What is a Case Study?

This small but integral part of any design project is seemingly overlooked. There aren’t
many helpful guides or set of instructions out there. First you need to define for yourself what a
case study is. For some projects, a case study can be the starting point of a project, for others it can
be a link or reference that is relatable and can be explained easily.

For example, whenever Sana is explaining her project – a Vietnamese modular community
that includes housing, commercial space and a community centre, she often describes the exterior
skin of the building – which is made up of building services – as a smaller scale Pompidou Centre.
Most architects will be able to understand immediately, and the Pompidou Centre is so well-
documented, that it made for a great case study in her project. Breaking down the components of
the building skin and the way in which it is organised helped adapt the idea for a domestic project.
It also makes sense for the purpose of extracting out the services and putting them on the exterior
of the building.

In the same way, the case studies you choose must have some kind of purpose or addition
to your project. Your building doesn’t need to be a true representation of the building, that’s not

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what a case study is for. By researching and understand concepts other architects have used, you
can apply the same rules and ideas to your own project and take it from there.

It’s perfectly fine to be fixed on a certain project that inspires your own from the get-go,
but we think having a few case studies after your first iteration of drawings allows you to shape
your building when you already have a set of building blocks. When analysing case studies, you’re
essentially looking for interesting parts of the project that may or may not apply to your design.
By understanding what someone else has done in the past, and how it’s worked, you can aim to
design better whilst you’re adding to your own creative juices.
How to Write a Case Study

There are also different methods that can be used to conduct a case study, including
prospective and retrospective case study methods.

Prospective case study methods are those in which an individual or group of people is
observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched
over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective case study methods involve looking at historical information. For example,
researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then work their way backward to
look at information about the individual's life to determine risk factors that may have contributed
to the onset of the illness.

Where to Find Data

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather
information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by
researchers are:

Archival records: Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival
records.

Direct observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting. While
an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.

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Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents
often used as sources.

Interviews: Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case
studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.

Participant observation: When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the
actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.

Physical artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a
direct observation of the subject.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information: The first section of your paper will present your client's background.
Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and
social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and
weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem: In the next section of your case study, you will describe
the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings,
and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic
assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis: Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the
diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also
include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to
support why this approach was chosen.

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Cognitive behavioral approach: Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach
treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the
treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any
difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.

Humanistic approach: Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client,
such as client-centered therapy. Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's
reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was
successful or unsuccessful.

Psychoanalytic approach: Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's
problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references.
Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would
respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.

Pharmacological approach: If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which
medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications
and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or
other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process,
and outcomes.

Discussion

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case
study itself, including the strengths and limitations of the study. You should note how the findings
of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study.
What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about
exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

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How do I pick a Case Study?

First, you need to figure out which kind of building you’re designing. For example, you
need to think whether it is residential based, a public building, a private mixed-use project –
basically the category your project may come under. This way, you can narrow your search and
find projects with the same outline as yours. This doesn’t mean a completely unrelated building
won’t come in handy. Parts of a building might be more important than its purpose. For example,
looking at the use of glass blocks in Maison de Verre by Chareau helped inspire a project about
viewing and optical elements and combining public and private spaces.

Then, you need to make sure there are parallel factors between the case study and your own
project. This can be the environment or climate, something that is similar which you can relate
back to. If there aren’t any, you can always choose to implement some in your project. Make sure
you’re discussing this with your tutor before you do a whole case study on a project they don’t
think will relate well enough. Remember, they are there to guide you and may often have better
knowledge about a range of buildings. Better yet, if your brief includes buildings of interest, you
can always start with these.
What to look for?

Once you’ve found your case study, you need to start by doing a literature or desktop study,
which in simple terms means, Google it. Look at various websites to get a full idea of the project.
Usually, websites like Arch Daily will have a lot of these projects outlined as fact-filled pages.
We’ll leave some more useful links at the end of the article so keep reading!
Environment

Usually, your building site will be somewhere in your city. Projects you choose for a case
study might not be in the same city or country even. If you have a strong connection with other
parts of the building, the environment and climate might not be that essential. It can be good to see
the ways in which the building has been designed to accommodate for these features. If it hasn’t,
you can still explain this and propose a solution regarding your building. Think about the average
type of weather, the kind of soil type and where the site is.

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Interesting Structures

You may find that a part of the building appeal to you much more than any other details.
If the function of the space isn’t relevant, but there is an amazing structural quality that you think
you can use, focus on that. For example, the use of a type of beam or steel structure, or even the
materials that they have used for the structure can be vital to turning your building into something
much more interesting.

Surroundings / Access Points

As well as internal parts of the case study, you also need to evaluate how the building
interacts with its surrounding. Look at transport around the building, the kinds of neighbouring
buildings (if any) and in relation, the entry and exit points of the building. Eventually you can also
do this for your own project, in a simpler model to understand the relationship with the area.

Building Requirements

Research further into the use of the building and all of the spaces inside. You can go into
as much detail as you want, that depends on your project or brief and what exactly you want to get
out of the case study. If it is possible to make a physical visit, try it and document the process as
much as you can. Think carefully about the spaces inside and their purposes.

Other requirements may change as time goes by. If it is an old building, you can look at
the history of the case study and if the building has changed any way, how it has changed or why.
If the case study is of a broader type of project, it might also change depending on the time of day.

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Be sure to research into all kinds of aspects of the project and the perspective from different people
and the requirements they may have.
Form + Function

Here, you need to analyze both the form and function of the building. This includes outer and
interior appearances. If anything pops out at you, make sure to find different photos of it or even
sketches to understand the way in which it has been designed. Then the function, which is similar
to the building requirements but can perhaps be better explained coming from the architects
themselves if possible.

Some buildings may have extreme aesthetical features that can be harder to achieve and design.
Figure out the ways in which these forms have been created through smaller test models of your
own and adapt them to your own building. Remember, the point of a case study is to enhance your
own project. There’s no point doing all this research without making use of it.

Building Services

If needed, you can focus of the technical aspects of the case study. When looking into
residential spaces, the HVAC systems or other hidden systems could be of interest if your project
is aimed in that direction.

Lastly, make sure to have a lot of key images of the case study. Don’t opt for standard front
elevations, look deeper and focus on details if possible.

Preparing your portfolio

After you have done a ton of research and compiled this all together, you need to find a
way to fit it into your portfolio. We advise you to place these pages in the early part of your
portfolio, when the design is being developed. We’ve put together a brief list of the kinds of pages
you might present this information in. It’s not all compulsory, do the ones which fit your project
best.
Images

Don’t overload the page no matter how large your page size is. Pick 4-5 key images that
you can explain further later on. Make sure they’re of good quality when printed. Text should be
needed if necessary.

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Site Analysis

A site analysis might be the best way to present your findings. This kind of page can be a
simple diagram of the building with annotations explaining the interesting features you found and
why they are important. For more information, you can read our article ‘The Beginner’s Guide to
Site Analysis’

Models and Tests

If you end up doing any tests with physical or digital models, put these in. It shows you
have connected with the project and taken the initiative to figure out aspects of your own building.
These can be extremely helpful when coming up with later iterations of drawings.

Opportunities and Constraints

An opportunities and constraints diagram is usually for the site analysis but can be prepared
for case studies too. You don’t need to go into too much detail but if you feel it is needed you can
most definitely create one.

Literature Review

All the facts and figures you have gathered, as well as any historical information, you can
include with images or diagrams. Try not to overload the page with too much text, you just want
to get across the key points.

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Benefits and Limitations

A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these
pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things
that are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information

• Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual cases
• Allows researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research
• On the negative side, a case study:
• Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• May not be scientifically rigorous
• Can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they are interested in exploring a unique or
recently discovered phenomenon. The insights gained from such research can then help the
researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might then be explored in future
studies.

Types of Case Studies

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might
utilize:

Collective case studies: These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study
a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community of people.

Descriptive case studies: These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then
observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.

Explanatory case studies: These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words,
researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have actually caused certain things to
occur.

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Exploratory case studies: These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth
research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research
questions and hypotheses.

Instrumental case studies: These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to
understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.

Intrinsic case studies: This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the
case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic cast
study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

Descriptive Case Studies

• ask you to explore a specific event or issue to identify the key facts, what happened and
who was/is involved.
• can be used to compare two instances of an event to illustrate how one is similar to the
other.
• generally, does not include solutions or recommendations as its main purpose is to help the
reader or stakeholder to gain greater insight into the different dimensions of the event, etc.
and/or to make an informed decision about the event, etc.

FOR EXAMPLE:

• In Nursing, you could be asked to select a medical clinic or hospital as your case study and
then apply what you have studied in class about wound care approaches. You would then
identify and apply the relevant theories of wound care management discussed in class to
your case.

Problem-Solving Case Studies

• ask you to critically examine an issue related to a specific individual or group, and then
recommend and justify solutions to the issue, integrating theory and practice.

FOR EXAMPLE:

In Business and Economics, you could be asked to describe a critical incident in the
workplace. Your role as the manager is to apply your knowledge and skills of key intercultural

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communication concepts and theories in management to determine the causes of the conflict and
propose relevant communication strategies to avoid and/or resolve it.

Case Study Topic Examples

• Planning of spaces and form

• Façade design and treatment
• Site Analysis, blocking, zoning, parking, and landscaping
• Circulation indoor and outdoor
• Electrical
• Furniture and display units
• Response to climate, sun, wind, and shading devices
• Water Supply and sewerage disposal

Case Study Sample

Case I: CHEMCO CASE

Started in 1965, ChemCo is a leading manufacturer of car batteries in the U.K. market.
Since then, it has been under the charge of Mr. Jones, the founder-owner of the firm. In 1999, the
company decided to go for a diversification by expanding the product line. The new product was
batteries for fork-lift trucks. At the same time, Mr. Marek was appointed the Senior Vice President
of marketing in the company. However, soon after its successful diversification into fork-lift
batteries, the sales in this segment began dropping steadily.

Mr. Marek wanted to introduce some radical changes in the advertising and branding of
the new business but the proposal was turned down by the old-fashioned Mr. Jones.
At this juncture in 2002, the firm is losing heavily in the fork-lift batteries business and its market
share in car batteries is also on a decline. Mr. Jones has asked Mr. Marek to show a turnaround in
the company within a year. What steps should Mr. Marek take to take the company out of its
troubles?

Some of the facts on the case are:

• ChemCo is a quality leader in the U.K. car batteries market.

• Customer battery purchases in the automobile market are highly seasonal.

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 • The fork-lift business was added to utilize idle capacity during periods of inactivity.
• This is a low-growth industry (1% annual growth over the last two years)
• Large customers are sophisticated and buy based on price and quality. Smaller customers
buy solely on price.
• There is a Spanish competitor in the market who offers low priced batteries of inferior
quality.

Situation Analysis:

Company

• Established player in car batteries

• Losing heavily in fork-lift truck batteries
• Old fashioned owner resistance to change

Competition

• Low priced competitors

• Foreign competitors gaining market share

Customers

• High quality product, but low-end customers care more about price than quality

Problem Definition:

• Mismanaged product diversification in a price sensitive market

Alternatives:

• Alternative 1: Establish an Off-Brand for the fork-lift business

• Alternative 2: Educate the customer market about product quality
• Alternative 3: Exit the fork-lift battery business

Criteria for evaluation of alternatives:

• Establishing the firm's quality image

• Increase in market share

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 • Increase in sales
• Cost of the product

Evaluation of Alternatives:

Alternative 1

• Protect firm's quality image in the automobile industry

• Redesigned product to reduce the cost of manufacture
• Low price to enable it to compete with Spanish producer

Alternative 2

• Make use of the quality leadership in car batteries market

• Offer reliability testing, extended warranties etc. to promote quality image
• Set higher prices to extract surplus from these advantages

Alternative 3 and 4

• A passive strategy, not proactive

Recommendations:
Alternative 1 is recommended in this case. Since the firm operates in an industry which has
low growth, hence it can expand market share and sales only by taking the customers from
other players. Hence, it needs to tackle the Spanish competitor head-on by aggressively pricing
its product. At the same time, launching a low-priced product under the same brand name
erodes the high-quality image in the car batteries market. Hence, the best option is to go for an
off brand to target the fork-lift customers who are increasingly becoming price sensitive. This
will enable the company to ward off the threat in short-term and build its position strongly in
the long-term.

Case II: NAKAMURA LACQUER COMPANY

The Nakamura Lacquer Company (NLC) of Kyoto, Japan, employed several thousand men
and produced 500,000 pieces of lacquer tableware annually, with its Chrysanthmum brand
becoming Japan's best known and bestselling brand. The annual profit from operations was
$250,000.

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The market for lacquerware in Japan seemed to have matured, with the production steady at
500,000 pieces a year. NLC did practically no business outside Japan.
In May 2000, (much to your chagrin!) the ambitious and dynamic, Mr. Nakamura (Chairman,
NLC) received two offers from American companies wishing to sell lacquer ware in America.
The first offer was from the National China Company. It was the largest manufacturer of good
quality dinnerware in the U.S., with their “Rose and Crown” brand accounting for almost 30% of
total sales. They were willing to give a firm order for three years for annual purchases of 400,000
sets of lacquer dinnerware, delivered in Japan and at 5% more than what the Japanese jobbers paid.

However, Nakamura would have to forego the Chrysanthemum trademark to “Rose and
Crown” and also undertake not to sell lacquer ware to anyone else in the U.S.
The second offer was from Sammelback, Sammelback and Whittacker (henceforth SSW),
Chicago, the largest supplier of hotel and restaurant supplies in the U.S. They perceived a U.S.
market of 600,000 sets a year, expecting it to go up to 2 million in around 5 years. Since the
Japanese government did not allow overseas investment, SSW was willing to budget $1.5 million
for the next two years towards introduction and promotion. Nakamura would sell his
“Chrysanthemum” brand but would have to give exclusive representation to SSW for five years at
standard commission rates and also forego his profit margin toward paying back of the $ 1.5
million.

What should Mr. Nakamura do?

Situational Analysis:

The Nakamura Lacquer Company: The Nakamura Lacquer Company based in Kyoto, Japan
was one of the many small handicraft shops making lacquerware for the daily table use of the
Japanese people.

Mr. Nakamura- the personality: In 1948, a young Mr. Nakamura took over his family business.
He saw an opportunity to cater to a new market of America, i.e. GI's of the Occupation Army who
had begun to buy lacquer ware as souvenirs. However, he realized that the traditional handicraft
methods were inadequate. He was an innovator and introduced simple methods of processing and
inspection using machines. Four years later, when the Occupation Army left in 1952, Nakamura

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employed several thousand men, and produced 500,000 pieces of lacquers tableware each year for
the Japanese mass consumer market. The profit from operations was $250,000.

The Brand: Nakamura named his brand “Chrysanthemum” after the national flower of Japan,
which showed his patriotic fervor. The brand became Japan's best known and best selling brand,
being synonymous with good quality, middle class and dependability.

The Market: The market for lacquerware in Japan seems to have matured, with the production
steady at 500,000 pieces a year. Nakamura did practically no business outside of Japan. However,
early in 1960, when the American interest in Japanese products began to grow, Nakamura received
two offers

The Rose and Crown offer: The first offer was from Mr. Phil Rose, V.P Marketing at the National
China Company. They were the largest manufacturer of good quality dinnerware in the U.S., with
their “Rose and Crown” brand accounting for almost 30% of total sales. They were willing to give
a firm order for three eyes for annual purchases of 400,000 sets of lacquer dinnerware, delivered
in Japan and at 5% more than what the Japanese jobbers paid. However, Nakamura would have to
forego the Chrysanthemum trademark to “Rose and Crown” and also undertaken to sell lacquer
ware to anyone else the U.S. The offer promised returns of $720,000 over three years (with net
returns of $83,000), but with little potential for the U.S. market on the Chrysanthemum brand
beyond that period.

The Semmelback offer: The second offer was from Mr. Walter Sammelback of Sammelback,
Sammelback and Whittacker, Chicago, the largest supplier of hotel and restaurant supplies in the
U.S. They perceived a U.S. market of 600,000 sets a year, expecting it to go up to 2 million in
around 5 years. Since the Japanese government did not allow overseas investment, Sammelback
was willing to budget $1.5 million. Although the offer implied negative returns of $467,000 over
the first five years, the offer had the potential to give a $1 million profit if sales picked up as
anticipated.

Meeting the order: To meet the numbers requirement of the orders, Nakamura would either have
to expand capacity or cut down on the domestic market. If he chose to expand capacity, the danger
was of idle capacity in case the U.S. market did not respond. If he cut down on the domestic market,
the danger was of losing out on a well-established market. Nakamura could also source part of the

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supply from other vendors. However, this option would not find favor with either of the American
buyers since they had approached only Nakamura, realizing that he was the best person to meet
the order.

Decision problem: Whether to accept any of the two offers and if yes, which one of the two and
under what terms of conditions?

Objectives:
Short Term:

• To expand into the U.S. market.

• To maintain and build upon their reputation of the “Chrysanthemum” brand

Long term:

• To increase profit volumes by tapping the U.S. market and as a result, increasing scale of
operations.
• To increase its share in the U.S. lacquerware market.

Criteria: (In descending order of priority):

• Profit Maximization criterion: The most important criterion in the long run is profit
maximization.
• Risk criterion: Since the demand in the U.S. market is not as much as in Japan.
• Brand identity criterion: Nakamura has painstakingly built up a brand name in Japan. It
is desirable for him to compete in the U.S. market under the same brand name
• Flexibility criterion: The chosen option should offer Nakamura flexibility in maneuvering
the terms and conditions to his advantage. Additionally, Nakamura should have bargaining
power at the time of renewal of the contract.
• Short term returns: Nakamura should receive some returns on the investment he makes
on the new offers. However, this criterion may be compromised in favor of profit
maximization in the long run.?

Options:

• Reject both: React both the offers and concentrate on the domestic market

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 • Accept RC offer: Accept the Rose and Crown offer and supply the offer by cutting down
on supplies to the domestic market or through capacity expansion or both
• Accept SSW: offer; accept the SSW offer and meet it through cutting down on supply to
the domestic market or through capacity expansion or both. Negotiate term of supply.

Evaluation of Options:

Reject both: This option would not meet the primary criterion of profit maximization. Further,
the objective of growth would also not be met. Hence, this option is rejected.

Accept RC offer: The RC offer would assure net returns of $283,000 over the next three yeas. It
also assures regular returns of $240,000 per year. However, Nakamura would have no presence in
the U.S. with its Chrysanthemum brand name The RC offer would entail capacity expansion, as it
would not be possible to siphon of 275,000 pieces from the domestic market over three years
without adversely affecting operations there. At the end of three years, Nakamura would have little
bargaining power with RC as it would have an excess capacity of 275,000 pieces and excess labor
which it would want to utilize. In this sense the offer is risky. Further, the offer is not flexible.
Long-term profit maximization is uncertain in this case a condition that can be controlled in the
SSW offer. Hence, this offer is rejected.

Accept SSW offer: The SSW offer does not assure a firm order or any returns for the period of
contract. Although, in its present form the offer is risky if the market in the U.S. does not pick up
as expected, the offer is flexible. If Nakamura were to exhibit caution initially by supplying only
300,000 instead of the anticipated 600,000 pieces, it could siphon off the 175,000 required from
the domestic market. If demand exists in the U.S., the capacity can be expanded. With this offer,
risk is minimized. Further, it would be competing on its own brand name. Distribution would be
taken care of and long-term profit maximization criterion would be satisfied as this option has the
potential of $1 million in profits per year. At the time of renewal of the contract, Nakamura would
have immense bargaining power.

Recommendations:

Negotiate terms of offer with SSW: The terms would be that NLC would supply 300,000 pieces
in the first year. If market demand exists, NLC should expand capacity to provide the expected
demand.

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Action Plan: In the first phase, NLC would supply SSW with 300,000 pieces. 125,000 of these
would be obtained by utilizing excess capacity, while the remaining would be obtained from the
domestic market. If the expected demand for lacquer ware exists in the U.S., NLC would expand
capacity to meet the expected demand. The debt incurred would be paid off by the fifth year.

Contingency Plan: In case the demand is not as expected in the first year, NLC should not service
the U.S. market and instead concentrate on increasing penetration in the domestic market.

Journal

The journal, even when it is assigned as part of coursework, allows you to step outside the
usual channels of class communication to reflect on ideas in a comfortable way. It creates a
personal space for you to pursue thoughts and connections, develop critical perspectives on your
readings and lectures, make plans, and evaluate your goals with respect to projects, courses, and
the overall college experience. Teachers assign journals as part of their classes to encourage several
sorts of reflection. They may want you to:

• Think about the ideas and information of the course and find what is relevant to you

• See how the teachings of the course may be applied to your experiences - such as how
organizational theory explains what is going on in your part-time job or how information from
your zoology class helps you identify insects in the fields beyond the edge of campus.

• Criticize the divergent viewpoints presented in the course

• Indicate what you find most interesting or most difficult in the course materials, so that
in class they can speak to the needs, interests, and thinking of you and your classmates

Journals are assigned in many kinds of courses. Although the journal provides an
alternative to usual classroom communications, instructors often relate journal assignments to
other classroom communications, as in a reading journal, a planning journal, or a personal
connections journal. In a philosophy course, for example, a journal to develop arguments about
questions raised in class provides an informal opportunity to practice the kind of philosophic
language that is being developed in the course and that you will have to produce on exams and in
papers. Because journals provide an informal space to explore ideas and reactions, you can use
them to discover and develop ideas that you may want to develop in more formal papers.

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Guidelines for Journals

In assigning journals, teachers usually discuss their expectations and may provide examples from
previous classes. Beyond the formal or informal guidelines your teachers establish, consider the
following general suggestions for using journals:

1. Write as though talking to yourself or a close friend. The more you find the level of language
that is closest to the way you think personally, the more you will be able to make the connection
between what you are learning and those ideas and experiences that are closest to you.

2. Dare to be original - Dare to be stupid - Dare to get involved. Don't censor what you are thinking
ahead of time. A direction that at first looks and feels either outrageous or silly may turn into
something quite focused, respectable, and strong as you work through your ideas.

3. Don't be afraid to argue. If your ideas begin with a negative reaction to what you read, express
that negative thought. The criticism may become more focused, fully developed, and forceful as
you work through what you think. You may find that your first negative reaction is only an initial
resistance that you overcome as you think through the reading, or that it is leading to an important
idea in itself. In any case, since this is a personal journal, a candid expression of dislike will not
immediately require you to get involved in a major public debate. Moreover, in the academic world
argument and disagreement are not necessarily insults or rudeness; they can be ways of
cooperating in making ideas better and advancing knowledge.

4. Make connections to other ideas, personal experiences, other courses, and readings. Specific
examples and more general ideas can help illuminate each other. As you see how one idea or
experience relates to another, you start to expand your understanding of both things. Through
comparisons you can start to see more details in both and distinctions between the two. You can
find general patterns or conceptual links.

5. Try new ways of saying things. Find ways to discuss what you are reading, experiencing, or
thinking that differ from your previous ways of writing. You will then see events in different
perspectives and make more connections among ideas. A useful approach is to put material in
different frames, as in describing a historical event in legal terms. Or you could describe the
feelings of a character using a sentimental, emotional vocabulary that the character uses, but which
is totally alien to you. There are many other interesting ways of saying things. You can make lists

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of political strategies described in different campaigns in different parts of the textbook, or draw
diagrams showing how two species of plants might have similar leaf structure. Varied kinds of
representations may help tap more deeply into your way of thinking and may provide novel ways
for you to expand your thoughts.

6. Keep your pen moving. Since a journal is not a formal public presentation, you don't need to
worry if everything makes sense or is stated well. Keep on writing, even if you feel you have little
to say. As your pen moves, one word may lead to another, one thought may touch off a deeper or
more interesting one. Don't let temporary breaks or distractions break your mental link with the
ideas unfolding on the journal page. Trust the process of writing.

7. Follow through on your thoughts and keep extending them. It is easy once you have an
interesting idea to step back, admire it, and say that's enough for today. But an idea identified in a
few sentences, or a paragraph may be the opening to something much bigger and broader, so
stopping after your first statement will not take you as far as you may be able to go. Find ways to
continue with the thought. Perhaps you might explain each part in greater detail, find an instance
where the idea would apply, or locate a good example of it. You could compare it to some alternate
point of view. You can ask where the idea specifically links up with the things you have been
reading. If you find yourself stuck on how to expand your idea, make up an appropriate question
and then try to answer it.

8. Read back in the journal, reflecting on what you have thought and how you are using the journal.
This reflection will lead you to explore your thoughts in greater depth, see patterns, locate areas of
interest you want to explore, remember your best ideas, and use your journal even more effectively.
You may then want to make a new entry commenting on what you found.

9. Make writing the journal a regular habit. If you set a time every day for writing journals, you
will get better at it. Thoughts will come. You will also come to pay attention to the stray relevant
thoughts that occur in the course of the day, as you say to yourself, "I have to remember that for
when I write my journal tonight."

You may, of course, keep a journal even when none is assigned. Since it is time-consuming
to keep up with a journal every day in every course, you Part Two Thriving in the Classroom 83
might want to keep a single journal, writing about whichever course or experience each day is

21
 most on your mind. Or you may choose to keep journals for those one or two courses in which you
are most involved. By articulating your ideas and being able to look them over on paper, you will
be able to take them farther. Moreover, you will have more developed things to say in class, and
you may want to speak to the teacher after class about some thought you are developing in your
journals. Teachers generally respond positively to any student interested enough in their course to
keep a journal.

Another approach is to target a single course in which you are having difficulty getting
involved. By keeping a journal, you may start to find a way to become more interested. You may
figure out just why you don't find much in the course or have trouble with it. Then you can use
this knowledge to address and, perhaps, resolve the problem.

Types of Journals

There are various types of journals including:

• academic/scholarly journals
• trade journals
• current affairs/opinion magazines
• popular magazines
• newspapers

The following table reveals a comparison of the various types of journals available:

Academic/Scholarly Current Affairs/ Popular

Features Trade Journals Newspapers
Journals Opinion Magazines Magazines

To inform, report, To report on industry To offer in-depth To entertain To

and make available trends, new products reporting and feature and inform disseminate
original research and or techniques to articles without without news on a
Purpose
new findings. people in a specific scholarly providing in- daily or
trade, business or conventions. depth weekly
profession. analysis. basis.

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 Often devoted to a Cover practical Cover a wide range of Often Encompass
single discipline or information related to topics of interest to focused on a current
subdiscipline. a field or industry. the readership. Be particular events in
aware of the subject or politics,
Subject predominant hobby but sport,
philosophical/political may also leisure,
stance of the editorial cover a religion and
board. variety of business.
topics.

Articles often No peer review No peer review No peer No peer

reviewed by an process. process. review review
Peer author's peers before process, may process.
Review publication. be reviewed
Process by an editor
or editorial
board.

Mainly held in Mainly held in Many titles available Available in Available in

libraries or on libraries or on from major supermarkets newsagents.
subscription-based subscription-based newsagents, public and
databases - few are databases. Commonly libraries and some newsagents.
Access
freely available on available as part of university libraries.
the WWW. professional / trade
association
membership.

American Economic Advertising Age Bulletin (Sydney) Readers Australian

Review Digest Financial
Nursing Times Current Affairs
Examples
Review
Australian Journal Bulletin National
Drug Topics
of Psychology Geographic

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 Scientific American New Idea Morning
Bulletin
Time (Sydney) Sports
Illustrated Courier
Mail

How to Start a Journal

In order to start a journal, you'll need a notebook, a writing tool, and a commitment to
yourself. The first move is to write your first entry. Then, you can think about keeping up a regular
journal! Use the journal as a way to explore your innermost thoughts and feelings – the things that
you cannot tell anyone else.

1.Write the first entry. The most important step of starting a journal is actually setting
down the first entry. The notebook, the decoration, and the security are all just ways of making the
journal feel like a safe space for you to write. Think about the sort of journal that you keep. Then,
write what's on your mind.

Write about what happened today. Include where you went, what you did, and who you
spoke to. Write about what you felt today. Pour your joys, your frustrations, and your goals into
the journal. Use the act of writing as a way to explore your feelings. Consider keeping a dream
journal. Keep a learning log. Write about what you learned today. Use the journal as a way to
explore and connect your thoughts.

Turn your experiences into art. Use the journal to write stories or poetry, to make sketches,
and to plan out projects. Feel free to mix this in with your other entries.

2. Date your entry. If you are going to keep a regular journal, then it's good to establish
some way of tracking when you wrote what. Write the full date, or whatever you'll need to jog
your memory: e.g. 2/4/2016 or Feb. 4, 2016. For a slightly more involved record, write the time of
day (morning, afternoon, night), your mood, and/or your location. Log the date at the top of the
page or the top of each entry.

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 3. Get into the flow of writing. Try not to think too critically about what you're setting
down. Let go of your doubts and write your truth. The beauty of a journal is that you can tell the
story that you don't usually people: the deep thoughts and feelings that lie behind your day-to-day
decisions. Take the opportunity to explore yourself.

Imagine that you are talking to someone. Whether you are talking to a close friend or
pouring your thoughts into a journal: you are putting them out into the world, and thus making
them real. It can be hard to really get a grasp on what you're thinking until you make your thoughts
real.

Use journaling as a healing tool. If there is something haunting you or bothering you, try
to write about that thing and understand why exactly it has stuck on your mind.

4. Think before you write. If you're having trouble finding your flow, try taking a few
minutes to quietly reflect on what you're feeling. The act of writing can help you tease out these
feelings. However, it can be hard to write until you have a clear idea of where to begin.

5. Time yourself. Try setting aside a discrete amount of time to write in your journal. Set
a timer for 5 to 15 minutes, and then let yourself go. The "deadline" of the ticking clock may help
motivate you to get writing. Don't worry about making it perfect! Simply write down everything
that's on your mind.

If the timer goes off and you haven't finished journaling, then feel free to keep going. The
point of the timer is not to limit you, but rather to spur you.

This can be a great way to fit your journaling practice into the busy flow of everyday life.
If you have trouble finding the time to write in your journal, then you may need to schedule it in.

How often to Write in your Journal?

So, if the right amount to write is unique to everyone, how do you determine what your
goal should be? When you are first starting a journal, it can be tricky to feel out how often is
enough. There are a few important factors about your journaling to consider that will help you
figure it out.

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What kind of journaling are you doing?

There are many different types of journals people can keep, each which can demand
different habits to keep up with. For example, someone who wants to journal their thoughts and
experience may journal a few days out of the week. Someone who wants to keep a gratitude journal
may want to reflect on what they are grateful for daily. Someone keeping a dream journal may
journal as often as they have memorable dreams.

Think about the kind of journal you want to keep and how often it makes sense to write
journal entries. In the end, the choice is always up to you, but most journal entries reflect on an
experience or will make the most sense when kept up with regularly. Use this to guide your
journaling habits.

How long do your journal entries take to write?

Following the previous examples, a gratitude journal may be a quick list of three things
you are grateful for. A journal entry about your day may take upwards of an hour to write out in
the detail you want. A dream journal may take a good amount of time depending on the vividness
of your dreams and length of reflection.

The point is different journal entries take different amounts of time. Two people with
similar journals may write longer or shorter entries. One person may take more time to think out
an entry while another’s thought flow easily and quickly.

Consider how long an average journaling session takes for you and how often you can
incorporate that into your day. Being realistic about the amount of time you are able to journal
each week can prevent feeling unnecessary pressure that robs the enjoyment of journaling. Further,
budgeting your time well allows you to have a few quality journal sessions each week instead of
more sessions that are rushed, less enjoyable, and produce poorer entries.

What drives your desire to journal?

Some journals have a clear goal like helping to improve memory or keeping track of
progress with fitness habits. These kinds of journals require regular entries to serve their purpose.
How often they should be written in will likely be quite clear based on how your goals are
progressing and the experiences they record and reflect on.

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 Most people though, are just journaling for enjoyment and stress relief. They reach for their
pen and paper to get their thoughts out and feel a bit lighter afterward. If this applies to you, the
center of your habits is to promote feeling good. So, when thinking about how often to write, ask
yourself how often you enjoy writing in your journal and when does it begin to feel more like an
obligation?

In the beginning of your journaling journey, you may make mistakes with a too demanding
routine or one that is not enough and leaves you dissatisfied with your work. Trial and error are
part of the process, and a plan you find yourself to dislike is the knowledge you have going
forward, rather than a waste of time. Reflecting on these questions can help you make conscious
choices and find that perfect amount of writing faster.

Do you have to Journal Everyday? Planned Entries Vs. Spontaneous Entries

One approach to journaling encourages no concrete goals and simply journaling when
inspiration strikes. This may be a good fit for some and not so much for others. Others like the
structure of journaling every day, although it is not necessary.

There are positives and negatives to both planned and spontaneous journaling, which are
explored in detail here.

PLANNED JOURNAL ENTRIES

Planned journaling can be a strict routine (I will journal in the morning Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday every week) or a flexible goal (I will sit down and journal three times each
week wherever it fits). In a journal that follows planned entries, the entries are consistent and often
build off each other.

Many people need a concrete goal to hold them accountable and actually get them to sit
down with pen in hand. For these people, planning journal entries is the difference between having
a full journal and a blank one.

Planned entries can become daunting though, especially when expectations are overly
demanding. Telling yourself you ‘have to’ write in your journal can take the feeling of enjoyment
out of the practice if you do not plan sessions wisely and realistically.

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SPONTANEOUS JOURNAL ENTRIES

Spontaneous journaling is just what it sounds like, journaling only when you genuinely
want to. Entries by a writer who journals spontaneously may be from varying periods of time and
randomly spaced apart.

If you have a passion for writing, there is no need for schedule to remind you to pick up
your pen. If you have followed a planned journaling routine for a while, you may be able to keep
up that habit you have formed even while loosening any structured rules. If you are journaling to
document a journey of some kind you may not need a rigid schedule because the events are
random, but you are able to recognize when they need to be written down.

If these circumstances or others apply to you, taking the pressure of a schedule off of
journaling can be freeing and reinforce the enjoyment you feel for it.

If you want journal entries that are cohesive and collectively tell a story, spontaneous
journal entries that are spaced apart and don’t always pick up where the last left off can take away
from that goal.

Spontaneous journaling is not good for those who procrastinate, as it can be a slippery
slope to never picking up your journal again. Some positive habits, even those we enjoy, take a
little push and commitment in the beginning as we break past our normal routine.

If you like the idea of spontaneous journaling, be realistic about what you will do. If you
feel like you will not stick with spontaneous journaling, beginning with a flexible goal and slowly
becoming more spontaneous is recommended.

Journal Sample

Three Students' Reading Journals

Here are three examples of journal entries written for an introductory philosophy course,
all based on a single passage by Lao Tzu, a Chinese philosopher who lived in the sixth century
B.C. In the first journal entry the student considers the meaning of the text by examining the
meaning of difficult phrases and sentences. In the second the student thinks about the single
philosophic concept of opposites. The last entry is more personal and open ended. Although all

28
three take on different tasks, in each the student develops a fuller understanding of the passage and
how it relates to his or her own thinking.

Here is the passage by Lao Tzu.

The whole world recognizes the beautiful as the beautiful, yet this

is only the ugly; the whole world recognizes the good as the good,

yet this is only the bad.

Thus Something and Nothing produce each other;

The difficult and the easy complement each other;

The long and the short off-set each other;

The high and the low incline towards each other;

Note and sound harmonize with each other;

Before and after follow each other.

Therefore the sage keeps to the deed that consists in taking no action

and practices the teaching that uses no words.

The myriad creatures rise from it yet it claims no authority;

It gives them life yet claims no possession;

It benefits them yet exacts no gratitude;

It accomplishes its task yet lays claim to no merit.

It is because it lays claim to no merit That its merit never deserts it.

Journal Entry 1 (Finding the Meaning of the Text)

This passage seems like a poem built on contradictions and paradoxes. The problem in
understanding this passage seems to be to see how these contradictions and opposites can make
sense. Lao Tzu begins this passage by stating that what is seen as beautiful is really ugly and that
what is recognized as good is really "only the bad." While these statements seem confusing at first,

29
his use of the phrase "the whole world recognizes ... " before both good and beautiful suggests that
the world does not recognize true beauty or true goodness. Most people, he seems to say, do not
have a correct idea of either morality or beauty, so we should not trust their opinions or perceptions.

Later, the author lists a series of opposites such as "something and nothing," "difficult and
easy," "long and short," and "high and low." In very poetic fashion, he states that each of these
contradictory terms is somehow involved in the other: "something and nothing produce each
other," "the long and the short off set each other," and so on. These paradoxes make us think about
how supposedly opposite things are actually similar. Long and short are both about length, and
actually they help define each other, for without knowing what is long, how could you know what
is short?

Finally, Lao Tzu writes about a "deed that consists in taking no action and practices the
teaching that uses no words." This mysterious deed is something that gives life to "the myriad of
creatures" yet "claims and authority"- something that "accomplishes its task" yet it "claims no
merit." These final statements appear illogical because what kind of deed is not done and what
teaching has no words? It seems that this kind of mysterious deed is something he is recommending
to us. But it is also a puzzle as to what we should do. How can we follow his recommendation if
we don't take action?

The three major parts of this passage contain three different kinds of statements that
illustrate the principles of Taoism that we have been studying in class. The first part of the poem
suggests that the majority of people don't perceive reality correctly, the second suggests that things
we consider opposite are actually connected (like Yin and Yang), and the third suggests that we
need to find a way of acting which does not try to control situations, that blends into its
surroundings. All of these points go along with the philosophy of Lao Tzu and illustrate some of
the important principles at the heart of his teachings.

Journal Entry 2 (Philosophical Interpretation)

The assigned reading by Lao Tzu touches on a number of the philosophical questions we
have been studying this term. One of the most important subjects he treats is the nature of
opposition. By including a series of opposite terms - such as something/nothing, difficult/easy,
long I short, and high/ low - and asking us to consider the way they are connected to each other,

30
Lao Tzu forces us to reexamine our conception of what it means to be an "opposite." For Lao Tzu,
opposites are not things that are unrelated, as they are for most of us, but things that are closely
related to and cannot exist without each other.

As an example of this principle, we can look at the opposition between "cold" and "hot."
We generally consider these terms to be opposites, but, in reality, they can only have meaning in
reference to each other. Something that is cold is something that is not hot, and vice versa. If we
were to remove either of these concepts from our society, we would also have to remove the other,
since, if nobody had any idea of what it meant to be hot, they could not possibly understand what
it means to be cold, since coldness is really nothing more than the absence of heat.

Maybe what Lao Tzu is trying to get across in this passage is that, if we want to experience
things in life that we consider "good," we must also be willing to experience things that we consider
"bad," since all of the concepts that make up this opposition depend on each other. Many people
think it would be nice to live in a world without cold, darkness, ugliness, falsehood, and evil.
However, what Lao Tzu says to these people is that, without these things, there could never be any
warmth, light, beauty, truth, or goodness.

On the other hand, it may be that he thinks we are too concerned with either side of the
opposites. Maybe it doesn't matter so much whether something is hot or cold or if it is beautiful or
ugly, because each are alike, as he says. This would certainly fit with his ideas about not taking
action and not using words. That is, we shouldn't try to make things one thing or another, but just
take them as they are.

Journal Entry 3 (Personal Response)

I found this passage by Lao Tzu to be very confusing. All of his talk about something being
nothing and long being short seemed like a lot of philosophic mumbo-jumbo. The last part of the
poem, about something that "gives people life yet claims no possession" and "benefits them yet
exacts no gratitude" was even more confusing, since it was difficult to understand what this "It"
was. I had to read the whole passage three or four times before I started to understand it at all, and
I'm still not sure that I have it right.

But, after I read it over and over again, I started to see a few of the things that he seemed
to be saying. In the first half of the poem especially, I think that Lao Tzu wants us to see that words

31
like "difficult" and "easy," or "high" and "low" aren't always opposites. In fact, they are words that
can refer to the very same thing depending on who is speaking. For example, I am very good at
English and not very good at math, so what is easy to me (like writing a paper) may be very difficult
for someone else, and what is difficult for me (like balancing a checkbook) may be a snap for
them. This difference does not mean that either one of us is right in our perceptions of what is hard
or easy, just that our perceptions are different. I can think of lots of times when I have used a word
in a way that seemed clear, only to find out that the person I was talking to understood something
very different. A lot of times, this kind of misunderstanding leads to arguments because one person
wants to prove that their idea is the right one. I think that one of the most important things that Lao
Tzu teaches us is that perceptions can be different without anyone being right or wrong.

Sample images

The front cover of a sample academic

journal (PORTAL: Journal of Multidisciplinary
International Studies). Note that it includes a year,
as well as "Vol." (for "Volume") and "No." (for
"Number"). Because journals are published
regularly, this information identifies different issues
(like month and year on a popular magazine).

32
 A sample table of contents from the same academic
journal, listing the articles that appear in this issue. (Note:
When accessing journals online, articles are usually
available as separate PDF documents.)

A sample article (first page) from the same

academic journal:

33
References:

https://www.monash.edu/learnhq/write-like-a-pro/how-to-write.../case-study

https://gdpi.hitbullseye.com/MBA/Example-of-Case-Study.php

https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-write-a-psychology-case-study-2795722#toc-how-to-
write-a-case-study

https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/involved/chapter4.pdf

https://library-resources.cqu.edu.au/learning-objects/journal-types.htm

https://www.wikihow.com/Start-a-Journal

https://wanderersway.com/blogs/wanderers-way/how-often-should-you-write-in-your-journal

https://www.lib.sfu.ca/help/research-assistance/format-type/what-journal-article

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