C2 Purification and Separation

C2.1 Solid-Liquid mixtures

C2.1.1 Filtration
- Used to separate insoluble solid from a liquid
Process:
1. Fold filter paper
2. Line filter funnel with filter paper
3. Place clean beaker below filter funnel
4. Slowly pour mixture into filter paper in the funnel
5. Liquid passes through pores of er paper while insoluble solid remains trapped by filter paper
6. Solid is residue and liquid is filtrate
7. Press dry residue between filter paper
C2.1.2 Decanting
- Crude method used to separate insoluble solid from liquid by pouring off liquid
- Seldom used in lab.
C2.1.3 Evaporation to dryness
- Used to obtain soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution until all water has boiled
off
- Method works well with thermally stable solid (do not decompose)
- Not suitable for solid that will decompose e.g. sugar
- Can only obtain anhydrous salt as water of crystallisation is removed in the process
C2.1.4 Crystallisation
- Separates a soluble solid from a solution which forms pure crystals of the substance
- Suitable for substances that decompose on strong heating or contain water of crystallisation
- To check for saturated solution, dip a clean glass rod into the solution and remove. If a small
amount of solution remains on the rod and crystals form on it upon cooling, the sol. is
saturated.
C2.1.5 Distillation
Simple distillation
- Separates a pure solvent from a solution by boiling a liquid and condensing the vapour.
- Bulb of thermometer should be placed beside the side arm to ensure that thermometer
measures boiling point of substance that enter condenser
- Cold water enters from the bottom of the condenser and leaves from the top to ensure that
water jacket of the condenser is completely filled and that the temp at bottom is coolest.
- Boiling chips are added to smoothen boiling.
Fractional distillation
- Separates a mix of miscible liquids with different boiling points
- Miscible: completely soluble in each other
- Glass beads in fractionating column provide large surface area to volume ratio for cooling of
vapours. Helps to ensure only 1 liquid distils over. Ensures better separation.
- Liquid with lowest boiling point distils first.
C2.2 Solid-Solid Mixtures
C2.2.1 Sublimation
- Used to separate solids when one solid sublimes.

C2.2.2 Using Suitable solvent

- Useful when separating a mixture of solids which dissolves in different solvents.
C2.3 Liquid-Liquid Mixtures
C2.3.1 Separating Funnel
- Separate two immiscible liquids due to their differing densities
C2.3.2 Chromatography
- Used to separate two more components that dissolve in the same solvent.
- Small initial sample is required to generate chromatogram.
- Rf Value: ratio of distance moved by substance to distance moved by solvent

C3 Kinetic Particle Theory

C3.1 KPT
- All matters are made of tiny, discrete particles
- Particles are in constant, random motion at diff speeds in solid liquid and gases.
- There are spaces between particles of matter, is different between Solid Liquid and Gases.

C3.2 Diffusion
- Net movement of particles in liquids and gases from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration
C3.3 Factors affecting rate of diffusion
- Temperature: Particles move faster at higher temps as they absorb heat energy and have
more KE.
- Mass of particle: The greater the Mr of particle, slower the rate of diffusion.
C3.4 KPT and Changes of state
C3.4.1 Melting
- Particles in solid state absorb energy
- Heat energy is converted to KE causing particles to vibrate faster about fixed positions
- As temp increases, particles gain sufficient energy to overcome forces of attraction
- Particles are no longer in fixed positions
- Can move about freely although still packed quite closely together.
- Solid > Liquid
C3.4.2 Freezing
- Particles in liquid state lose KE
- Particles begin to move slowly as temp decrease
- Particles are overcome by forces of attraction and no longer move freely
- Particles vibrate about fixed positions
- Liquid > Solid
C3.4.3 Boiling
- Particles in liquid absorb Heat energy
- Particles move faster as temp increases as heat > KE
- Particles gain enough energy to overcome forces of attraction holding them together
- Particles move further apart and more freely.
- Liquid > Gas
C3.4.4 Evaporation
- Change in state from liquid to gas at temp lower than boiling point
- Particles escape from surface of liquid to form gas
- Differences between evaporation and boiling:
- 1. Takes place at surface of liquid for evaporation while boiling is throughout liquid
- 2. Occurs at any temp below boiling point for evaporation
- 3. Slower process for evaporation
- 4. No bubbles observed for evaporation
C3.4.5 Condensation
- Change in state from gas to liquid
- Temp for gas to change to liquid is same as boiling point
C3.4.6 Sublimation
- Change in state from solid to gas without liquid
- Occurs at surface of solid as particles have enough energy to break away from solid as gas.

C4 Elements Compounds Mixtures

C4.1 Elements
- Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical processes.
C4.2 What are elements made of
- Atoms or molecules
- An atom is smallest particle of an element
- Noble gases exist as individual atoms and are known as monoatomic elements
- Molecules are 2 or more atoms chemically combined together.
- Diatomic molecules are formed by 2 atoms chemically combined
- Polyatomic molecules are formed by 3 or more atoms chemically combined
C4.3 Compounds
- Pure substances containing 2 or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio.
Changing the ratio will give a different compound.
- Entirely new substance formed from elements, with different characteristics and properties
from constituent elements.
- Not easy to break down into elements which formed them but can be broken down by
chemical means.
- Pure substances with fixed melting and boiling points.
- Made of molecules or ions
- Covalent compounds are made of molecules while ionic compounds are made of ions.
- Ions is an atom or a group of atoms that has an electrical charge.
C4.4 Mixtures
- Two or more substances that are not chemically combined together.
- Does not have a fixed melting point
- Physical and chemical properties are the same as each its components
- Can be easily separated by physical means.
C5 Atomic Structure
C5.1 Atoms
- An atom is the smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the
element.
- Sub-atomic particles make up an atom are protons neutrons and electrons.
- Mass and charge of these particles are 1, 1 and 1/1840 and +1, 0, and -1 respectively.
- The core of an atom is called the nucleus
- Protons and neutrons are found in nucleus
- Surrounded by electrons orbiting at fixed radii from nucleus.
- Atom has same number of protons and electrons making it electrically neutral
C5.2 Atomic structure
- Isotopes have same element with same number of protons but different number of neutrons
- Have different physical properties but similar chemical properties
C5.3 Electronic structure and the periodic table
- Vertical set of elements is a group.
- Horizontal set is called a Period
- Atoms in the same period have the same number of electron shells and atoms in the same
group has an increasing amount shells as period increases
C5.4 Formation of Ions
- An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has an electrical charge.
- Atoms lose or gain valence electrons to attain the stable electronic configuration of a noble
gas.
- In the process they share valence electrons to attain the stable electronic configuration of a
noble gas
- Noble gases have a valence shell with 8 electrons, called the octet configuration (duplet
configuration for helium
- Noble gases are unreactive because of this configuration.
C5.5 Formation of cations
- Metals in group I – III tend to form cations by losing their valence electrons to attain noble
gas configuration
C5.6 Formation of anions
- Non-metals in group V-VII tend to form anions by gaining valence electrons to attain noble
gas configuration

C6 Chemical Bonding
C6.1 Metallic bonding
- The electrostatic attractive force between positively charged metal ions and the negatively
charged delocalised electrons.
- Atoms are closely packed together, and metal ions are electropositive in nature, allowing
them to lose electrons easily to become cations.
- Electrons occupy space between metal ions and are free to move throughout metal.
(delocalised electrons)
C6.1.1 Structure of metals
- Metals are formed as a giant metallic structure, a lattice of metal cations surrounded by a
“sea” of delocalised valence electrons.
- These bonds are non-directional

C6.1.2 Physical properties of metals

 - Metals are lustrous and sonorous (shiny and produces a ringing sound when hit respectively)
- They have a high density due to their tightly packed, regular arrangement of metal cations.
- They are malleable or ductile, and layers of cations can slide over one another easily when a
force is applied due to their orderly arrangement. The non-directional nature of the bonds
allows the layers of metal cations to slide over one another without breaking the strong
metallic bonds.
- They have high boiling and melting points as a large amount of energy is required to
overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively charged metal
cations and the negatively charged delocalised electrons.
- Metals are insoluble in water and organic solvents.
- They are good conductors of electricity as there is the presence of mobile valence electrons
which can migrate freely throughout the metallic structure.
- They are also good thermal conductors due to the mobile valence electrons which can
transfer energy freely from one electron to another.
C6.2 Alloys
- Mixture of a metal and small amounts of other metals or non-metals.
- Size of atoms of added metal is different in size from atoms of parent metal, disrupting the
regular, orderly arrangement of metal atoms. More energy is required for atoms to slide
over each other easily, which strengthens the metal.
C6.3 Ionic Bonds
- Strong electrostatic attraction between positively charged and negatively charged ions.
- Electrons are transferred from atoms of one element to atoms of another element. (metal
and non-metals)
- Ionic bonds are usually formed between metals and non-metals
- The cations and anions are arranged in a regular, three-dimensional network in the form of
giant ionic crystal lattice structure
- They are usually crystalline solids which are hard and brittle. A large amount of energy is
required to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction between cations and anions.
- When a large enough force is applied, layers of ions can slide, bringing ions of like charges
next to each other. These ions of like charges repel each other and the ionic lattice shatters.
- They have a high melting and boiling points as a large amount of energy is required to
overcome the strong electrostatic attraction between cations and anions.
- The higher the charges of positive and negative ions, the stronger the electrostatic forces
of attraction
- Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten and aqueous states but does not conduct
electricity in solid state, as the ions are held in fixed positions in a giant ionic crystal lattice
by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. There are no mobile charge carriers to conduct
electricity. In liquid or aqueous state though, the ions are mobile and will migrate to the
electrodes when a potential difference is applied.
- Ionic compounds do not dissolve in organic solvents but are generally soluble in solvents
such as water and ethanol.
C6.4 Covalent Bonds
- Electrostatic attraction between shared electrons and two positive nuclei of atoms.
- No charged particles are formed.
C6.5 Structure of Covalent Substances
- Simple molecular structure: Small discrete covalent molecules
- Atoms within a molecule are joined by strong covalent bonds while weak intermolecular
forces of attraction exist between separate molecules and holds them together.
- Weak intermolecular forces are easily overcome, hence they have low melting and boiling
points
C6.6 Physical Properties of substances with Simple Covalent bonds
- Soft and low melting and boiling points: A small amount of energy is required to overcome
the weak intermolecular forces holding the discrete molecules together
- Substances with simple covalent structures are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in
water
- It is also a non-conductor of electricity due to the absence of mobile charge carriers
C6.7 Giant molecular structure
- All the atoms in substances with giant molecular structure consists of a giant network of
atoms held strongly by strong covalent bonds
- Diamond: Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to
form a rigid three-dimensional structure. High melting and boiling points since very strong
covalent bonds exist in a giant molecular structure, and a very large amount of energy is
needed to break these strong covalent bonds
- Graphite: Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds to
form a network of hexagons. These hexagons are arranged in layers, resulting in a layered
structure. Weak intermolecular forces hold the layers together. High melting point due to
giant covalent structure. A large amount of energy is required to break the strong covalent
bonds. Able to conduct electricity as one outermost electron is not used to form covalent
bonds. The electrons not used to form these bonds are delocalised between the layers and
can conduct electricity
- Silicon: Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 other silicon atoms by a strong covalent bond to
form a rigid three-dimensional structure. High melting and boiling point and able to conduct
electricity at high temperatures.
- Silicon dioxide/Silicon(IV) oxide: Each silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms and each
oxygen atom is bonded to 2 silicon atoms by strong covalent bonds to form a rigid 3D
structure. High melting point and has abrasive character.
C6.8 Physical properties with Giant Covalent structure
- Hard: A large amount of energy is required to break the strong covalent bonds between
atoms.
- High melting and boiling points: A large amount of energy is required to break the strong
covalent bonds between atoms held in a giant molecular structure
- Insoluble in all solvents
- Non-conductor of electricity (except graphite)

C7 Man’s Impact on the Environment

C7.1 Composition of Air
Gas Composition (%)
N2 78
O2 21
CO2 0.03
Water Vapour 0-5
Noble Gases ~1

C7.2 Determining the composition of oxygen in air

C7.3 Pollutants
Pollutant Sources Undesirable effects
Carbon Monoxide Incomplete combustion of Binds to haemoglobin in blood,
fuels prevents oxygen from reaching
other tissues, respiratory
problems
Sulfur Dioxide Burning of sulfur containing Dissolve in rain to form acid
fossil fuels rain
Volcanic eruptions Leaches nutrients from soil,
Extraction of metals from causing plants to wither and
sulfide ores die
Breathing problems and
irritate eyes and lungs
Nitrogen dioxide and Nitrogen Burning fuels at high Acid rain
oxide temperatures Breathing problems
Vehicle exhaust React with hydrocarbons in
sunlight to form ozone at
lower altitudes
Methane Main component of natural Traps heat from the sun and
gas causes temps to rise (global
Rotting of animal and plants warming)
Cows and horses during
digestion
Ozone Reaction of unburnt Irritate eyes and lungs
hydrocarbons and nitrogen Respiratory problems and lung
oxides in sunlight damage
Forms photochemical smog
Unburnt Hydrocarbons Incomplete combustion of Carcinogenic and forms ozone
fuels in motor vehicles and when reacted with nitrogen
power stations oxides in sunlight
C7.3 Depletion of Ozone layer
- CFCs were used as aerosol propellants and coolant fluids for refrigerators and air cons
- Chlorine particles destroy ozone molecules and allows harmful UV rays to stream through,
causing cancer, eye cataracts and damage to food crops.
C7.4 Measures to reduce pollution
- Flue gas desulfurization: Removal of sulfur dioxide from flue (waste) gases. Products are CO2
and CaSO3 (s)
- Use of catalytic converters: Carbon monoxide to CO2
- Oxides of nitrogen reduced to N2
- Unburnt hydrocarbons burnt to produce CO2 and H2O

C8 Acids and Bases

C8.1 Acids
- Substance that dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions
- All acids contain at least one hydrogen atom but not all compounds that contain hydrogen
atoms are acids
- Acids can be classified into monobasic, dibasic, and tribasic acids. Monobasic acids produce
1 hydrogen ion upon dissociation and tribasic produces 3 hydrogen ions upon dissociation
e.g. HCl AND H3PO4
C8.1.1 Physical properties of an acid
- Sour taste
- Conducts electricity as they contain mobile ions
- Turn moist blue litmus paper red
C8.3 Chemical properties of an acid
- Acids react with reactive metals to form H2 gas and salt
- Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to form a salt and water only
- Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, CO2 gas and water
C8.4 Role of water in acidity
- Water can be used to dissociate ions of an acid to form H+ and a negative anion.
C8.2 Bases
- Any metal oxide or metal hydroxide that reacts with acids to produce salt and water only.
C8.2.1 Alkali
- A soluble base and produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution
E.G. Solid Sodium Oxide Na2O (Base) reacts with water H2O to form aqueous sodium hydroxide
NaOH (Alkali)
- Most bases are insoluble in water except Group I and some Group II Bases.
C8.2.1.1 Physical and Chemical properties of an Alkali
- Bitter taste and soapy feel
- Turn moist red litmus blue
- Produce OH- ions when dissolved in water
- React with acids to form salt and water only
- Alkalis heater with ammonium salts give off ammonia gas
- Alkalis react with a solution of one metal salt to give salt and metal hydroxide

C8.3 Concentration and strength

C8.3.1 Concentration
- Concentration is the amount of substance dissolved in 1dm 3 of solution
- Concentration can be changed by adding more solvent (diluting) of solute (concentrating)
C8.3.2 Strength
- Measure of the extent to which an acid or an alkali dissociates in water to produce H+ or
OH- ions
- Strength of an acid/alkali CANNOT be changed
- Strong acids dissociate completely in water to produce a high concentration of H+ ions per
unit volume of solution
- Weak acids dissociate partially in water to produce a low concentration of H+ ions per unit
volume of solution
C8.4 pH Scale and Indicators
- pH scale in the concentration of H+ ions in an acid/alkali
- Higher pH, lower conc. of H+ ions present and vice versa
C8.4.1 Measurement of pH
- Universal Indicator
- pH probe
- Other indicators
Methyl Orange
- Red in acid, yellow in alkaline
- Change in colour at pH 3-5
Litmus
- Red in acid, blue in alkaline
- Change in colour at pH 5-8
Phenolphthalein
- Colourless in acid, pink in alkaline
- Change in colour at pH 8-10
C8.4.2 Importance of soil pH
- Soil pH varies from 4-8
- pH of soil affects growth and development of plants
- Most plants grow best when soil is neutral or slightly acidic (pH 4-7)
- When pH of soil gets too high, chemical can be added to adjust its pH
- Acidic soils can be treated with bases such as calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide
C8.5 Oxides
- An oxide is a compound made up of oxygen and another element
- Oxides can be grouped into 4 types: Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric and Neutral
- Metal oxides are basic oxides
- Oxides of non-metals are acidic oxides, exist as gases at room temp
- Amphoteric oxides consist of Zinc, Aluminium and Lead. They react with both acids and
bases to form salt and water
- Some non-metal oxides do not react with acids or bases. They are known as neutral oxides.
Examples are water, Carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide.

C9 Salts and Ionic Equations

C9.1 Rules of solubility
Substances Solubility
Nitrates All soluble
Chlorides All soluble except AgCl and PbCl2
Iodides All soluble except AgI and PbI2
Bromides All soluble except PbBr2 and AgBr
Sulfates All soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4
Carbonates All insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3 and group I
Hydroxides All insoluble except Ba(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2 and
group I
Oxides All insoluble except BaO and CaO and group I
Salts of Group I Cations and NH4+ All soluble

C9.2 Salt Preparation

C9.2.1 Insoluble Salts
- Both reactants must be in aqueous state
- One of the products formed should be insoluble
Aq + Aq > insoluble salt + Aq
Steps to prepare insoluble salts:
1. Precipitation: react both aqueous solutions in a test tube
2. Filtration: Filter the mixture to obtain the insoluble salt as residue
3. Wash: Wash the residue with cold, distilled water
4. Dry: Dry the residue by pressing it between pieces of filter paper
C9.2.2 Soluble Salts
Steps to prepare insoluble salts:
A: Acid + excess metal
B: Acid + excess insoluble base
C: Acid + excess insoluble metal carbonate
LIMITATIONS OF METHOD A: Acid + Metal only
Suitable for moderately reactive metals such as magnesium, zinc, iron, and aluminium
Not suitable for metals that are either too reactive or unreactive such as sodium, potassium and
calcium and copper, silver, and gold, respectively.
- Excess solid is added to ensure that all the acid used is reacted completely to produce
soluble salt. Excess solid can then be easily separated from the solution, leaving behind the
salt to be prepared.
- Excess acid is not used as the acid and salt formed are in aqueous state and it will be
impossible to separate them.
Steps to prepare soluble salts:
1. Reaction: react the acid and the excess solid in a test tube.
2. Filtration: Filter the mixture to obtain the excess metal
3. Crystallisation: Heat the filtrate to evaporate the water to make a saturated solution and
allow it to cool down for crystallisation to take place.
4. Filtration: Filter the mixture and obtain the crystals as residue
5. Wash: Wash the crystals with cold, distilled water
6. Dry: Dry the crystals by pressing them between pieces of filter paper.

C9.2.3 Soluble salts that contain Group I or ammonium cation)

C9.2.3.1 Titration
- Technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration
of an unknown solution
- Acid-Base titrations: One of the solutions is an acid and the other is an alkali or soluble
carbonate
- One solution is placed in a conical flask with an indicator. The other solution is placed in a
burette and added drop by drop into the flask until the titration reaches its end point where
the indicator changes colour.
- A suitable indicator must be chosen such that the end point shows accurately that all the
solution in the flask has completely reacted with the solution from the burette.
Steps to prepare titration:
1. Pipette 25cm3 of alkali/soluble carbonate into a conical flask
2. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator to the alkali/soluble carbonate
3. Fill up a burette with acid of known concentration and read the initial reading of volume on
the burette.
4. Run the acid from the burette into the conical flask
5. Swirl the flask gently to ensure the acid is completely mixed with the alkali. Stop adding acid
when the indicator changes colour from yellow to orange and note the final burette reading
6. Calculate the volume of acid needed to neutralise the alkali
7. Repeat the experiment without using any indicator
8. Heat the product from Step 7 until saturation
9. Cool the hot solution to allow crystals to form
10. Filter the mixture and obtain pure crystals as the residue
11. Wash the crystals with cold, distilled water
12. Dry the crystals by pressing them between sheets of filter paper.

C10 Qualitative Analysis

 - Used to detect the presence of a Cation or Anion in a solution.
Test for Cation
Cation Reaction with aqueous sodium hydroxide Reaction with aqueous ammonia
(NaOH)
Al3+ White precipitate, soluble in excess White precipitate, insoluble in excess
2+
Pb White precipitate, soluble in excess White precipitate, insoluble in excess
Zn2+ White precipitate, soluble in excess White precipitate, soluble in excess
2+
Ca White precipitate, insoluble in excess No precipitate (No visible change)
Cu2+ Blue precipitate, insoluble in excess Blue precipitate, soluble in excess to form a
dark blue solution
Fe2+ Green precipitate, insoluble in excess Green precipitate, insoluble in excess
3+
Fe Red-brown precipitate, insoluble in excess Red-brown precipitate, insoluble in excess
NH4+ No precipitate formed. N/A
Warm after adding NaOH and ammonia
gas evolved.
*To differentiate Pb2+ and Al3+ ions, aqueous potassium iodide (KI) is used. Lead(II) ions forms a
yellow precipitate while no precipitate would be observed for aluminium ions.

Test for Anion

Anion Test Observation
CO32+- Add any dilute acid Effervescence of CO2 gas, forms white
precipitate in limewater
SO42- Add dilute nitric acid followed by White precipitate formed (barium sulfate)
aqueous barium nitrate/barium
chloride
-
Cl Add dilute nitric acid followed by White precipitate formed (silver chloride)
aqueous silver nitrate
I- Add dilute nitric acid followed by Yellow precipitate formed(Lead(II) iodide)
aqueous lead(II)nitrate
NO3- Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, Effervescence of ammonia gas, turns damp red
aluminium foil, and warm mixture. litmus blue
*Dilute nitric acid is added to eliminate any carbonate ions present so that when the next
reagent is added, the precipitate formed would not be an insoluble metal carbonate, allowing
for more reliable test. Chloride and sulfate ions in the acid may result in white precipitate due to
cations present in solution that form insoluble chlorides and sulfates when dilute hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid is used in place of nitric acid.

Test for Gas

Gas Observation
Carbon dioxide Forms white precipitate with limewater
Ammonia Turns damp red litmus paper blue
Hydrogen Extinguishes a lighted splint with “pop” sound
Oxygen Relights a glowing splint
Sulfur dioxide Turns aqueous acidified potassium manganate(VII) form purple to
colourless
Chlorine Turns damp blue litmus paper red and bleaches it

C11 Mole concept

C11.1 Relative Atomic Mass
- Average mass of one atom of that element compared to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12
atom. (Ar)
C11.2 Relative Molecular Mass
- Average mass of one molecule of the substance compared to 1/12 of the mass of one
carbon-12 atom. (Mr)
C11.3 Percentage composition of compounds
Formula:
Ar of element x number of atoms of the element in formula
__________________________________________________ x 100%
Mr of compound
C11.4 Mole
- Unit of measurement for atoms, molecules, ions, and electrons
- The amount of that substance that contains the same number of particles as the number of
atoms in 12g of carbon-12
-
C11.5 Avogadro’s number
- 6.02x1023
Formula:
No. of Particles
-----------------------------------
No. of moles | 6.02x1023

C11.6 Mole and Molar mass

- Refers to the mass of one mole of a substance
- Numerically equal to the Ar or Mr of that substance in g/mol
Formula:
Mass of substance in g*
---------------------------------------
No. of moles | Ar or Mr in g/mol
*always convert the mass to grams before performing mole calculations

C11.7 Empirical formula

- Simplest formula of a compound
- Shows the types of elements present in the compound and the simplest whole number ratio
of the different types of atoms in the compound
Steps:
1. Find mass of reactants taking part in reaction
2. Work out relative number of moles (mole ratio) of reactants used
3. Find the formula of the compound by using mole ratio obtained
Make sure to include the definition of the values in the table such as “mass” and “simplest ratio”

C11.8 Molecular formula

 - Actual formula of a compound
- Shows actual number of atoms of different elements in the compound
- Is always a multiple of the empirical formula

C11.9 Molar volume of gases

- Equal volumes of all gases under the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of particles
- Molar volume: 1mol of gas occupies 24.0dm3 at r.t.p. and 22.7dm3 at s.t.p. (room temp and
pressure and standard temp and pressure respectively)
Formula:
Vol. of gas/dm3
--------------------------------------------
No. of moles | Molar volume/dm3

C11.10 Concentration of a solution

- Amount of solute dissolved in a unit volume of the solution
- Can be represented in g/dm3 and mol/dm3
Formula:
Mass/mol of solute
--------------------------------------
Conc./ mol/dm3 | vol. of solution/dm3

C11.11 Calculations from chemical reactions

- Balanced chemical equation is required.
- The equation tells us the ratio of the number of moles of the reactants and products, and
the physical states of the reactants and products
- For calculations, we only use mole ratio and not mass ratio. DO NOT use mass ratio to do
chemical calculations regarding formulas.
- For calculations involving gases, one may convert volume of gases to moles or vice versa
using the molar volumes. Mole ratio of gases is also equals to the volume ratio of gases in
this case.
C11.12 Limiting reagents
- In a reaction, reagents are not always present in stoichiometric amounts
- One of more reagents may be in excess
- Reactant that is being used up completely is the limiting reagent
- The maximum amount of products formed is calculated based on the amount of limiting
reagents.
Steps to determine limiting reagents:
1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction
2. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant available
3. Assume reactant A is limiting and calculate the moles of reactant B needed to react
completely with A by using the mole ratio given by the balanced chemical reaction
4. Identify the limiting reagent.
e.g. 0.05mol of Zn requires 0.1mol of HNO3. However, there is only 0.075mol of acid, therefore
HNO3 is the limiting reagent and Zn is in excess. There is more than enough zinc to react to ALL of
the acid.

C11.13 Percentage yield

 - Yield: Amount of products formed in reaction
- Theoretical Yield: Calculated amount of product that would be obtained if reaction were to
be complete
- Actual Yield: Amount of pure substance that is actually obtained in the experiment
Percentage Yield:
Actual Yield
---------------------- x 100%
Theoretical Yield

Percentage Purity:
Mass of pure substance in sample
------------------------------------------- x 100%
Mass of sample
C11.14 Back Titrations
- Reactant A of unknown conc. is reacted with excess (known volume) of reactant B of known
conc. A titration is performed to determine the amount of B in excess. From this, we can
work out the amount of B that has reacted and the amount of A can be deduced.

Example of a back titration to determine the amount of an Insoluble Salt

C12 Redox
C12.1 Definitions of Oxidation and Reduction
1. Loss/gain of oxygen (Oxidation is gain of oxygen and reduction is loss of oxygen)
2. Loss/gain of hydrogen (Oxidation is loss of hydrogen and reduction is gain of hydrogen)
3. Loss/gain of electrons (Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of
electrons)
4. Increase/decrease in oxidation state (Oxidation is the increase in oxidation state and
reduction is the decrease in oxidation state)
- Oxidation state of an element is ALWAYS 0
- Oxidation state of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion
- Some elements have a fixed oxidation state in their compounds
Element Oxidation state
Group I elements in compounds +1
Group II elements in compounds +2
Oxygen in compounds (except peroxides) -2 (-1 in peroxides e.g., H2O2)
Hydrogen in compounds (except when +1 (-1 in NaH Sodium Hydride)
combined with reactive metals)
- If the overall charge of an ion is -1, the sum of oxidation state must equals to -1 and not 0.
For example, NO3- . The oxidation state of oxygen is -6 and Nitrogen is +5, allowing for a total
O.S. of -1. This goes for any ion with a charge, whether positive or negative.
C12.2 Oxidising and Reducing agents
- Oxidising agents causes another substance to be oxidised and the oxidising agent is reduced
- Reducing agents causes another substance to be reduced and the reducing agent is oxidised.
Common Oxidising Agents
Oxidising Agents Observations
KMnO4 with H2SO4 Purple to colourless
Acidified potassium manganate (VII)
Test for reducing agent
K2Cr2O7 with H2SO4 Orange to green
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
Test for reducing agent
H2O2 Remains colourless but causes colour change of
Hydrogen Peroxide a reducing agent
Cl2 Greenish-Yellow solution turns colourless
I2 (s/aq) Brown to colourless
Fe3+ Yellow to light green

Common Reducing Agents

Reducing Agents Observations
KI Colourless solution turns brown
Test for oxidising agent
H2O2 Effervescence of colourless odourless gas that
relights glowing splint (Oxygen)
2-
SO3 and SO2 Remains colourless
Fe2+ Light green to yellow
Na2S2O3 Remains colourless but causes colour change of
Sodium thiosulfate an oxidising agent
*H2O2 can function as an oxidising agent or reducing agent depending on the substance that it
reacts with.
C12.3 Redox Titrations

Self-indicating redox reactions

An indicator may not be required to redox titration as certain reagents can also act as indicators such
as KMnO4.
Determination of concentration of Iron(II) ions by reaction with potassium manganate(VII). KMnO4 is
the oxidising agent and also the indicator for the titration.
1. Potassium manganate(VII) solution goes into the burette and iron(II) solution in conical flask
is acidified with dilute sulfuric acid
2. As the potassium manganate(VII) solution is added into the conical flask, it becomes
colourless. The end point is the first faint trace of permanent pink in the solution showing
that there is a drop in excess of potassium manganate(VII) present.
KMnO4 shows a distinct colour change from purple to pale colourless when it is reduced to Mn2+ and
remains purple when unreacted. This allows one to identify when all the reagents in the conical flask
is reacted completely.

Non-redox indicator required

Treat a solution of iodine with a reducing agent to produce iodide and using a starch indicator to
help detect endpoint
1. Sodium thiosulfate solution is placed in the burette and as it is added to the conical flask, it
reacts with the iodine and the brown colour of the solution fades. When it reaches a pale-
yellow colour due to the low conc. of iodine. A few drops of a freshly prepared starch
solution are added, and the solution becomes blue-black. The titration is continued until it
becomes colourless.

Iodine-Thiosulfate Titrations
- Thiosulfate acts as reducing agent and reduces iodine to iodide.
- Thiosulfate is used commonly for the estimation of I2 or for substances which will liberate I2
from potassium iodide.
- A substance (oxidising agent) is added to acidified KI to liberate I2 and the liberated I2 is
estimated using standard thiosulfate solution.
- Starch solution is used as an indicator and is usually added when solution is pale yellow in
colour. The titration is continued until one drop of thiosulfate solution changes the colour of
the reaction mixture from blue to colourless.