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'Ain Ghazal: A Major Neolithic Settlement in Central Jordan

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 Articles

'Ain Ghazal: A Major Neolithic

Settlement in Central Jordan
ALANH. SIMMONS,
ILSEKOHLER-ROLLEFSON,
GARY0. ROLLEFSON,
ROLFEMANDEL,ZEIDANKAFAFI

'AinGhazalis locatedin the northernsuburbsof Amman.Initially

'AinGhazal,an archeological site locatedon the outskirts exposedduring road constructionin 1974, the site lay unstudied
of AxTlman, Jordan,is one of the largest earlyvillages until archeologicalexcavationswere firstconductedin 1982. Since
knonvnin the Near East.The site datesto the Neolithic then, four additionalseasonshave been completed(2). Although
period, during which mankindmade one of its most only a smallportionof the site has been excavated,the resultshave
significantadvances,the adoptionof domesticplantsand beenimpressive,andrequirereevaluationof somebasicassumptions
animalsas primarysubsistencesources.Recent excarra- regardingNeolithic life. Some of the more provocativefindings
tionsat 'AinGhazalharreaugmentedconsiderably current relate to chronology, size and population, economy, ritual and
knowledgeof severalaspectsof the Neolithic.Of particu- artisticlife, ecologicaladaptation,andthe ultimateabandonmentof
lar interesthas beenthe documentationof a condnuous, the village.
or near continuous,occupationfrom earlythroughlate
Neolithiccomponents,and a concomitantdramaticeco-
nomicshift.This shiftwas froma broadsubsistencebase Chronology
relyingon a varietyof both wild anddomesticplantsand
animals,to an economicstrategyreflectingan apparent A seriesof radiocarbondeterminationsbracketa majoroccupa-
emphasison pastoralism. tion at 'Ain Ghazalwithin the Pre-PotteryNeolithic B (PPNB)
period(Table1), datingto betweenabout7200 to 6000 B.C. Thus
far, no clear evidence has been unearthedsuggesting an earlier
occupation.During the 1984 excavationseason a smallportionof
A) IN GHAZAL("SPRING OF THE GAZELLES"), A LARGE
prehistoricvillage located near Amman,Jordan(Fig. 1),
has yielded significantnew informationon the Neolithic
period. The Neolithic has long been a key focus of archeological
inquiry because it played a major role in subsequent cultural
developments.In manyinstancesthis periodprovidedthe stimulus
for a seriesof complexprocessesculminatingin the great civiliza-
tions of the world. The Neolithic also is significantin that it
representedone of mankind'smost dramatictransformations: the
shift fromhuntingand gatheringeconomiesto ones basedon food
production,or the domesticationof plants, and, often, animals.
Once key economic resourcescame under human control, the
frameworkfor furtheradvancementwas established.
Perhapsthe most studiedareaof Neolithic researchis the Near
East, where scholarsgenerallyagree that the earliestexperiments
with domesticationoccurredapproximately10,000 to 12,000 years
ago. In that region, domesticeconomieswere in operationduring
what is commonly referredto as the aceramic,or pre-pottery,
Neolithic; this phase was followed by the pottery Neolithic. By
about 7000 B.C. a varietyof plants that were to become Near
Easternstapleswerewidelydomesticated,aswas at leastone animal,
the goat. Numeroussites havecontributedto definingthe Neolith-
ic; some of the more notableareJerichoand Beidhain the Levant
(1). Recent excavationsat 'Ain Ghazalhave addednew refinement
to our conceptof the Neolithic, particularly
of its laterphases.

A. H. Simmonsis atthe DesertResearchInstitute,Universityof NevadaSystem,Reno

NV 89506. I. Kohler-Rollefsonand G. O. Rollefson are in the Departmentof
Anthropology,SanDiego StateUniversity,SanDiego, CA 92182. R. Mandelis in the
Departmentof Geography,Universityof Kansas,Lawrence,KS 66045. Z. Kafafiis at Fig. 1. Mapof the LevantineNearEast,showingthe locationof 'AinGhazal
the Institutefor ArcheologyandAnthropology,YarmoukUniversity,Irbid,Jordan. and othermajorNeolithicsites.
I AFPRILI988 ARTICLES 3S

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another componentwas revealed.This) too) is Neolithic, fSing To date) most gchitecturalinformationcomes from the earlier
within the earlyPotteryNeolithic, to a phaselocallyknown as the PPNB occupation.Architecturefrom this phaseis impressive)with
Yarmoukian. No radiocarbondatesareavailablefor the Yarmoukian well-constructedmultiroomedrectangulardwellingsbeing charac-
at nAinGhazal)but elsewherein the Levantit spans5500 to 5000 teristic (3). Most rooms were successivelyremodeledthroughout
B.G. the PPNB occupation,andat leastEvebuildingsequenceshavebeen
Aceramlcan Lceramlccomponentsare common at many major identified.Becauseentirebuildingshavenot yet beenexcavated,we
* . . .

Neolithicsites in the Levant,but they invariablyareseparatedby a have limited informationon commity planning and spacing
hiatusof undeterminedlength. At nAinGhazal)however)a transi- betweenstructures.Thereis some evidencefor the presenceof large
tional phasefrom aceramicto ceramichas been documented.This administrativeor ceremonialstructuresas well. Atthoughonly a
phase,provisionallytermedthe Pre-PotteryNeolithic C (PPNC)) scantportion of the Yarmoukiandepositshas been excavated)the
shareselementsconnnzonto both the PPNB and the Yarmoukian availabledata suggest a radicaldeparturefrom the earlieroccupa-
components,but also is quite distinctin a varietyof aspects(Tables tion. The Yarmoukian occupationalsowaslarge,but a declinein the
2) 3) and4). As with the Yarmoukiancomponent)only a smallpart standardof living is suggested.Structureswere ephemeral,and the
of the PPNC has yet been investigated)but a similarphasehas not economyprobablymuchmore speciAlized.
been clearlydefinedat any other Neolithic site in the Levant.The It would be unwise to project population esizmatesfor Ain
implicationsof a transitionalphaseareimportant)since it suggests Ghazalfrom availabledata,but hintsof demographicsareprovided
local citural developmentand adaptation. by the nearly 100 PPNB burialsrecovered.A wide age range is
exhibited,andthe inhabitantsof 'Ain Ghazaldo not appearto have
sufferedfrommanyofthe afflictionsthatwerecharacteristic of many
Neolithiceconomies althoughaririiis and dentalattritionappear
Size and Population common.Mortalityamonginfantsandyoung childrenalso appears
Survey,systematictestirlg,andexaminationof profilesexposedby to havebeenhigh, but once adolescencewas achieved,survivalto at
the roadconstructionindicatethat'AinGhazalspanssome 30 acres. leastearlyadulthoodprobablywas likely(4).
This is approximately three times the size of Pre-PotteryNeolithic
Jericho, making Ain Ghazal one of the largest Neolithic sites
documentedirl the Near East. As such, it probablywas a major
populationcenter,althoughit is not yet clearif the entiresite was
RituS d
occupiedat once. Aspectsof ritualand artisticbehaviorat Ain Ghazalare inter-
twined and are manifestedin severalways. The most dramatic
Table1. Carbon-14datesfor nAinGhazalin radiocarbonyears.Abbrevia- reflecizonof ritualbehaviorwas the recoveryof two groupsof near
tions; PPNC and PPNB, Pre-PotteryNeolithicC md B. life-size plaster statuaryfrom the PPNB levels. Two caches of
- , |

artilly molded human figlureswere recoveredcarefullyburied

(BD*act) Laboratory Phase Comments beneaththe floorsof abandonedstructures.Theserepresentsomeof
the earliestsuch art formsdocumentedanywherein the worldtand
5870 + 240 AA-1165 PPNC Linearaccelerator date the precisionand detailof their craftitlgis unprecedented.Only at
7000 + 390 AA-1166 PPNC Linearaccelerator;
fartoo early Jericho, some 50 km to the west) have similar statutes been
6215 + 50 GrN-12972 PPNB FinalPPNB level recovered,and these were in a much more deterioratedstate.
6360 + 230 GrN-14259 PPNB Becausewrittenrecordsarelackingitl the Neolithic)the meaningof
6510 + 90 GrN-12971 PPNB these remarkablestatuescan only be guessedat, but they probably
6620 + 180 AA-1167 PPNB Linearaceelerator)
appearstoo early had ritualsignificance(5).
6860 + 80 GrN-12969 PPNB Additionalritualbehaviorat 'Ain Ghazalis evidencedby smaller
6670 + 320 UCR-3273 PPNB clay figures(6). Numeroushumanand animalfigllrineshave been
6700 + 200 GrN-12970 PPNB recovered,lncludingprobablefertilityobjectssimilarto the gVenus"
7150 _ 140 SA-1164 PPNB Linearacceleratordate statuettesof muchearlierEuropeanPaleolithiccultures.Amongthe
6860_ 160 GrN-14258 PPNB
6120 _ 230 UCR-1722 PPNB Appears too late animal forms, the most frequentlyrepresentedgroup is cattle
7050 + 90 GrN-12959 PPNB althoughactualcattleremainsin the faunalassemblagearerelaizvely
7080 + 80 GrN-12960 PPNB scarce.The significanceof these artifactsis not clear. One cache
6520 + 650 UCR-1718 PPNB locatedin a subfloorpit consistedof two cattlefigllrineswith flint
6980_ 80 GrN-12967 PPNB bladesinsertedinto theircranial,thoracic,andheartareas.This may
7020 + 110 GrN-12968 PPNB
6730 + 190 GrN-12962 PPNB represent a symbolicgesturetowardsuccessin huntg. Alternative-
6980 + 60 GrN-12961 PPNB lyt tnanyof the cade figurinesareornamentedwith what appearto
7020 + 80 GrN-12964 PPNB be cords aroundtheir necks.This is suggestiveof some degreeof
6770 + 80 GrN-14257 PPNB taming and lends credenceto the possible cult status of catie) a
7020 + 80 GrN-12963 PPNB
7100 + 80 GrN-12965 PPNB situationdocumentedat other Neolithicsites (7).
7250 + 110 GrN-12966 PPNB Anotherstrikingelementrelatedto ritualbehavioris treatrnent of
6570 + 110 Beta-19907 PPNB Associatedwith a statuecache the dead. By far the most common nzodeof intermentwas for a
7020 + 150 Beta-19906 PPNB deccasedindividualto be placedin a flexed position beneaththe
8310 + 1300 Beta-20253 PPNB Justabovesterileclay;
largerariance floor of a structure.This burialpit was then plasteredover to be
9925 + 670 UCR-1723 PPNB Unacceptable) far too early; reopened at a later date. At that itmel a particularlymacabre
verysmallsample mortuarypracticewas enacted:the skullwas removed.The pit was
8900 + 610 UCR-1724 PPNB Unacceptable;fartoo early thenreplastered. The fateof mostofthe skullsis uriown aliough
verysmallsample
3180 + 315 UCR-1725 PPNB Unacceptable)fartOO recentn a few caches of skils have been recovered.That this remarkable
verysmallsample practice was widely endorsedis evidencedby similartreatmentof
. . .. .

hunzanremainsat other majorPPNB sites (8).

36 SCIENCEtVOL. 40

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Table 2. Frequenciesof major chipped stone artifactclasses from the required for nonirrigationfarming (10). Precipitaiionincreases
. . components
Neolithic . of nAinGhazat(1983-1985 sample). CrE, core- rapidlytowardthe west, however;the 450-mm isoheyt is only 15
trlmmmgelement. km to the west.
PPNB PPNC Yarmoukian
Class
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Economy
Tools 4,390 4.8 764 5.3 760 6.7
Bladelets 5,710 6.3 534 3.7 529 4.6 One of the most significantresultsof researchat 'Ain Ghazalhas
Blades 23,851 26.3 3,245 22.4 2,322 20.4 been the retrievalof abundantfloraland faunalremains.Recovery
Flakes 22,864 25.2 6,036 41.7 3,783 33.2 techniqueshaveallowedretrievalof evensmallmaterials.The faunal
CIE 1,762 1.9 75 0.5 66 0.6
Burinspalls 862 0.9 99 0.7 130 1.1 assemblagealone consists of approximately500,000 bone frag-
Otherflakes 120 0.1 53 0.4 46 0.4 ments, of which some 50,000 have been identifiable(11). The
Cores 390 0.4 168 1.2 179 1.6 abundantdata have provided an excellent opportunity for the
Microflakes 16,335 18.1 1,667 11.2 1,704 14.9 detailedexaminationof Neolithic economy. Most of the material
Debris 14,454 15.9 1,832 12.7 1,880 16.5
recovereddates to the PPNB component,but tantalizingevidence
Totals 90,738 99.9 14,473 100.1 11,399 100.0
fromthe PPNC and Yarmoukianlayersmayshed light on why 'Ain
Ghazalwas ultimatelyabandoned.
The diet of the occupantsof PPNB 'Ain Ghazalwas remarkably
'AinGhazalhas provideda rareopportunityto examineNeolithic varied.Domesticatedplantsincludedwheat and barleyspecies,but
ritual behavior.Severalcomponentsof the materialcultureoffer legumes(primarilylentils and peas) appearto have been preferred
tantalizingcluesto earlyceremoniallife at this village.Clarification cultigens.A wide suite of wild plantsalsowere consumed(12, 13).
of such behaviormay be useil in assessingdevelopmentsthat The determinationof domesticatedanimals,sensxstricto,is a topicof
ultimatelyled to the developmentof the classic Near Eastern muchdebate(14). At PPNB 'AinGhazalgoatswerea majorspecies,
. . . .

ClVl olZatlOIlS. andtheywereused in a domesticsense,althoughthey maynot have

been morphologicallydomestic.Many of the phalangesrecovered
exhibitpathologiesthat are suggestiveof tethering.An impressive
Geomorphology,Environment,and rangeof wild animalspeciesalsowereconsumedat the site. Over50
taxahave been identified,includinggazelle,Bos,Sxs sp., Lepxs,and
Paleoecology Vxlpes.
'Ain Ghazalis situatedin a relativelyrich environmentalsetting A wide rangeof wild and domesticatedplantsis evidentat many
immediatelyadjacentto the Wadi Zarqa, the longest drainage contemporaryNeolithic sites (Table 5), but the predominanceof
systemin highlandJordan.It is locatedat an elevationof about720 legumesat 'Ain Ghazalis not typical(Table6), althoughthis may
m within the ecotone betweenthe oak-parkwoodlandto the west reflecta samplingproblem.Where 'Ain Ghazalstands out most
and the open steppe-desertto the east. Preliminarygeomorphic dramaticallyfrom other sites, however, is in the remarkablywide
examinationof the regionindicatesthatthe ZarqaValleycontainsa varietyof wild animal species exploited during the PPNB. 'Ain
complexbut orderlyarrayof landformsand sediments. Ghazal'ssubsistencebase during the PPNB is in manyways more
'Ain Ghazalitself is coveredby a thin ( 15 to 30 cm) layerof similarto the broadspecm economypostulatedfor the preceding
both colluviumand eroded archeologicalmaterials.The formeris Natufianperiod (15), althoughit should be noted that recentre-
derived from exposed limestone on adjacentslopes. The lowest examinationof Natufianeconomysuggestsmorespecializaiionthan
culturaldepositsdirectlyoverliea layerof redclayat least3 m thick. previouslythought (16).
This clayresemblesthe terrarossascommonthroughoutthe eastern The somewhatunusualpatternat PPNB 'Ain Ghazal,with its
Mediterranean. The presenceof relatively"fresh"limestonecobbles emphasison wild as well as domestic resources,could be more
scatteredthroughoutthe clay indicatesthat it is "soil sediment"
deposited on the slope on which the site was later located. The
presenceof the red, clayey colluvium between culturaldeposits Table 3. Frequenciesof majortool classesbetweenNeolithiccomponentsat
Ain Ghazal(1983-1985 sample).
suggests that deposition of slopewashwas occurringduring the
period of occupation.Absence of A soil horizons in the upper PPNB PPNC Yarmoukian
sectionsof earlyHolocene colluvialdepositsmay be attributedto Class
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
rapidaccumulationof slopewash,to erosionandsubsequentremov-
al of surfacehorizons,or both. Strataof red colluviumwere sealed Spearpoints 160 3.6 7 0.9 11 1.4
by plasterfloors at the site, therebyinsulatingthe clayeysediment Arrowheads 15 0.3 12 1.6 15 2.0
Sickleblades 283 6.4 2 0.3 7 0.9
frommiddleand lateHolocenepedogenesis.Regardlessof whether Burins 1206 27.5 103 13.5 135 17.7
erosion of depositionwas occurringat 'Ain Ghazal,it is apparent Truncations 126 2.9 30 3.9 33 4.3
that the landscapewas unstableduringthe earlyHolocene (9). Scrapers 161 3.7 27 3.5 35 4.6
Evidencerecoveredfrom the excavationssuggeststhat much of Denticulates 174 4.0 25 3.3 25 3.3
the surroundingcountrysidewas forestedand offeredthe inhabit- Notches 321 7.3 63 8.2 56 7.4
Perforators;drills 256 5.8 30 3.9 42 5.5
ants a wide varietyof economicresources.Arableland is plentifill Bifacialtools 166 3.8 29 3.8 38 5.0
within the site'simmediateenvirons.Thesevariablesareatypicalof Backedblades 39 0.9 0 0.0 12 1.6
many majorNeolithic sites in the Near East, severalof which are Tangedblades 49 1.1 1 0.1 1 0.1
locatedin marginalenvironments.Yet despiteits apparentrichness, Retouchedpieces 470 10.7 202 26.4 135 17.8
sensitive Utilizedpieces 664 15.1 137 17.9 115 15.1
the areaof 'Ain Ghazalis climaticallyand environmentally Other 95 2.2 18 2.3 27 3.6
becauseof its proximitythroughoutthe Holoceneto the fluctuating Indeterminate 167 3.8 73 9.6 64 8.4
steppe-forestborder.Additionally,the site is locatedon the 250-mm Totals 4390 100.0 764 99.9 760 99.9
isoheyt,which is consideredthe minimumamountof precipitation
I APRIL I988 ARTICLES 37

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apparentthanreal.The distinctionmaybe an artifactof archeologi- Discussion
cal data recovery techniques more than a reflection of actual
Neolithic economic parameters.Many major Neolithic sites The laterphasesof the Near EasternNeolithic havenot been as
throughoutthe Levantwere excavatedbeforethe widespreaduse of intensivelystudied as have the earlierones, largely due to the
preciseretrievalmethods, thus possibly introducinga bias due to researchpriorityin originsof agriculture.At 'AinGhazal,a substan-
inadequaterecoveryprocedures.This is not to obviatethe impor- tial and possiblyunbrokensuccessionfromearlyto lateNeolithicis
tance of domesticatedplants and animalsto Neolithic diets. This, present,and an intriguingpatternhas emergedfor the lateroccupa-
afterall, is perhapsthe most significanthallmarkof the period. Ittion of the site. Perhapsas earlyas the PPNC, and certainlyby the
does suggest,however,that evenonce suicient culturalcontrolhad Yarmoukian,a dramaticadaptiveshift occurredthat ultimatelyled
been exertedover domesticatesto ensurepredictablefood supplies, to the abandonmentof 'Ain Ghazal. From heavy reliance on
reliance on hunting and gathering continued to be of major domesticatedplants and animals,but supplementedby wild re-
importance. sources,the economychangedto a probablefocus on pastoralism
The limited economicdata recoveredfrom the PPNC and Yar- with an apparentdecline in the standardof living. Interestingly,
moukianlevels reveala distinctand dramaticshift. Samplingbias while the arealextentof 'AinGhazalmayhaveexpandedduringthe
mayhaveinfluencedthe data,but the declinein the varietyof animal Yarmoukian,the impressionis of a largebut impoverishedvillage
species exploitedis nonethelessimpressive(Table4). During the that likelywas occupiedon a seasonalbasis.
PPNC and Yarmoukian,sheep or goat (or both) are by far the The best evidencefor this radicaleconomicshift is from faunal
predominantspecies.These also arenow morphologicallydomesti- remains, and an ecological model to account for the apparent
cated,as arepig, and,probably,cattle.Domesticandwild plantsare deteriorationof 'Ain Ghazalduringthe late Neolithic recentlyhas
rare,and an economybasedlargelyon pastoralismis suggestedby been proposedby Kohler-Rollefson(17).
the Yarmoukian. The PPNB occupantsof 'Ain Ghazaldrew about half of their
animalresourcesfromherdedgoatsandthe remainingfromhunting
Table4. Animalremainsby Neolithiccomponent(1984 samplerepresent- a wide varietyof fauna.That this was a periodof prosperityat 'Ain
ing the numberof identifiedspecimens)(11).
Ghazalalso is reflectedby the presenceof a richvarietyof domestic
PPNB PPNC Yarmoukian andwild floralresources,an unprecedentedlevelof ariisticachieve-
Taxon ment, sophisticatedarchitecture,numerous animal and human
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent figurines,and the remarkable statuary,as well as in highly evolved
Reptiles 6 0.2 2 0.3 0 0.0 ritualbehavior(18).
Turtles 53 1.8 5 0.6 1 0.4 Duringthe succeedingPPNC, a majordecreasein the numberof
Birds 55 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 animal species exploited occurred.The proportionsof caprines
Inseciivores 12 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.4
Lepus 57 1.9 1 0.1 0 0.0 increased,and gazellewas the only animalhuntedon any scale.A
Rodents 10 0.3 3 0.4 0 0.0 medium-sized equid (probablyEqs hem?onas) made its first ap-
Smallcarnivores 61 2.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 pearance,but the largenumberof previouslyabundantspeciesall
Canid 7 0.2 1 0.1 2 0.7 but disappeared.The Yarmoukianassemblageis similarto that of
Vulpes 128 4.3 1 0.1 0 0.0 the PPNC, and the numberof specieswas reducedfurther,with
Meles 6 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
Felid 38 1.3 1 0.1 0 0.0 goats being the predominantdomesticate.Relianceon floral re-
Equus 0 0.0 9 1.1 4 1.4 sourcesalso seemsto have declinedradically.
Sus 205 6.8 105 13.1 32 10.8 This Late Neolithic deteriorationdoes not occur only at 'Ain
Bos 364 12.2 47 5.9 27 9.1 Ghazal.It hasbeenobservedat manyNeolithicsitesthroughoutthe
Gazella 401 13.4 79 9.8 19 6.4
OvislCapra 1591 53.1 549 68.4 209 70.6 Levant,where once thrivingPPNB villageswere abandonedand
Totals 2998 99.9 803 100.0 296 100.0 often replacedby new, but less sophisticated,settlements.This has
r beenwidelyinterpretedas reflectinga shiftto pastoralism.Manyof

Table 5. Presenceof planttaxarecoveredfrom 'Ain Ghazaland comparedto otherNeolithiccollections(12).

Taxon* 'Ain Ghazal Jericho Beidha Abu Hureyra Hacilar-

Wild two row, hulledbarley x x

Domestictwo row, hulledbarley x x x
Domesticsix row barley x x
Wildeinkornwheat x x
Domesticeinkornwheat x x
Domesticemmerwheat x x x x x
Fieldpea x x
Lentil x x x x
Chick-pea x x x
Horsebean x x
Vetch x x
Fig x x
Wild pistachio x
Wild flax x
Bedstraw,cleavers x
Gromwell ? x x
Mallow x x
Catchfly x
I

*Allweedytaxafromcomparativesiteshavenot beenincluded.

38 SCIENCE, VOL. SO

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 Table 6. Comparisonof relativeseedfrequencies(%)at 'AinGhazalandtwo
otherNeolithicsites (13).
_
Seed 'Ain Ghazal Jericho Mureybit
(n = 1549) (n = 7425) (n = 2235)
Cereals
Wheat 17.2 83.2 70.2
12.8 2.1 15.3
Barley
Legumes 42.0 2.5 13.7
Perennials 15.4 0.3 0.6
Weeds 9.2 11.8
these new sites continuedto be occupiedafterthe Neolithic.
VVhatmakes'Ain Ghazalstand out sharplyis the demonstrable
shiftduringcontinuous,or nearcontinuous,occupationat the same
site. Elsewhere in the Levant a pattern of abandonmentand
settlementof new sitesis more common.Evenat PPNB siteswith a
subsequentPotteryNeolithicoccupation,suchasJericho,a substan-
tialtemporalgap occurs.At 'AinGhazal,with the documentationof
the PPNC phase,a shiftfroma broad-basedeconomywith a reliance
on agricultureto one largelybased on the exploitationof a few
species of domestic animals can be observed. In addition, 'Ain
Ghazalwas abandonedafterthe Neolithic,neverto be reoccupied.
Kohler-Rollefson'smodel (17) offieringa possibleexplanationfor
this narrowingof the subsistencebase between the earlyand late
Neolithicis framedin ecologicalterms.The modelsuggeststhatit is
likely that at 'Ain Ghazal nonirrigationcultivation and animal
economicstrategiesbefore
husbandryinitiallywere complementary
a criticalpopulationsize was reachedand beforethe degradationof
the immediatelocal environment.This pressurewas exacerbatedby
'AinGhazal'slocationat the 250-mmisoheytandthe unpredictabili-
ty of a limited rainfalldistribution.For both plant and animal
domesticationto succeedin this situationin the long run,they had
to becomespatiallysegregatedand independentlymanagedopera-
tions. At 'Ain Ghazal,the amountof culturalcontrolexertedover
goatsultimatelyrequiredthatmoreandmorelandbe madeavailable
in orderto feed them, with the end resultthat herdingandfarming
were no longermutuallycompatibleand viablesubsistencemodes.
The only way to continueanimalhusbandrywithout endangering
the crop harvestwas to take the herds farier and farier away,
returningto the village only for limited tlmes of the year. This
would havebeen the firststep in a seriesof developmentseventually
leading to spatial and social separationbetween agriculturaland
pastoralpopulations.
In a sense,the earlyinhabitantsof 'Ain Ghazalliterallymayhave
consumedthemselvesout of theironce richenvironment,forcingan
economic dichotomy where a stronger and strongerrelianceon
pastoralismbecamemore adaptive.At the same time, relianceon
agriculturemay have decreaseddue to the lack of arable land
brought on by overexploitation.This had consequencesfor 'Ain
Ghazal,and althoughit undoubtedlyremaineda regionalcenter,its
formerprosperitywas greatlydiminished,leadingto abandonment
afterthe Neolithic.This conclusionwas graphicallyborneout by a
recentsurveyof the area:no majorNeolithicor laterhabitationsites
were locatedwithin an approximately5-km radiusof 'Ain Ghazal.
This suggests that the environmentaldegradationcaused by over
I APRIt I988
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2000 yearsof use duringthe Neolithicmayhaverenderedthe region
incapableof supporting major agriculturallybased communities
until the adventof moderntechnology.
It must be cautionedthat the abovescenariois basedon only the
smallsampleof 'Ain Ghazalthat has been excavated.It may not be
appropriateto expandthis model to other Neolithic centers,but it
does fit with the dataso far recoveredfrom 'Ain Ghazaland offers
one explanationfor the demise of the site. It also has more
widespreadimplicationsfor ways in which pastoralismmay have
developed.
REFERENCESAND NOTES
1. J. Mellaart,TheNeolithicoftheNearEast(Thames& Hudson,London,1975); P.
Singh,NeolithicCulturesof Western As«a(Seminar,London, 1974).
2. G. Rollefson,N. Geo,gr. Res. 1, 4 (1985); andA Simmons,Bull.Am. Sch.
Ortent.Res. Suppl.23 (1985), pp. 35-52; ibid. 24 (1986), pp. 145-164; G.
Rollefsonet al., Mitt. Dtsch.OrientGes.117, 69 (1985); A. Simmonsand G.
Rollefson,J.FietdArcheol. 11, 387 (1984).
3. E. Banningand B. Byrd,Bull.Am. Sch.Ortent.Res.225, 15 (1984).
4. S. Rolston,Mitt. Dtsch.OrzentGes.117, 105 (1985).
5. G. Rollefson,PaJeorient 9, 29 (1983); ibid.12, 45 (1986).
6. E. McAdam,Mitt. Dtsch.OnentGes.117, 82 (1985).
7. I. Kohler-Rollefson, "Cattlecult and domesticationin the Neolithicof the Near
East,"paperpresentedat the annualmeetingof the AmericanSchoolsof Oriental
Research,Anaheim,CA, December1985.
8. J. Cauvin,Reli,gionsNeolithiquesde Syro-Palestine (Publicationsdu Centre de
Recherchesd'Ecologieet de Prehistoire,Paris,1972);D. Ferembach,AnthropoZogie
74,247 (1970); andM. Lechevallier, Paleonent1, 223 (1973); K. Kenyon,
Archeolo,gyin theHolyLand (Praeger,New York,1960), pp. 51-54.
9. R. MandelandA. Simmons,in ThePrehistoty ofJordanin 1986,A. GarrardandH.
Gebel,Eds. (BritishArcheological Reports,InternationalSeries,Oxford,in press).
10. Food and AgricultureOrganization,"Reportto the Governmentof Jordanon
rangemanagement"(United Nations DevelopmentProgramme,No. TA 3126,
Rome, 1972).
11. I. Kohler-Rollefson, in ThePreh«story ofJordanin 1986, A. GarrardandH. Gebel,
Eds. (BritishArcheologicalReports,International Series,Oxford,in press).
12. M. Donaldson,"Preliminary analysisof plantremainsfromthe 1983 'AinGhazal
excavations"(CastetterLaboratoryfor EthnobotanicalStudies,TechnicalSeries
118, Universityof New Mexico,Albuquerque,1984).
13. M. Donaldson, "Subsistencevariationand agriculturein the early Levantine
Neolithic,"paperpresentedat the 51st annualmeetingofthe SocietyforAmerican
Archeology,New Orleans,LA, April 1986.
14. P. Ducos,PeabodyMus. BuU.2 (1978), pp. 53-56; H. Hecker,J.FieldArcheol. 9,
217 (1982); M. Jarman,in ColloqueXXOri,ginededvElevaBe etdelaDomesticatsn,
E. Higgs, Ed. (Union Internationale des SciencesPrehistoriqueset Protohistori-
ques,Nice, 1976), pp. 22-49.
15. K. Flannery,Annu. Rev. Anthropol.2, 271 (1973); C. Redman, The Rise of
Civilization(Freeman,San Francisco,1978), pp. 67-68 and 71-77.
16. D. Henry, in Prehistc Hunter-Gatherers, T. D. Price and J. A. Brown, Eds.
(AcademicPress,New York,1985), pp. 365-384.
17. I. Kohler-Rollefson,"Resolvingthe revolution:Late Neolithic refinementsof
economicstrategiesin the easternLevant,"paperpresentedat the International
Congresson Archeo-Zoology,Bordeaux,France,August 1986.
18. G. RollefsonandA. Simmons,Archaeolo,gy 40, 38 (1987).
19. Investigationsat 'AinGhazalhaverepresenteda jointundertaking betweenseveral
institutionsunderthe generalsponsorshipof the AmericanSchoolsof Oriental
Research.The primaryinstitutionspresentlyinvolvedwith the projectincludethe
Desert ResearchInstituteof the Universityof Nevadasystem,San Diego State
University,andYarmoukUniversity,Irbid,Jordan.In Amman,A. Hadidi,director
of the JordanianDepartmentof Antiquitiesandhis staffhavefacilitatedthe project
immeasurably, as has the AmericanCenterof OrientalResearch-we also deeply
appreciatethe assistanceof the BritishInstitutein Ammanfor Archeolocgy and
HistoryandStanleyConsultants.Principalfundingfor the projecthas comefrom
the NationalGeographicSociety,the Instituteof ArcheologyandAnthropologyat
YarmoukUniversity,andthe AmocoFoundation.Additionalfundingandsupport
hascomefroman anonymousdonor,the Wenner-Gren FoundationforAnthropo-
logicalResearch,the CobbInstituteof Archeologyat MississippiStateUniversity
Earthwatch andits ResearchCorps,SanDiego StateUniversity,the Universityof
Kansas,the DesertResearchInstitute,the Instituteof Archeologyatthe University
of London,the SmithsonianInstitution,the Jordanian Ministryof Education,and
Alia,the RoyalJordanianAirline.
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