Note that the arrows
above the F and the x in the equation
Clamp <C ^~^ ^j indicate that each is a quantity that
has both a direction and a magnitude
Ring Stand - V (i.e., they are vectors).
I discuss with the class that many
laws in science, such as Hooke's, are
Weight -A-
based on empirical observations of
physical behavior and are agreed on
by the scientific community after
Desk or Table | ^- ' repeated experiments. Students may
have settled on a relationship dif-
ferent from Hooke's law. In every

172 MATHEMATICS TEACHING IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL • Vol. 15, No. 3, October 2009

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 LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DEMAND

LOWER-LEVEL DEMANDS
Memorization
• Involves either reproducing previously learned facts, rules, formulas, or definitions or committing facts, rules, formulas,
or definitions to memory.
• Cannot be solved using procedures because a procedure does not exist or because the time frame in which the task is
being completed is too short to use a procedure.
• Are not ambiguous. Such tasks involve the exact reproduction of previously seen material, and what is to be reproduced
is clearly and directly stated.
• Have no connection to the concepts or meaning that underlie the facts, rules, formulas, or definitions being learned or
reproduced.

Procedures without Connections

• Are algorithmic. Use of the procedure either is specifically called for or is evident from prior instruction, experience,
or placement of the task.
• Require limited cognitive demand for successful completion. Little ambiguity exists about what needs to be done and
how to do it.
• Have no connection to the concepts or meaning that underlie the procedure being used.
• Are focused on producing correct answers instead of on developing mathematical understanding.
• Require either no explanations or explanations that focus solely on describing the procedure that was used.

HIGHER-LEVEL DEMANDS
Procedures with Connections
• Focus students' attention on the use of procedures for the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding of
mathematical concepts and ideas.
• Explicitly or implicitly suggest pathways to follow that are broad general procedures that have close connections to
underlying conceptual ideas as opposed to narrow algorithms that are opaque with respect to underlying concepts.
• Usually are represented in multiple ways, such as visual diagrams, manipulatives, symbols, and problem situations.
Making connections among multiple representations helps develop meaning.
• Require some degree of cognitive effort. Although general procedures may be followed, they ^^^■g^jêè^-
cannot be followed mindlessly. Students need to engage with conceptual ideas that un- ^^РЯЩё^^*^^
derlie the procedures to complete the task successfully and that develop understanding. ^fl^'jp^gj^p^;^^^^

Doing Mathematics Я%'* *: Î }Г ** '*? *% 1?ЙА

• Involve complex and nonalgorithmic thinking - a predictable, well-rehearsed ^^H^MvV 'И í £ ** £ ли
approach or pathway is not explicitly suggested by the task, task instructions, ^^■ffil^^ ** 1'~ , ЛдоТО ли
or a worked-out example. 'ЩШЕЕШ&***'', >¿ , 'шШ
• Require students to explore and understand the nature of mathematical М^'^ЯШЕ
concepts, processes, or relationships. ^ĚĚĚ^^^^^EěĚL !?Фш^Ш
• Demand self-monitoring or self-regulation of one's own cognitive processes. Щ^^^^^^^^ВШк^МЕШ^^Ш
• Require students to access relevant knowledge and experiences and make Ч%*-Ш^^^^^^^^Ш^^^^Ш
appropriate use of them in working through the task. шШ^^Я^^И^^^^^^Ш
• Require students to analyze the task and actively examine task constraints ß ^^^^Н^^^^^^Н
that may limit possible solution strategies and solutions. ß i^^^^^^H^^^^I^A
• Require considerable cognitive effort and may involve some level of anxiety (НН^^^^^Н^^^1^&
for the student because of the unpredictable nature of the solution process ^^ЯВЩ^^^^^^Н^Ак
required. ¡а^^^^^^^^ШИЕ^

Smith and Stein (1998). Reprinted wit

© 1998 by the National Council

Vol. 15, No. 3, October 2009 • M

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class, I have at least one group of
students whose results do not support
a relationship at all; these results are
often caused by inaccurate measure-
ments. However, I do not say their
relationship is incorrect. Instead, we
spend time discussing possible reasons
why their results might differ from
Hooke's law and what it would take
to discount Hooke's law. The students
usually conclude that their measure-
ments were not very precise.
Next, I inquire whether the spring s
relationship, as described by Hooke s
law, is a continuous or discrete pattern
of change. (By this point in my classes,
we have already discussed the two
types of change patterns, so students
of change does not directly apply to
continuous functions. At this point, I
introduce the concept of slope.
The Hooke's law problem smoothly
integrates science and math, relation-
ships between variables, and discrete
and continuous patterns of change.
Implementing this task and develop-
ing ideas through classroom discussion
enable students to connect slope to
their previous understanding of rates of
change and emphasize the importance
and relevance of mathematics.
CONCLUSION
Since mathematics is found in every
Tasks in Middle Grades Mathematics
aspect of life, it is important for teach-
ers to provide experiences that help
ematical Thinking." Educational Studies
in Mathematics 62, no. 1 (2006): 3-24.
Dubinsky, Ed. "Mathematical Literacy
and Abstraction in the 21st Century."
School Science and Mathematics 100,
no. 6 (2000): 289-97.
Henningsen, Marjorie, and Mary Kay
Stein. "Mathematical Tasks and Student
Cognition: Classroom-Based Factors
That Support and Inhibit High-Level
Mathematical Thinking and Reason-
ing." 'Journal 'for Research in Mathematics
Education 28, no. 5 (1997): 524-49.
Jones, Dustin L., and James E. Tarr. "An
Examination of the Levels of Cogni-
tive Demand Required by Probability
Textbooks." Statistics Education Re-

are familiar with the terminology.)
Some students decide that it is discrete,
and others believe that it is continu-
ous. I then invite one of the students
who chose discrete to list five consecu-
tive weights in their pattern (such as
1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3) and ask why a value
students find connections and develop search Journal 6, no. 2 (2007): 4-27.
an appreciation for math and its useJoram,
in Elana, and Vicki Oleson. "How
their lives outside school. Slope is an Fast Do Trees Grow? Using Tables and
excellent example of a math concept Graphs to Explore Slope." Mathemat-
that is usually taught without context ics Teaching in the Middle School 13,
or connection. Students believe that no. 5 (December 2007): 260-65.
it must be memorized for the next National Council of Teachers of Mathe-

halfway between consecutive terms
(such as 1.25) is missing from the list.
By continuing in this manner, students
realize that there is no way to list every
possible value. All students come to
see that this relationship must be a
algebra test and then forgotten. Math matics (NCTM). Professional Stan-
educators must find ways to change dards for Teaching Mathematics. Reston,
this misconception. Central to such VA: NCTM, 1991.
a change is selecting and implement-
ing worthwhile mathematical tasks. Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCT
Knowing math is not enough; we 2000.

continuous pattern of change. must empower our students to actively Stein, Mary Kay, and Margaret Schwan
To introduce the concept of slope, do math. Only then will we have Smith. "Mathematical Tasks as a Frame-
I ask students to find the rate of succeeded in educating them to thrive work for Reflection: From Research to

change for the discrete linear pattern
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, ... Most students
quickly recognize that this pattern has
a constant rate of change of 2 since
each term is 2 more than the preced-
ing term. I then ask students what we
should do to determine the rate of
change for a continuous pattern.
Students come to see that continu-
ous patterns of change cannot be writ-
ten in the same way as discrete ones.
Using the spring example, we cannot
and excel in an ever-changing world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arbaugh, Fran, and Catherine A. Brown.
"What Makes a Mathematical Task
Worthwhile? Designing a Learning
Tool for High School Mathematics
Teachers." In Perspectives on the Teach-
ing of Mathematics, Sixty-sixth Yearbook
of the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (NCTM), edited by Rheta ¡i
N. Rubenstein and George W. Bright,
Practice." Mathematics Teaching in the
Middle SchoolZ (1998): 268-75.
Walter, Janet, and Hope Gerson. "Teach-
ers' Personal Agency: Making Sense
of Slope through Additive Structures."
Educational Studies in Mathematics 65,
no. 2 (June 2007): 203-33.
Lauren Wagener,
wagener@math.utk.
edu, is a doctoral student
z
Lu
in mathematics educa-
m

write the first six terms (or even the pp. 27-41. Reston, VA: NCTM, 2004. tion at the University of

first two) because the set of possible Dewey, John. Reconstruction in Philosophy. Tennessee, Knoxville. She is interested
inputs (i.e., weights) is impossible to New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1920. in supporting students' progress through
list. Students realize that their un- Doerr, Helen M. "Examining the Tasks of mathematics coursework and reducing
derstanding of discrete patterns' rate Teaching When Using Students' Math- student attrition from mathematics.

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