Motor Pathways - Boundless Anatomy and Physiology

3/20/22, 11:16 PM Motor Pathways | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology
Boundless Anatomy and Physiology
Peripheral Nervous System
Motor Pathways
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/motor-pathways/ 1/21
Organization of Motor Neuron Pathways
The motor system is the part of the central nervous system that is in-
volved with movement.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the organization of motor neuron pathways
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The pyramidal tract, which includes both the corti-

cospinal and corticobulbar tracts, serves as the motor
pathway for upper motor neuronal signals coming from
the cerebral cortex and from primitive brainstem motor
nuclei.
Peripheral motor nerves carry the motor impulses from

the spinal cord to the voluntary muscles.
The large majority (90%) of motor neurons cross (decus-

sate) to the contralateral side of the brain at the level of
the brainstem.
Key Terms
extrapyramidal system: A biological neural network

that is part of the motor system that causes involuntary
movements.
corticospinal tract: The nervous system tract that con-

ducts impulses from the brain to the spinal cord. It con-
tains mostly motor axons and is made up of two sepa-
rate tracts in the spinal cord: the lateral corticospinal

tract and the anterior corticospinal tract.
motor system: The part of the central nervous system

that is involved with movement. It consists of the pyra-
midal and extrapyramidal systems.
cerebral cortex: The gray, folded, outermost layer of the

cerebrum that is responsible for higher brain processes
such as sensation, voluntary muscle movement,
thought, reasoning, and memory.
The motor system is the part of

the central nervous system that is
involved with movement. It con-
sists of the pyramidal and ex-
trapyramidal system.
The motor pathway, also called

the pyramidal tract or the corti-
cospinal tract, serves as the mo-
tor pathway for upper motor neu-
ronal signals coming from the
cerebral cortex and from primitive
brainstem motor nuclei. There
are upper and lower motor neu-
rons in the corticospinal tract.
Decussation of the pyramids: A

The motor impulses originate in deep dissection, lateral view of a
the giant pyramidal cells (Betz brainstem. The pyramidal tract is
visible in red, and pyramidal
cells) of the motor area, i.e., the
decussation is labeled at lower right.
precentral gyrus of the cerebral
cortex. These are the upper mo-
tor neurons of the corticospinal tract. The axons of these cells pass from
the cerebral cortex to the midbrain and the medulla oblongata.
Peripheral motor nerves carry the motor impulses from the anterior horn
to the voluntary muscles.
Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4,

and 6, then descend into the posterior limb of the internal capsule,
through the crus cerebri, down through the pons, and to the medullary
pyramids, where about 90% of the axons cross to the contralateral side
at the decussation of the pyramids. They then descend as the lateral cor-
ticospinal tract.
These axons synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns of
all levels of the spinal cord. The remaining 10% of axons descend on the
ipsilateral side as the ventral corticospinal tract. These axons also
synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns. Most of them will
cross to the contralateral side of the cord (via the anterior white commis-
sure) just before synapsing.
Brodmann areas of the brain: This drawing shows the regions of the human
cerebral cortex as delineated by Korvinian Brodmann on the basis of
cytoarchitecture.
The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor neu-
ronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor neurons. These are the
rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, and the
reticulospinal tract.
The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different
groups: the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior corticalspinal tract.
The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons that synapse on
the dorsal lateral lower motor neurons, which are involved in distal limb
control.
The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior col-

umn, where the axons emerge and either synapse on ventromedial
lower motor neurons in the ventral horn ipsilaterally or descussate at the
anterior white commissure where they synapse on ventromedial lower
motor neurons contralaterally.
The ventromedial lower motor neurons control the large, postural mus-
cles of the axial skeleton. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of
the dorsal lateral, are located in the ventral horn throughout the spinal
cord.
Motor and descending (efferent) Sensory and ascending

pathways (red) (afferent) pathways
(blue)
Sacral
al
Pyramidal tracts
r
rvic
Lumba
cic
- Lateral corticospinal tract Dorsal Column Medial

Ce
Thora
- Anterior corticospinal tract Lemniscus System

Lu cral
Gracile fasciculus
r
ba
Ce cic
l
Sa
ica
m
Cuneate fasciculus
a
or
rv
Th
Ce
Extrapyramidal Tracts rvic Spinocerebellar Tracts
Sacral r
Thora
Lumba c
al
- Rubrospinal tract Posterior spinocerebellar tract
ci
- Reticulospinal tracts Anterior spinocerebellar tract

- Olivospinal tract
- Vestibulospinal tract Anterolateral System
Lateral spinothalamic tract
Anterior spinothalamic tract
Spino-olivary fibers
Spinal cord tracts: This diagram of spinal cord tracts shows the motor and
efferent pathways in red and the sensory and afferent pathways in blue.
Included in the diagram are the following motor pathways: corticospinal
tracts (pyramidal tract), and extrapyramidal tracts (tectospinal tract not
delineated).
The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Movement
The basal ganglia are responsible for voluntary motor control, proce-
dural learning, and eye movement, as well as cognitive and emotional
functions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the role of the basal ganglia in movement
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The basal ganglia are studied extensively in the context

of two disorders of the basal ganglia: Parksinson’s dis-
ease and Huntington’s disease.
Hemiballismus, a movement disorder arising from neu-

ronal damage in the subthalamic nucleus, presents with
violent movements of the arms and legs.
Eye movement, a function of the basal ganglia, is influ-

enced by the superior colliculus, a region of the brain
that directs eye movement to specific points in space in
response to stimuli.
Basal ganglia are also thought to play a role in

motivation.
In the basal ganglia,
the majority of the neurons uses gamma-aminobutyric

acid (GABA) as the neurotransmitter
and have inhibitory effects on their
targets.
Key Terms
hemiballismus: A rare movement disorder with involun-

tary flinging motions of the extremities.
voluntary motor control: The act of directing motion

with intent.
forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, including the

cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
nucleus accumbens: A region in the basal forebrain

rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. This
region and the olfactory tubercle collectively form the
ventral striatum.
Location of the Basal Ganglia
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei of varied origin
in the brains of vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional unit. They
are situated at the base of the forebrain and are strongly connected with
the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and other brain areas.
The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including

voluntary motor control, procedural learning relating to routine behaviors
or habits such as bruxism and eye movements, as well as cognitive
and emotional functions.
Basal ganglia: Locations of the basal ganglia.
Action Selection
Currently popular theories hold that the basal ganglia play a primary role
in action selection. Action selection is the decision of which of several
possible behaviors to execute at a given time.
Experimental studies show that the basal ganglia exert an inhibitory influ-
ence on a number of motor systems, and that a release of this inhibition
permits a motor system to become active. The behavior switching that
takes place within the basal ganglia is influenced by signals from many
parts of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, which plays a key role
in executive functions.
Movement
The greatest source of insight into the functions of the basal ganglia has
come from the study of two neurological disorders, Parkinson’s disease
and Huntington’s disease. For both of these disorders, the nature of the
neural damage is well-understood and can be correlated with the result-
ing symptoms.
Parkinson’s disease involves the major loss of dopaminergic cells in the

substantia nigra. Huntington’s disease involves the massive loss of
medium spiny neurons in the striatum.
The symptoms of the two diseases are virtually opposite: Parkinson’s

disease is characterized by a gradual loss of the ability to initiate move-
ment, whereas Huntington’s disease is characterized by an inability to
prevent parts of the body from moving unintentionally.
It is noteworthy that, although both diseases have cognitive symptoms,

especially in their advanced stages, the most salient symptoms relate to
the ability to initiate and control movement. Thus, both are classified pri-
marily as movement disorders.
A different movement disorder, called hemiballismus, may result from

damage restricted to the subthalamic nucleus. Hemiballismus is charac-
terized by violent and uncontrollable flinging movements of the arms
and legs.
Function in Eye Movement
One of the most intensively studied functions of the basal ganglia is their
role in controlling eye movements. Eye movement is influenced by an
extensive network of brain regions that converge on a midbrain area
called the superior colliculus (SC).
The SC is a layered structure whose layers form two-dimensional retino-

topic maps of visual space. A bump of neural activity in the deep layers
of the SC drives eye movement toward the corresponding point in
space.
Motivation
Although the role of the basal ganglia in motor control is clear, there are
also many indications that it is involved in the control of behavior in a
more fundamental way, at the level of motivation. In Parkinson’s disease,
the ability to execute the components of movement is not greatly af-
fected, but motivational factors such as hunger fail to cause movements
to be initiated or switched at the proper times.
The immobility of patients with Parkingson’s disease has sometimes

been described as a paralysis of the will. These patients have occasion-
ally been observed to show a phenomenon called kinesia paradoxica, in
which a person who is otherwise immobile responds to an emergency in
a coordinated and energetic way, then lapses back into immobility once
the emergency has passed.
The role in motivation of the limbic part of the basal ganglia—the nucleus
accumbens (NA), ventral pallidum, and ventral tegmental area (VTA)—is
particularly well established. Thousands of experimental studies com-
bine to demonstrate that the dopaminergic projection from the VTA to
the NA plays a central role in the brain’s reward system.
Numerous things that people find rewarding, including addictive drugs,

good-tasting food, and sex, have been shown to elicit activation of the
VTA dopamine system. Damage to the NA or VTA can produce a state of
profound torpor.
Neurotransmitters
In most regions of the brain, the predominant classes of neurons use

glutamate as the neurotransmitter and have excitatory effects on their
targets. In the basal ganglia, however, the great majority of neurons uses
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as the neurotransmitter and have in-

hibitory effects on their targets.
The inputs from the cortex and thalamus to the striatum and subthalamic
nucleus are glutamatergic, but the outputs from the striatum, pallidum,
and substantia nigra pars reticulata all use GABA. Thus, following the ini-
tial excitation of the striatum, the internal dynamics of the basal ganglia
are dominated by inhibition and disinhibition.
Other neurotransmitters have important modulatory effects. Dopamine is

used by the projection from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the
dorsal striatum and also in the analogous projection from the ventral
tegmental area to the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens).
Acetylcholine also plays an important role, as it is used both by several

external inputs to the striatum and by a group of striatal interneurons.
Although cholinergic cells make up only a small fraction of the total pop-
ulation, the striatum has one of the highest acetylcholine concentrations
of any brain structure.
from cortex
back to cortex
glutamatergic
c
(excitatory) glutamatergi
(excitatory)
G
(di ABA
- d s-inh ergi
ire ibi c
ct t
pa ory)
thw
ay
Thalamus
Striatum External
globus GABAergic
pallidus G
(in ABA (inhibitory)
hib er
Internal ito gic
ry)
globus
pallidus
GABAergic Su
do (dis-dis-inhibitory) GA bth gluta
pa ala m
m - indirect pathway - (dis- BAer mi aterg
ine ind inhib gic cn
irec ito i
rg
ic t pa ry) uc c
thw leu
ay s
G
(dis ABA Substantia nigra
pars
-in ergic dopaminergic pars
hib compacta
ito reticularis
ry)
Main circuits of the basal ganglia: This diagram shows the main circuits of
the basal ganglia. Two coronal slices have been superimposed to include
the involved basal ganglia structures. The + and – signs at the point of the
arrows indicate whether the pathway is excitatory or inhibitory, respectively,
in effect. Green arrows refer to excitatory glutamatergic pathways, red
arrows refer to inhibitory GABAergic pathways and turquoise arrows refer to
dopaminergic pathways that are excitatory on the direct pathway and
inhibitory on the indirect pathway.
Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
The cerebellum is important for motor control—specifically coordination,

precision, and timing—as well as some forms of motor learning.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the role of the cerebellum in movement modulation
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The cerebellum is a parallel grooved structure at the

bottom of the brain containing a highly regular cellular
arrangement of Purkinje cells, granule cells, and other
cell types.
The cerebellum adjusts to changes in sensorimotor re-

lationships, possibly functioning as in the Marr-Albus
theory: Strong inputs from a single climbing fiber serve
as a teaching signal to change the strength of impulses
from the corresponding group of parallel fibers.
Four principles of cerebellum function have been identi-

fied. They include: feedforward processing, divergence
and convergence, modularity, and plasticity.
Key Terms
Purkinje cells: A class of GABAergic neurons located in

the cerebellum.
mossy fibers: One of the major inputs to the cerebellum

from sources such as the cerebral cortex.
granule cells: These cells receive excitatory input from

mossy fibers that originate from pontine nuclei.
The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an important role in

motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such
as attention and language, and in regulating fear and pleasure re-
sponses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly estab-
lished. The cerebellum does not initiate movement, but it contributes to
coordination, precision, and accurate timing.
It receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other
parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, and integrates these in-
puts to fine-tune motor activity. Because of this fine-tuning function,
damage to the cerebellum does not cause paralysis, but instead pro-
duces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor
learning.
The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain, especially the
cerebral cortex, in regards to the ability of signals to move unidirection-
ally from input to output. This feedforward mode of operation means that
the cerebellum cannot generate self-sustaining patterns of neural activ-
ity, in contrast to the cerebral cortex. However, the cerebellum can re-
ceive information from the cerebral cortex and processes this informa-
tion to send motor impulses to the skeletal muscle.
Cerebellum: View of the cerebellum from above and behind.
Anatomy of the Cerebellum
In terms of anatomy, the cerebel-

lum has the appearance of a sep-
arate structure attached to the
bottom of the brain, tucked un-
derneath the cerebral hemi-
spheres. The surface of the cere-
bellum is covered with finely
spaced parallel grooves, in strik-
ing contrast to the broad irregular
convolutions of the cerebral cor-
tex. These parallel grooves con-
ceal the fact that the cerebellum
is actually a continuous thin layer Cerebellum cells: View of the
cerebellum from above and behind.
of tissue (the cerebellar cortex),
tightly folded in the style of an
accordion.
Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular
arrangement, the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells.
This complex neural network gives rise to a massive signal-processing
capability, but almost all of its output is directed to a set of small, deep
cerebellar nuclei lying in the interior of the cerebellum.
Function
Marr-Albus Theory
In addition to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is also nec-
essary for several types of motor learning, the most notable one being
learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships.
Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimo-

tor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum. Most
of them derive from early models formulated by David Marr and James
Albus, which were motivated by the observation that each cerebellar
Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input.
It receives input from thousands of parallel fibers, each individually very
weak. However, each cerebellar Purkinje cell also gets input from one
single climbing fiber, which is so strong that a single climbing fiber action
potential will reliably cause a target Purkinje cell to fire a burst of action
potentials.
The basic concept of the Marr-Albus theory is that the climbing fiber
serves as a teaching signal, which induces a long-lasting change in the
strength of synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs. Observations of
long-term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for
theories of this type, but their validity remains controversial.
Insights from Cerebellar Dysfunction
The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from
examining the consequences of damage to it. Animals and humans with
cerebellar dysfunction show, above all, problems with motor control.
They continue to be able to generate motor activity, but it loses preci-
sion, producing erratic, uncoordinated, or incorrectly timed movements.
A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger
for a target at arm’s length. A healthy person will move the fingertip in a
rapid straight trajectory, whereas a person with cerebellar damage will
reach slowly and erratically, with many mid-course corrections.
Deficits in non-motor functions are more difficult to detect. Thus, the

general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the
cerebellum is not to initiate movements, or to decide which movements
to execute, but rather to calibrate the detailed form of a movement.
The comparative simplicity and regularity of the cerebellar anatomy led

to an early hope that it might imply a similar simplicity of computational
function. Although a full understanding of cerebellar function remains
elusive, at least four principles are identified as important: 1) feedforward
processing, 2) divergence and convergence, 3) modularity, and 4)
plasticity.
Feedforward processing: Refers to the unidirectional movement of

signals through the system from input to output, with very little re-
current internal transmission. This means that the cerebellum, in
contrast to the cerebral cortex, cannot generate self-sustaining
patterns of neural activity. Signals enter the circuit, are processed
by each stage in sequential order, and then leave.
Divergence and convergence: The 1000 or so Purkinje cells be-

longing to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 mil-
lion parallel fibers, and focus their own output down to a group of
less than 50 deep nuclear cells. Thus, the cerebellar network re-
ceives a modest number of inputs, processes them very exten-
sively through its rigorously structured internal network, and sends
out the results via a very limited number of output cells.
Modularity: The cerebellar system is functionally divided into inde-

pendent modules. All modules have a similar internal structure, but
with different inputs and outputs. The output of one module does
not appear to significantly influence the activity of other modules
Plasticity: The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells,

and the synapses between mossy fibers and deep nuclear cells,
are both susceptible to modification of their strength. The influence
of each parallel fiber on nuclear cells is adjustable. This arrange-
ment gives tremendous flexibility for fine-tuning the relationship
between the cerebellar inputs and outputs.
Functions of the Cerebellum in Integrating

Movements
The cerebellum uses feedforward processing and modularity to process

information.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the functions of the cerebellum in integrating

movments
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The function of the cerebellum can be described by the

principles of feedforward processing and modularity.
Feedforward processing means signals move in one di-

rection through the cerebellum, from input to output.
Modularity describes the modular nature of the cerebel-

lar system, where modules with similar structures func-
tion relatively independently. Modules consist of clus-
ters of neurons with common inputs but distinct
outputs.
Key Terms
purkinje: Purkinje cells are a class of GABAergic neu-

rons located in the cerebellar cortex. They are some of
the largest neurons in the human brain, with an intri-
cately elaborate dendritic arbor characterized by a
large number of dendritic spines.
feedforward processing: A property of some neural cir-

cuits where signals move unidirectionally through the
system from input to output, with very little recurrent in-
ternal transmission.
microzone: A group of Purkinje cells that all have the

same somatotopic receptive field. Microzones contain
on the order of 1,000 Purkinje cells each, arranged in a
long, narrow strip, and oriented perpendicular to the
cortical folds.
Cerebellar Function
Feedforward Processing
The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain in that the sig-
nal processing is almost entirely feedforward—that is, signals move uni-
directionally through the system from input to output, with very little re-
current internal transmission.
The small amount of recurrence that does exist consists of mutual inhibi-
tion; there are no mutually excitatory circuits. This feedforward mode of
operation means that the cerebellum, in contrast to the cerebral cortex,
cannot generate self-sustaining patterns of neural activity.
Signals enter the circuit, are processed by each stage in sequential or-
der, and then leave. As Eccles, Ito, and Szentágothai wrote,”This elimina-
tion in the design of all possibility of reverberatory chains of neuronal ex-
citation is undoubtedly a great advantage in the performance of the
cerebellum as a computer, because what the rest of the nervous system
requires from the cerebellum is presumably not some output expressing
the operation of complex reverberatory circuits in the cerebellum, but
rather a quick and clear response to the input of any particular set of
information.”
Divergence and Convergence
In the human cerebellum, infor-

mation from 200 million mossy
fiber inputs is expanded to 40 bil-
lion granule cells, whose parallel
fiber outputs then converge onto
15 million Purkinje cells. Because
of the way that they are lined up
longitudinally, the 1,000 or so
Purkinje cells belonging to a mi-
crozone may receive input from
as many as 100 million parallel
fibers and focus their own output
down to a group of less than 50 Cells of the Cerebellum: Transverse

deep nuclear cells. section of a cerebellar folium,
showing its principal cell types and
connections.
Thus, the cerebellar network re-
ceives a modest number of in-
puts, processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured
internal network, and sends out the results via a very limited number of
output cells.
Modularity
The cerebellar system is functionally divided into more or less indepen-

dent modules, that probably number in the hundreds to thousands. All
modules have a similar internal structure, but different inputs and
outputs.
A module (a multizonal microcompartment in the terminology of Apps

and Garwicz) consists of a small cluster of neurons in the inferior olivary
nucleus, a set of long narrow strips of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cor-
tex (microzones), and a small cluster of neurons in one of the deep cere-
bellar nuclei.
Different modules share input from mossy fibers and parallel fibers, but
in other respects they appear to function independently. The output of
one module does not appear to significantly influence the activity of
other modules.
Plasticity
The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells, and the
synapses between mossy fibers and deep nuclear cells, are both sus-
ceptible to modification of their strength. In a single cerebellar module,
input from as many as a billion parallel fibers converge onto a group of
less than 50 deep nuclear cells, and the influence of each parallel fiber
on those nuclear cells is adjustable. This arrangement gives tremendous
flexibility for fine-tuning the relationships between the cerebellar inputs
and outputs.
Microzone
Zone
Purkinje cell
dendritic Parallel
trees fibers
Unfolded
cerebellar
cortex
Zones and microzones in the cerebellum: This schematic illustration of the

structure of zones and microzones in the cerebellum shows three levels of
magnification. These zones and microzones help explain the modular nature
of the cerebellar function. On the left is a simplified illustration of what the
cerebellar cortex would look like if all the folds were straightened out—the
vertical dimension is the rostro-caudal axis of the cerebellum, the horizontal
dimension is the medio-lateral axis. A zone is a longitudinally oriented strip
of the cortex, and a microzone is a thin, longitudinally oriented portion of a
zone. As the illustration on the right shows, Purkinje cell dendritic trees are
flattened in a way that aligns with the microzone length, and parallel fibers
cross the microzones at right angles.
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3/20/22, 11:16 PM Motor Pathways | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology

Boundless Anatomy and Physiology

Peripheral Nervous System

Organization of Motor Neuron Pathways

Describe the organization of motor neuron pathways

The pyramidal tract, which includes both the corti-

Peripheral motor nerves carry the motor impulses from

The large majority (90%) of motor neurons cross (decus-

extrapyramidal system: A biological neural network

corticospinal tract: The nervous system tract that con-

rate tracts in the spinal cord: the lateral corticospinal

motor system: The part of the central nervous system

cerebral cortex: The gray, folded, outermost layer of the

The motor system is the part of

The motor pathway, also called

Decussation of the pyramids: A

Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4,

The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior col-

Motor and descending (efferent) Sensory and ascending

- Lateral corticospinal tract Dorsal Column Medial

- Anterior corticospinal tract Lemniscus System

- Reticulospinal tracts Anterior spinocerebellar tract

The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Movement

Describe the role of the basal ganglia in movement

The basal ganglia are studied extensively in the context

Hemiballismus, a movement disorder arising from neu-

Eye movement, a function of the basal ganglia, is influ-

Basal ganglia are also thought to play a role in

In the basal ganglia,

the majority of the neurons uses gamma-aminobutyric

and have inhibitory effects on their

hemiballismus: A rare movement disorder with involun-

voluntary motor control: The act of directing motion

forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, including the

nucleus accumbens: A region in the basal forebrain

Location of the Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including

Basal ganglia: Locations of the basal ganglia.

Parkinson’s disease involves the major loss of dopaminergic cells in the

The symptoms of the two diseases are virtually opposite: Parkinson’s

It is noteworthy that, although both diseases have cognitive symptoms,

A different movement disorder, called hemiballismus, may result from

Function in Eye Movement

The SC is a layered structure whose layers form two-dimensional retino-

The immobility of patients with Parkingson’s disease has sometimes

Numerous things that people find rewarding, including addictive drugs,

In most regions of the brain, the predominant classes of neurons use

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as the neurotransmitter and have in-

Other neurotransmitters have important modulatory effects. Dopamine is

Acetylcholine also plays an important role, as it is used both by several

Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum

The cerebellum is important for motor control—specifically coordination,

Describe the role of the cerebellum in movement modulation

The cerebellum is a parallel grooved structure at the

The cerebellum adjusts to changes in sensorimotor re-

Four principles of cerebellum function have been identi-

Purkinje cells: A class of GABAergic neurons located in

mossy fibers: One of the major inputs to the cerebellum

granule cells: These cells receive excitatory input from

The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an important role in

Cerebellum: View of the cerebellum from above and behind.

Anatomy of the Cerebellum