Republic of the Philippines

Palompon Institute of Technology

Palompon, Leyte

FINAL EXAMINATION

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SUBJECT MM 501

(METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH)

Submitted by:

CARLO D. JARITO
Masterand

Submitted to:

DR. ROSE A. ARCEÑO

Professor
1. What are the functions of research? What role does it play in improving the quality of
social life?

There are several functions of research. Some of them are the following:
• Corrects perceptions as well as expands them
• Gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have little knowledge about
• Develops and evaluates methods that test concepts practices and theories
• Obtains knowledge for practical purposes like solving problems on populations explosion,
drug addiction, teenage pregnancy and the like.
• Provides hard facts which serves as bases for planning, decision-making, project
implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
• Improving the quality of social life

Research plays a vital role in our social life. First and foremost – without research, there’s no way
you’d possibly be reading this right now, as the laptop, internet, and other technologies were
pioneered and developed through research.

Without research, we’d likely also be utterly defenseless to the brutal forces of nature. For
example, without meteorology, we’d be unable to predict the path of violent storms passing in the
Philippines, while a lack of volcanology research would leave a huge proportion of the country
susceptible to the destruction of volcanic eruptions. It doesn’t end there.

Medical technology and discovery would be non-existent – no MRI, no anaesthetic, no birth

control, no X-Ray machine, no insulin, no IVF, no penicillin, no germ theory, no DNA, and no
smallpox vaccination – which, by the way would have wiped out one out of every nine babies had
Jenner not researched and found a cure.

Thus, research is not only an invaluable tool for building on crucial knowledge but also the most
reliable way we can begin to understand the complexities of various issues, maintain our integrity
as we disprove lies and uphold important truths, and serve as the seed for analyzing complicated
sets of data.

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We all need to remember that research plays an important role in our social life. Proof? World
experts are now busy “researching” for the vaccine of the CoVid-19 pandemic which causes
worldwide chaos.

2. One of the critical steps that anyone encounters is the identification of a research
problem. Where can a researcher get possible sources of a researchable situation?

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a

difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in
practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A
research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or
present a value question. Some possible sources of a researchable situation are the following:

a) Personal experience: Day-to-day personal experience of a researcher may serve as good

source of ideas to formulate a research problem. For example, a researcher observed
domestic violence suffered by wives of alcoholic husbands. This experience may provide
ideas to identify several research problems related to domestic violence against women.
There may be so many such life experiences of a researcher which could be used to develop
a research problem.
b) Existing theories: Theories are ideas about how things relate to each other. Theories may
be general, commonly held beliefs or more technical ideas. Theories may be useful in
suggesting interesting questions and generally guiding fieldwork but should not restrict us
from exploring alternative explanations. The result of the research process is knowledge.
c) Literature and the media: There are many sources of literature, such as books, journal
articles, and newspapers. When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter
gaps in information and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution.
These may provide a good basis for research. We are also flooded with information
presented by the media, such as television, which again might give rise to research ideas.
d) Previous research: A body of knowledge should be developed on a sound foundation of
research findings. Usually, at the end of a research, further research problems are
suggested, based on the shortcomings of previous research, which can be investigated.
e) Consumer feedback: Research problems may be generated from the results of activities
aimed to solicit patient or consumer feedback.

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 f) Performance improvement activities: The performance improvement activities, also
known as quality improvement activities, are used to improve processes and outcomes to
meet regulatory requirement. In the process of performance activities, several issues merge
that require answers through research.
g) Social issues: Sometimes, topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or
political issues of relevance to the health care community.
h) Intuition: Traditionally, intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge as well as
sources to find new research problems.
i) Folklores: Common beliefs that could be right or wrong.
j) Exposure to field situations: During field exposure, researchers get variety of
experiences, which may provide plenty of ideas to formulate research problems.

3. What are the different styles of presenting the theoretical or conceptual framework?
Explain and illustrate each.

There are three (3) types or styles in presenting theoretical or conceptual framework. The
following are: taxonomy, visual representation, and mathematical description.

a. Taxonomy: a verbal description which categorizes phenomena into classes. Relationships

are evident if those items within a class are alike; but the relationships among the classes
are either weak or nonexistent. The scope of the phenomena described may be narrow, but
it is often broad. Evidence for the phenomena may be a result of direct experience, logical
reasoning, or developed empirically. Thus, the source may be described as lacking rigor
from a scientific viewpoint. A sample taxonomy class is illustrated below.

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b. Visual representation: provides a picture of the phenomena. Relationships are shown
between classes, whereas in the taxonomy, no such relationships are usually made. The
phenomena presented may be as broad as the total reading situation or as narrow as a
single grapheme-phoneme correspondenceship. The evidence must be at least logical and
may have empirical support. It may come from authority opinion or research. From a
scientific viewpoint evidence may or may not be rigorous. A sample visual representation is
illustrated below.

c. Mathematical description: the phenomena can be expressed in some type of

mathematical equation, although verbal description and pictorial representation are also
possible. The relationships between phenomena are quantified with specific weights given
to each; which clearly differentiates this type of conceptual framework from the visual
representation which only shows that a relationship exists, but not the degree; and the
taxonomy which may not show any relationship between the classes presented. The
phenomena represented can probably be described as narrow in respect to reading; but
this may change. Empirical evidence from research is required; but logical explanation
may not be required since such frameworks may only represent what is, rather than why.
By its nature the supporting evidence must be rigorous. This explains why, currently, the
mathematical descriptions tend to be narrow in scope since only evidence that can be
empirically gathered is included. A sample mathematical description is illustrated below.

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The table below shows the summary of the three (3) types or styles in presenting theoretical or
conceptual framework.
Visual Mathematical
Type Characteristic Taxonomy
Representation Description
Mode of
Verbal Pictorial Equation
Presentation
Classes - relationship Relationships
Relationships are
Relationships within classes; not between classes are
quantified
between evident
Narrow or broad;
Scope Narrow or broad Probably narrow
often broad
Direct experience;
Logical; may be Empirical; may not
Evidence may or may not be
empirical necessarily be logical
logical or empirical
Practice, Authority, Authority, Opinion,
Source of Evidence Research
Opinion, Research Research
May or may not be
Rigor of Evidence Often is not rigorous Must be rigorous
rigorous

4. Why is there a need to review literature related to one’s study? In what way may a
material being reviewed be considered having accuracy and dependability?

A literature review is an objective, critical summary of published research literature relevant to

topic under consideration for research. There is a need to review literature related to one’s study
because it helps to:
• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied

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 • Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies
• Identify area of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort
• Point the ways to fulfilling a need for additional research
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature

Materials being reviewed can be considered accurate and dependable if they are classified as
scholarly. Scholarly sources are also referred to as academic, peer-reviewed, or referred sources.
Furthermore, materials being reviewed can be considered accurate and dependable by evaluating
each work considering:
• Provenance: what are the author’s credentials? Are the author’s arguments supported by
evidence?
• Methodology: were the techniques used to identify, gather, and analyze the data
appropriate to addressing the research problem?
• Objectivity: is the author’s perspective even-handed or pre-judicial?
• Persuasiveness: which of the author’s theses are most convincing or least convincing?
• Value: are the author’s arguments and conclusions convincing?

5. Illustrate the matrix of research goals and types of research designs.

The research design matrix is a system of rows and columns into which the components of a
research project fit, including the goal, objectives, definitions, hypotheses, variables, methods of
analysis and anticipated conclusions. Thus, the matrix encapsulates the research design, or what
the researcher intends to do in the investigation. Given the arrangement of the various concepts
involved, a logic is imposed on the project from the beginning of the planning process.

The goal of the research, which is a general statement of intent, logically should be placed above
the matrix that is being constructed. In the first column of the table, the objectives of the study can
be listed. The second column is allocated to hypotheses, placing them immediately adjacent to
the objective to which they are associated. In the third column, one may wish to list the variables
about which information must be collected if one is to reach a conclusion on each of the research

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hypotheses. In the fourth column, the techniques that will be used to analyze the various variables
might be listed, while in the fifth column, anticipated conclusions might appear. In this way,
beginning with the left-hand column of the matrix, one can work across the table, ensuring that
every vital research step has been accounted for and that nothing of importance has been omitted.
In addition, this approach provides a guide concerning the information that must be collected, as
reading down the variables column suggests the kinds of information that will be required in the
study.

Reading across the matrix gives an overview of the sequence of the research, while reading down
the matrix gives a sense of the breadth of the research, highlighting the various components of
the study.

The schematic matrix given here assumes 1 goal, 3 objectives, 3 hypotheses, 25 variables, 5
analytical techniques and 3 conclusions.

Because of the flexibility of the approach, additional columns could be added for any additional
category we might wish to define, such as sub-objectives, sub-hypotheses, definitions of
concepts, definitions of variables and anything else that the researcher feels is important in the
project being developed.

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A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select
which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of a study can be broadly
classified into quantitative and qualitative.

I. Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships between

collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a
naturally existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods.
II. Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical
conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better
perspective to make critical business decisions. Quantitative research design methods are
necessary for the growth of any organization.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:

a. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design
method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows
a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research. Descriptive design helps
others better understand the need for the research.
b. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a relationship
between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the
impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one
monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable
such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research design
method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are
manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social
sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups.
c. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research
design technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. This type of research requires two different groups. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables, and statistical
analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them. A correlation coefficient
determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges between -1 and +1.

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 If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the
variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.
d. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate
the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more
about the factors that create troublesome situations.
e. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts
on a subject to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of
a subject and details about what, how, and why of research questions.

6. Differentiate reliability and validity. You may give examples to elaborate your answer.

According to Polit and Hungler (1995), reliability refers to the degree of consistency or
dependability with which an instrument measures the attribute it is designed or supposed to
measure. Reliability is also the ability for a test or research findings to be repeatable. For
example, a medical thermometer is a reliable tool that would measure the correct temperature
each time it is used. In the same way, a reliable math test will accurately measure mathematical
knowledge for every student who takes it and reliable research findings can be replicated over
and over. In summary, reliability implies consistency: if you take the research final examination
five times, you should get roughly the same results every time.

Validity, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
intended to measure (Polit and Hungler, 1993). Validity is concerned with the meaning and
interpretation of a scale measurement. While reliability is necessary, reliability alone is not
sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid. For example, if your scale is off by
1.5 kilograms, it reads your weight every day with an excess of 1.5 kilograms. The scale is reliable
because it consistently reports the same weight every day, but it is not valid because it adds 1.5
kilograms to your true weight. It is not a valid measure of your weight. In summary, validity simply
means that a test or instrument is accurately measuring what it’s supposed to.

7. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human conduct. How a researcher can
remain ethical?

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When conducting a research, a researcher can remain ethical by following the common ethical
practices such as:
• Honesty: Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status.
Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
• Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation,
peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.
• Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
• Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
• Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
• Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission.
Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
• Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
• Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
• Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
• Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of
sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
• Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
• Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

8. What hindrances are met by a researcher? Explain your answer.

Research requires several ingredients; some difficult to manage, while others are difficult to
arrange. It is done by a single individual, but requires the acceptance/approval of several others;
guides, supervisors, defense committee members, interviewees, focus group members, etc.

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The following are the hindrances or challenges met by a researcher:
• Choosing the right topic or research problem: One of the most common hindrance to
research is choosing the right topic for a researcher.
• Lack of Scientific Training: The research methodology is not systematic. Many
researchers undertake research work without having actual knowledge of the research
methods. Even the guides do not have a thorough knowledge of the various methodologies.
• Lack of communication with the supervisor: A university professor is a busy person. It
is important to have guidance on a research project. Poor communication gets on the way
of the progress of the research. It is important to communicate with the supervisor to clarify
the doubts regarding the research topic, to know what the supervisor expects from you and
to learn more about your research topic.
• Time management: Spending ample time in learning the skills and practical
implementation consumes a lot of time. In such a scenario, taking out time for intense
research and to draft a top-notch research paper becomes impossible.
• A quantity of literature: It can be difficult to deal with the quantity of literature that one
might have accessed. The literature review is iterative. This involves managing the
literature, accessing data that supports the framework of the research, identifying keywords
and alternative keywords, as well as constantly looking for new sources.
• Implementing quality of writing within the literature review: A literature review has to
go beyond being a series of references and citations. You need to interpret the literature
and be able to position it within the context of your study. This requires careful and
measured interpretation and writing in which you synthesize and bring together the
materials that you have read.
• Insufficient data: Insufficiency of data is a potential problem. Most of the business
establishments are of the opinion that researchers may misuse the data provided by them.
This affects the purpose of research studies for which that particular data may be of utmost
importance.
• Lack of confidence: Lack of confidence is one of the most common problems among
researchers. Researchers with low self-esteem feel less motivated thereby affecting the
quality of the work.
• Library management: Library management and functioning is not satisfactory in many
Universities; A lot of time and energy is spent on tracing appropriate books, journals, reports
etc. Also, many of the libraries are not able to get copies of new reports and other
publications on time.

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9. Make a matrix that compares the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research.
Qualitative
Purpose • The purpose is to explain and
gain insight and
understanding of phenomena
through intensive collection of
narrative data and learn the
views of the people you plan
to study.
• Generates hypothesis to be
tested
• Inductive.
Approach to • Subjective
Inquiry • Holistic
• Process- oriented
Hypotheses • Tentative
• Evolving
• Based on particular study
• Generate theories based on
participant perspectives
Research Controlled setting not as important
Setting
Sampling Purposive: Intent to select “small”
not necessarily representative,
sample in order to get in-depth
understanding
Measurement • Non-standardized
• Narrative (written word)
• Ongoing
Design and • Flexible, specified only in
Method general terms in advance of
study
• Nonintervention, minimal
disturbance
• All Descriptive— History,
Biography, Ethnography,
Phenomenology, Grounded
Quantitative
• The purpose is to explain,
predict, and/or control
phenomena through focused
collection of numerical data while
measuring variables.
• Test hypotheses
• Deductive.
• Objective
• Focused
• Outcome- oriented
• Specific
• Testable
• Stated prior to particular study
• Test theories of broad
explanations
Controlled to the degree possible
Random: Intent to select “large”
representative sample in order to
generalize results to a population
• Standardized
• Numerical (measurements or
numbers)
• At the end
• Structured, inflexible, specified in
detail in advance of study
• Intervention, manipulation, and
control
• Descriptive
• Correlation
• Causal-Comparative
• Experimental
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 Theory, Case Study, (hybrids • Consider few variables, large
of these) group
• Consider many variable, small
group

Data Collection • Document and artifact • Observations (non-participant).

Strategies (something observed) that is • Interviews and Focus Groups
collection (participant, non- (semi-structured, formal).
participant). • Administration of tests and
• Interviews/Focus Groups (un- questionnaires (close ended).
/structured, in-/formal).
• Administration of
questionnaires (open ended).
• Taking of extensive, detailed
field notes.

Data Analysis • Raw data are in words.
• Essentially ongoing
• Involves using the
observations/comments to
conclude.
• Raw data are numbers
• Performed at end of study
• Involves statistics (using
numbers to come to
conclusions).

Data • Conclusions are tentative • Conclusions and generalizations

Interpretation (conclusions can change),
• Reviewed on an ongoing
basis
• Conclusions are
generalizations.
• The validity of the
inferences/generalizations are
the reader’s responsibility.
formulated at end of study
• Stated with predetermined
degree of certainty.
• Inferences/generalizations are
the researcher’s responsibility.
• Never 100% certain of our
findings.

10. Identify and explain the different types of variables.

A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. Common types of
variables in research includes:
• Independent variable
• Dependent variable
• Control variable
• Confounding variable
• Composite variable

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 a) Independent variables refer to the variables manipulated in order to affect the outcome of
an experiment.
b) Dependent variables refer to the variables that represent the outcome of the experiment.
c) Control variables refer to the variables that are held constant throughout the experiment.
d) Confounding variables refer to the variables that hide or interfere the true effect of another
variable in an experiment. This can happen when another variable is closely related to a
variable you are interested in, but you haven’t controlled it in your experiment. Confounding
variable is a specific type of extraneous variables.
e) Composite variable refers to a variable that is made by combining multiple variables in an
experiment. These variables are created when you analyze data, not when you measure it.

For example, in a salt tolerance experiment of a plant, the amount of salt added to each plant’s
water is the independent variable while the dependent variable is any measurement of plant
health and growth such as plant height and wilting. The control variables in this experiment are
the temperature and light in the room the plants are kept in, and the volume of water given to
each plant. The confounding variables may involve pot size and soil type that might affect plant
survival as much or more than salt additions. In an experiment, these potential confounders
should be controlled by holding them constant. Composite variables can be made by combining
the three plant health variables into a single plant-health score to make it easier to present your
findings.

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