4.3.

3 Action and Use of Circuit Components:

Potential Divider and Potentiometer:

Understanding Potential Difference:

When voltage is measured across a component it records the difference in electrical
potential energy between the two sides of the component. This is also known as the
potential difference.
Thus the voltmeter reading of 4 V tells us that there is 4 V more electrical potential energy on one side of
the resistor than the other.

If two resistors are connected in series with a power supply, then

the voltage is shared out between them.
The voltage is divided between components in proportion to
their resistance. Thus the larger resistor has a larger share of the
power supply voltage.

Potential Divider:
Potential Divider is a line of resistors connected in series used to
provide a fraction of the voltage of a source to another part of the
circuit.

The distance between the horizontal lines represents the potential

difference between different parts of the circuit.

This arrangement is designed to visually demonstrate the change in

potential difference across the resistors.
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽in × ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Potential dividers with a variable output:
If a variable resistor is used in a potential divider,
VOUT becomes variable.

If R1 is a variable resistor…
VOUT is low when the resistance of R1 is high.
R1 has a high proportion of the resistance, and thus a high proportion
of the voltage.

When R2 is a variable resistor

In this arrangement, the relationship between the resistance of the
variable resistor and VOUT inverts.
VOUT is high when resistance of R2 is high.
R2 has a high proportion of the resistance and thus a high proportion of
the voltage is at VOUT.
Potentiometer:
 A potentiometer is a connected at three terminals
A, B and C.
 Contact C is sliding contact. Since resistance is
proportional to length for a fixed cross sectional
area. The position of C determines the resistance of
AC and BC.
 When C moves toward B, Resistance AC becomes
higher and BC becomes lower.
𝑹𝑨𝑪
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽in × ( )
𝑹𝑨𝑪 + 𝑹𝑪𝑩
Transducer:
A transducer is an electric device that converts energy from one form to another.
Input transducer – electronic devices that respond to changes in physical conditions such as
temperature and light. They are used in Potential dividers to vary the output voltage, enabling
electronic systems to respond to change in the physical conditions. (Switching).

LDR – Light Dependent Resistor – The resistance changes with the intensity of incident light on it.
Thermistor – The resistance changes with the intensity of incident light on it.

The combination of a potential divider and a thermistor creates a temperature sensor.

The thermistor’s resistance will vary with temperature, resulting in a VOUT that is temperature dependent.
To produce a light sensor, replace the thermistor with an LDR.
If the thermistor is in the R2 position, VOUT will be high at low temperatures, as the thermistor’s
resistance will be high relative to R1.
Light Sensor:

A resistor whose resistance varies with light intensity. When light intensity increases, its resistance
1
decreases (Negative Light Intensity Coefficient (𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ ))
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅 𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉in × ( ) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉in × ( )
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅
When Light intensity rises, RLDR decreases as When Light intensity rises, RLDR decreases as
1 1
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑅 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑅
The Voltage across the LDR (VLDR) decreases. (𝑉 ∝ R) The Voltage across the LDR (Vout) decreases. (𝑉 ∝ R)
The voltage across the Resistance R increases, So Vout V1 increases as V1 = IR and R is a fixed resistor.
Increases. Vout decreases as V1 + Vout= V
It could be used to activate a burglar alarm during day It could be used to switch on the street lamp, if Light
time (when people leave for work). intensity fall below a certain threshold value.
Temperature Sensor:

A resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. Common ones has resistance that decreases as its
1
temperature increase (Negative Temperature Coefficient (𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∝ )).
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅 𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉in × ( ) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉in × ( )
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻
1 1
When Temperature rises, RLDR decreases as 𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 When Temperature rises, RLDR decreases as 𝑇 ∝ 𝑅
The Voltage across the Thermistor (VTH) decreases. The Voltage across the Thermistor (Vout) decreases.
(𝑉 ∝ R) (𝑉 ∝ R)
The voltage across the Resistance R increases, So V1 increases as V1 = IR and R is a fixed resistor.
Vout Increases. Vout decreases as V1 + Vout= V
It could be used to activate a fire alarm, if It could be used to switch off an A.C. if the
temperature rises above a certain threshold value. temperature increases above a certain threshold
value.

AC and DC (Alternating and Direct Current):

Direct Current:
In a direct current the electrons flow in one direction around a circuit.
The voltage remains constant, producing a flat line on an oscilloscope.

Alternating Current:
In an alternating current the direction of electron flow around a circuit is continuously switching.
The voltage oscillates
between negative and
positive, producing a
waveform.

AC is used to carry electrical energy around the

country as:
 Its voltage is easy to change using transformers.
 It requires a simple generator.
Most modern appliances in our home now use microchips.
 Most microchips require DC with a near constant voltage to function.
 This means we must convert AC from the mains, to DC in order to use our appliances.

Rectification:

Rectification is the process which makes an AC signal flow in a constant direction. (Converting AC to
DC).

A diode is a component made from a semiconducting

material such as silicon.
 Diodes have the unique property of only allowing
current to pass through them in one direction.
 The arrowhead on the symbol shows the
direction of current flow.
 It converts half of the A.C wave to pass through it and stops the other half (reverse current) resulting
in Half-wave rectification.

Diode let current flow in a circuit in one direction only.

Forward Bias – in this condition Reverse Bias – in this condition

the diode has low resistance and let the diode has high resistance and
the current flow from + to – and do not let the current flow from +
the lamp turns on. to – and the lamp does not turn on.

Full-Wave Rectification (Extended):

By using a combination of four diodes, called a bridge rectifier, an AC signal can be fully rectified.