Chemistry:

The Study of Change

Chapter 1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes

Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals 2

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.

1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the

mixture is the same throughout.

soft drink, milk, solder

2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not

uniform throughout.

cement,
iron filings in sand
3
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture
into its pure components.

magnet

distillation

4
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
• 114 elements have been identified
• 82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur

• 32 elements have been created by scientists

technetium, americium, seaborgium
5
6
A compound is a substance composed of atoms
of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their

pure components (elements) by chemical
means.

lithium fluoride quartz dry ice – carbon dioxide

7
Classifications of Matter

8
A Comparison: The Three States of Matter

9
 The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot
Poker on a Block of Ice

GAS
Vaporization Condensation
(heat or reduce pressure) (cool or increase pressure)

Liberates Energy
Requires Energy

LIQUID

Melting Freezing
(heat) (cool)

SOLID
 Types of Changes

A physical change does not alter the composition

or identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water
A chemical change alters the composition or
identity of the substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water

11
PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following
process is primarily a physical or a chemical change,
and explain briefly.
(a)Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter
night.
(b) Dynamite explodes to form a mixture of gases.
(c) Dissolving sugar and water.
(d) A silver fork tarnishes in air.
Criteria: “Does the substance change composition or
just change form?”
SOLUTION:
(a) physical change
(b) chemical change
(c) physical change
(d) chemical change
 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon
how much matter is is being considered.
• mass
• length
• volume
An intensive property of a material does not
depend upon how much matter is is being
considered.
• density
• temperature
• color 14
International System of Units (SI)

15
16
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3

17
 Density
The density a substance is its mass per unit
volume (the volumetric mass).

SI derived unit for density is kg/m3

1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass m
density = volume d= V

18
19
A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5
g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass?
m
d= V

m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g

20
21
22
A Comparison of Temperature Scales

K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C
373 K = 100 0C

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C

23
Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius.

0F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
0F – 32 = 9 x 0C
5
5 x (0F – 32) = 0C
9
0C = 5 x (0F – 32)
9
0C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3
9

24
25
Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Atomic structure
mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

3
 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
H isotopes names: hydrogen deuterium tritium

235 238
92 U 92 U 4
Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

The Isotopes of Hydrogen

hydrogen deuterium tritium

5
 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

11
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

6
Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

Find number of electrons, protons, and neutrons?

63 239 26 17 202 48
29
Cu 94
Pu 13
Al O 8
Hg 22
Ti
8

e 29 94 13 8 80 22
p 29 94 13 8 80 22
n 34 145 13 9 122 26
Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

8
 The Modern Periodic Table
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal

Noble Gas
Group

Halogen
Period

½ of elements discovered between (1800-1900)

Only noble gases exists as single atoms called monoatomic
9
Group : similar chemical properties Period : increasing Z
metals metalloids nonmetals

Metals -good conductors of heat and electricity

-occupy most of the table

Nonmetals -good conductors of heat and electricity

-only 17 elements
METALLOIDS - INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN
METALS AND NON METALS
-ONLY 8 ELEMENTS
 Molecules and Ions
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical forces

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

11
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
12
A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

13
 27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?

13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons

78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

14
 Chemical Formulas
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
15
N2H4 NH2
ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and an anions
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero
The ionic compound NaCl

16
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

17
o If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically
different, we apply the following rule to make the formula
electrically neutral:
The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the
anion, and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to the charge
on the cation.

Aluminum Oxide. The cation is Al3+ and the oxygen anion is O2-.

The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0.

Thus, the formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3.
Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

3+
Al2O3 2-
Al O

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

2+
CaBr2 -
Ca Br

2 x +1= +2 1 x -2 = -2

+
Na2CO3 2-
Na CO3
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

20
 Naming Compound
Ionic Compounds
– Often a metal + nonmetal
– Anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name
BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide

Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide

KNO3 potassium nitrate

21
22
• Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide
23
If transition metals can form more tha one type of
cations we use (–ic ) for higher charge and (-ous )
for lower charge .

FeCl2 iron(II) chloride becomes ferrous chloride

FeCl3 iron(III) chloride becomes ferric chloride

CuCl cupper(I) chloride becomes cupperous chloride

CuCl2 cupper(II) chloride becomes cupperic chloride

25
26
27
Molecular compounds
− They are usually composed of nonmetallic elements.
− Many molecular compounds are binary compounds.
− Naming binary molecular compounds is similar to
naming binary ionic compounds.
− We place the name of the first element in the
formula first, and the second element is named by
adding -ide to the root of the element name.

HCl hydrogen chloride

HBr hydrogen bromide
SiC silicon carbide
− If a pair of elements form more
than one compound, use prefixes
to indicate number of each kind of
atom
Notes in naming compounds with
prefixes:
 The prefix “mono-” may be
omitted for the first element.
For example, PCl3 is named
phosphorus trichloride, not
monophosphorus trichloride.
 For oxides, the ending “a” in the
prefix is sometimes omitted.
For example, N2O4 may be
called dinitrogen tetroxide rather
than dinitrogen tetraoxide.
Name the following compounds?
HI hydrogen iodide

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride

SO2 sulfur dioxide

N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

N2O dinitrogen monoxide

30
31
32
 Acids
 An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.

For example: HCl gas and HCl in water

 Pure substance, hydrogen chloride

 Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),

hydrochloric acid

 Anions whose names end in “-ide” form acids with a “hydro-

” prefix and an “-ic” ending.

HCl hydrogen chloride

HCl hydrochloric acid
Some Examples of acids
 Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions
An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and
another element.
nitric acid carbonic acid phosphoric acid

The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H first,

followed by the central element and then O.

H2CO3 (carbonic acid), HClO3 (chloric acid),

HNO3 (nitric acid), H3PO4 (phosphoric acid),
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) 35
Two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but a
different number of O atoms; the following rules to name
these compounds.
1. Addition of one O atom to the “-ic” acid: The acid is
called “per . . -ic” acid. ( --ate)
HClO3 chloric acid
HClO4 perchloric acid
2. Removal of one O atom from the “-ic” acid: The acid is
called “-ous” acid. ( --ite)

HNO3 nitric acid

HNO2 nitrous acid
3. Removal of two O atoms from the “-ic” acid: The acid is
called “hypo . . . -ous” acid.
HBrO3 Bromic acid
HBrO hypobromous acid.
o The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids,
are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic” acid, the
anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous” acid,
the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the
hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate the
number of H ions present.
For example:
– H3PO4 phosphoric acid
– H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
– HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate
– PO43- phosphate
parent acid for all halogenic acids is
HXO3 Halogenicic acid
39
40
Bases
A base can be defined as a substance that yields hydroxide
ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH sodium hydroxide

KOH potassium hydroxide

Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

41
Hydrated compounds
Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number
of water molecules attached to them.

BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4

42
43
 Quantum Theory and the
Electronic Structure of Atoms

1
 Quantum numbers

Quantum numbers are used to differentiate

between electrons
i. In quantum theory, each electron in an
atom is assigned a set of four quantum
numbers.
ii. Three of these give the location of the
electron, and the fourth gives the orientation
of the electron within the orbital
iii. Definitions of numbers

2
quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms)

principal quantum number n

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….

distance of e- from the nucleus

n=1 n=2 n=3

3
quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

angular momentum quantum number l

for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1

l=0 s orbital
n = 1, l = 0
l=1 p orbital
n = 2, l = 0 or 1
l=2 d orbital
n = 3, l = 0, 1, or 2
l=3 f orbital

Shape of the “volume” of space that the e- occupies

4
l = 0 (s orbitals)

l = 1 (p orbitals)

5
l = 2 (d orbitals)

6
quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

magnetic quantum number ml

for a given value of l

ml = -l, …., 0, …. +l

if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1
if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2

orientation of the orbital in space

7
ml = -1, 0, or 1 3 orientations is space

8
ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2 5 orientations is space

9
(n, l, ml, ms)

spin quantum number ms

ms = +½ or -½

ms = +½ ms = -½

10
 quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

Existence (and energy) of electron in atom is described

by its unique wave function y.

Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an atom

can have the same four quantum numbers.

Each seat is uniquely identified (E, R12, S8)

Each seat can hold only one individual at a
time
11
12
 quantum numbers: (n, l, ml, ms)

Shell – electrons with the same value of n

Subshell – electrons with the same values of n and l

Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l, and ml

How many electrons can an orbital hold?

If n, l, and ml are fixed, then ms = ½ or - ½

y = (n, l, ml, ½) or y = (n, l, ml, -½)

13
An orbital can hold 2 electrons
How many 2p orbitals are there in an atom?
n=2
If l = 1, then ml = -1, 0, or +1
2p
3 orbitals
l=1

How many electrons can be placed in the 3d subshell?

n=3 If l = 2, then ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2

3d 5 orbitals which can hold a total of 10 e-

l=2 14
15
 The Energies of Orbitals
Energy of orbitals in a single electron atom
Energy only depends on principal quantum number n

n=3

n=2

n=1
16
Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
Energy depends on n and l

n=3 l = 2

n=3 l = 1
n=3 l = 0

n=2 l = 1
n=2 l = 0

n=1 l = 0
17
“Fill up” electrons in lowest energy orbitals (Aufbau principle)

??

Be
Li
B 56
C 34electrons
electrons
BBe 22s
Li1s1s
1s 222s
22p
2s12 1

H
He12electron
electrons

He 1s12
H 1s 18
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the
one with the greatest number of parallel spins (Hund’s
rule).

Ne97
C
N
O
F 6
810
electrons
electrons
electrons
Ne
C
N
O
F 1s 1s222s
22s222p
22p5
246
3

19
 Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
20
Electron configuration is how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an
atom.
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell
1s1
principal quantum angular momentum
number n quantum number l

Orbital diagram

H
1s1
21
What is the electron configuration of Mg?
Mg 12 electrons
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s2 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons
Abbreviated as [Ne]3s2 [Ne] 1s22s22p6

What are the possible quantum numbers for the last

(outermost) electron in Cl?
Cl 17 electrons 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s23p5 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons
Last electron added to 3p orbital
n=3 l=1 ml = -1, 0, or +1 ms = ½ or -½ 22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Periodic Relationships Among
the Elements
When the Elements Were Discovered

2
 ns2np6
ns1 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f
5f
3
Classification of the Elements

4
 Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
Of Representative Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lose electrons so that
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] cation has a noble-gas outer
electron configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons
so that anion has a F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
noble-gas outer
O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
electron configuration.
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
5
+1 Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements
+2

+3

-1
-3
-2
6
Isoelectronic: have the same number of electrons, and
hence the same ground-state electron configuration

Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne

What neutral atom is isoelectronic with H- ?

H-: 1s2 same electron configuration as He

7
Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,

electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and
then from the (n – 1)d orbitals.

Fe: [Ar]4s23d6 Mn: [Ar]4s23d5

Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6 Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5

8
 Atomic Radii

metallic radius covalent radius

9
10
Trends in Atomic Radii

11
Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required
to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state.

I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

I2 + X+(g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

I3 + X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I1 < I2 < I3

12
13
Variation of the First Ionization Energy with Atomic Number

Filled n=1 shell

Filled n=2 shell

Filled n=3 shell

Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell

14
 General Trends in First Ionization Energies

Increasing First Ionization Energy

Increasing First Ionization Energy

15
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.

X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e- X-(g) DH = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) DH = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

16
17
Variation of Electron Affinity With Atomic Number (H – Ba)

18
Mass Relationships in
Chemical Reactions
 Micro World Macro World
atoms & molecules grams

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in

atomic mass units (amu)
amu definition: the mass exactly equal to 1/12 the
mass of one 12C atom
12C = 6 ,6p,6n =12.00 amu me-=0

Experiment show one atom 1H = 88.400% of 12C

atom thus mass of one atom1H =1.008
amu(12.00x.08400)
16O = 16.00 amu , 26Fe = 55.85 amu 2
The average atomic mass is the weighted average of
all of the naturally occurring isotopes of the element.

13C=13.00335 amu
average atomic mass of C=(0.9890x 12.00000
amu)+(0.0110x13.00335) =12.01 amu
3
 Naturally occurring lithium is:
7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)

Average atomic mass of lithium:

7.42 x 6.015 + 92.58 x 7.016

= 6.941 amu
100

4
5
Average atomic mass (6.941)

6
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles

Dozen = 12

Pair = 2

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C
1 mol = NA = 6.0221367 x 1023
Avogadro’s number (NA) 7
 eggs
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of shoes in grams
marbles
atoms
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu

1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C

1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
8
 One Mole of:

C S

Hg

Cu Fe
9
1 12C atom 12.00 g 1.66 x 10-24 g
x 23 12
=
12.00 amu 6.022 x 10 C atoms 1 amu

1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g or 1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

M = molar mass in g/mol

NA = Avogadro’s number
10
How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K) ?

1 mol K = 39.10 g K
1 mol K = 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

1 mol K 6.022 x 1023 atoms K

0.551 g K x x =
39.10 g K 1 mol K

8.49 x 1021 atoms K

11
12