ADAMSON UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Module 1
Compressibility
of Soil
Prepared by: Engr.
PREPARED Jan Lhester
BY: ENGR. Navasca
NAVASCA

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 1

Outline
I. Fundamentals of Consolidation
II. One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
III. Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
IV. Calculation of Settlement from Primary Consolidation
V. Compression Index (Cc) and Swell Index (Cs)
VI. Calculation of Settlement from Secondary Consolidation
VII. Time Rate of Consolidation
VIII. Coefficient of Consolidation, cv
IX. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility and Permeability

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 2

I. Fundamentals of Consolidation

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 3

I. Fundamentals of Consolidation

• When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase,

the pore water pressure is increased suddenly.

• In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage caused

by the increase in the pore water pressure is completed
immediately. Because of rapid drainage of the pore water in
sandy soils, elastic settlement occur.

• Saturated clayey soils has time-dependent deformation

because the hydraulic conductivity of clay is significantly
smaller than that of sand, the excess pore water pressure
generated by loading gradually dissipates over a long period.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 4

• Consolidation –refers to the compression or settlement that
soils undergo as a response of placing loads onto the ground.

• Consolidation is a time-dependent process, in some soils it may take long time (100 years ?) to
achieve complete settlement

In general:
Clay: undergoes consolidation with time
Sand: settles very quickly

Therefore, We only considers consolidation in Clay.

The compression is caused by

• Deformation of soil particles

• Relocations of soil particles
• Expulsion of water or air from void spaces

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 5

Consider the case where a layer of saturated clay of thickness H that is confined between two layers of sand is
being subjected to an instantaneous increase of total stress of Δ𝜎𝜎. During consolidation, pore water or the
water in the voids of saturated clay gets squeezed out – reducing the volume of the clay – hence causing
settlement called as consolidation settlement

Spring-cylinder model for consolidation in saturated clay

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 6
ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 7
 There are three types of consolidation:

• Immediate consolidation: caused by elastic deformation of

dry soil or moist and saturated soil without change in moisture
content

• Primary consolidation: caused as a result of volume change in

saturated cohesive soils due to exclusion of water occupied
the void spaces

• Secondary consolidation: occurs in saturated cohesive soils as a result

of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 8

Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress
in a clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of an
added stress,

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 9

II. One-Dimensional Laboratory
Consolidation Test

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 10

II. One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

Restored voids ratio 𝑒𝑒𝑜𝑜 of the

soil sample at depth of test

Volume of deformation comes

from squeezing out water
from the soil pores

Volume of deformation comes

From crushing solid particles

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 11

The four most important soil properties determined by a
consolidation test are:

• The pre-consolidation pressure, 𝜎𝜎𝒄𝒄𝒄, This is the maximum

stress that the soil has “experienced” in the past.
• The compression index, Cc , which indicates the
compressibility of a normally-consolidated soil.
• The swell index, Cs , which indicates the compressibility of
an over-consolidated soil.
• The coefficient of consolidation, Cv , which indicates the rate
of compression under a load increment.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 12

III. Void Ratio–Pressure Plots

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 13

III. Void Ratio–Pressure Plots

1. Calculate Hs (height of Solids) 2. Calculate initial Hv (height of voids)

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 14

3. Calculate the initial void ratio, e0, of the specimen:

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 15

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 16
 Cc = Slope of the plot for normally consolidated

Δ𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒0 − 𝑒𝑒1 𝚫𝚫𝐞𝐞

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = =
Δ𝑥𝑥 log 𝜎𝜎0′ + Δ𝜎𝜎 ′ − log(𝜎𝜎0′ ) 𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎 + ∆𝝈𝝈′
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥( )
𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 17

This leads us to the two basic definitions of clay based on stress history:

1. Normally consolidated: The present effective overburden pressure is the maximum pressure to which
the soil has been subjected in the past. 𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎 ≥ 𝝈𝝈′𝒄𝒄

2. Overconsolidated: The present effective overburden pressure is less than that

which the soil has experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the
preconsolidation pressure. 𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎 < 𝝈𝝈′𝒄𝒄

The past effective pressure cannot be determined explicitly because it is usually a

function of geological processes and, consequently, it must be inferred from laboratory test results.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 18

How to determine pre-consolidation stress?

Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple graphic construction to

determine the
preconsolidation pressure, c, from the laboratory e–log plot.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 19

IV. Calculation of Settlement from
Primary Consolidation

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 20

IV. Calculation of Settlement from Primary Consolidation

A. One Layer (One Dimensional)

B. Normally Consolidated

C. Over-consolidated

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 21

A. Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional
Primary Consolidation

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. 1

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 22

 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. 2

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. 3

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. 4

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 23

Thus, from Eqs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 we get

For one layer

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 24

B. Calculation of Settlement for NC clays that exhibits a linear e-log 𝛔𝛔′ relationship
Primary Consolidation

For normally consolidated clays that exhibit a linear e–log 𝜎𝜎 ′ relationship. Note Δ𝜎𝜎 =
Δ𝜎𝜎 ′ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎 + ∆𝝈𝝈′
Δ𝑒𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶[𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝐠𝐠 ]
𝝈𝝈′𝟎𝟎

Where
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑒𝑒0 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝐻𝐻 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝜎𝜎0′ = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Δ𝜎𝜎 ′ = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 25

C. Calculation of Settlement for OC clays that exhibits a linear e-log 𝛔𝛔′ relationship
Primary Consolidation
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐′

The slope of the rebound curve, Cs, is referred

to as the swell index, so

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 1: 𝜎𝜎0′ + ∆𝜎𝜎 ′ ≤ 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐′

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 2: 𝜎𝜎0′ + ∆𝜎𝜎 ′ > 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐′

Where
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 26

V. Compression Index (Cc) and Swell
Index (Cs)

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 27

V. Compression Index (Cc) and Swell Index (Cs)

Compression Index Cc – can be determined by graphic

construction after obtaining the laboratory test results for the
void ratio and pressure

Note:
In the absence of laboratory consolidation data
Skempton Eq. is often used for an approximate
calculation of primary consolidation in the
field.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 28

Swell Index Cs– smaller in magnitude than compression index and generally can be determined from
laboratory tests. Typically, Cs ≈ 0.2 to 0.30 Cc.
1
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
5

Many Researchers determine Cc and Cs

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 29

VI. Calculation of Settlement from
Secondary Consolidation

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 30

VI. Calculation of Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

Following the primary consolidation, some settlement continue due to the re-arrangement of the

solids in the soil. This stage is called secondary consolidation.

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 31

 𝐶𝐶𝛼𝛼 𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = log
1 + 𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ;
𝐶𝐶𝛼𝛼 = secondary compression Index
𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ;
𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟;
𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑝 = 𝑒𝑒0 − Δe;
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ;
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ;
ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 32
VII. Time Rate of Consolidation

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 33

VII. Time Rate of Consolidation
The time required to reduce the excess pore water pressure is primarily a function of the distance
the water must travel to exit the stress area. In this figure, the clay stratum is sandwiched
between two layers of sand, so the farthest distance the water particles in the clay must travel to
escape the pressure in the clay is H/2

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 34

Time Factor – non-dimensional number

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 35

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 36
The time factor Tv provides a useful expression to estimate the
settlement in the field from the results of a laboratory
consolidation.
ONLY FITS FOR
THE SAME TIME
FACTOR
FORMULA
U<60%

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 37

VIII. Coefficient of Consolidation, cv

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 38

VIII. Coefficient of Consolidation, cv

Two graphical methods

Logarithm-of-time method (Casagrande and Fadum 1940)

Square-root-of-time method (Taylor 1942)

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 39

IX. Coefficient of Volume
Compressibility and Permeability

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 40

A. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility, mv

B. Coefficient of permeability, K

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 41

References

B. Das and N. Sivakugan (2017), “Fundamentals of Geotechnical

Engineering” 5th Edition

R. Holtz, T. Sheanan and W. Kovacs (2010), “Introduction to

Geotechnical Engineering” 2nd Edition

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_consolidation

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 42

 QUESTIONS???

ENGR. JAN LHESTER NAVASCA (ADAMSON UNIVERSITY DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING) 43