PRAKASH KHADKA

Introduction

 Is most abundant substances in the living system.

 Is essential constituent of all forms of life.
 Makes up about 70% or more by weight of most of the
organisms.
 Water is present in every cell. It is the medium in
which all cellular events occurs.
 Is the medium in which transport of nutrient within
the organisms and excretion of waste products from
cells takes place.
 Structure of Water
 Central molecule of water is oxygen to
which two hydrogen atoms are attached.
 Oxygen atom has 4 electron pairs in
valence shell; 2 bond pairs and 2 lone
pairs.
 According to VSEPR theory, shape of
water should be tetrahedral with bond
angle 109. 5° but its 104.5°.
 It is due to the presence of two lone pairs
which cause greater repulsion.
 But when lone pairs are discarded the
structure of water is bent or V-shaped
with bond angle 104.5°.
Properties of water
 Is the universal solvent that dissolves the nutrients within
the cells for life.
 Dissolves salt and other compounds producing electrolytes
that conduct electricity. ( high dielectric constant)
 Water molecules are cohesive tending to stick together by
intermolecular H- bonding.
 Water has a high heat of vaporization - large amount of
heat is needed to evaporate water because hydrogen bonds
must be broken to change water from liquid to gaseous
state.
 Water also has a high specific heat so it absorbs or loses
great deal of energy as it changes temperature.
While most of the substances contract on cooling, water
expands when it is crystallizes. So, the ice floats because it
is less than dense than water
Importance of water as biological solvent
 H-bonding gives water its unique solvent properties.
 Water molecule is strongly dipolar, this
property makes water a very effective solvent,
particularly for crystalline salts.
 Organisms can take up dissolved minerals/ions
(nitrates used to make amino acids).
 70-95% of the cytoplasm is water with dissolved
chemicals (solutes).
 Respiration and photosynthesis relies on reactants
being dissolved in water and, therefore, being able to
react.
Water fills cells to help maintain shape and structure

Water creates pressure inside the cell that helps it maintain shape. In the
hydrated cell (left), the water pushes outward and the cell maintains a round
shape. In the dehydrated cell, there is less water pushing outward so the cell
becomes wrinkled.
Reaction of water with Polar and hydrophilic substances

 Uncharged but polar biomolecules such as sugar

dissolve easily in water because of the stabilizing effect
of many H- bond that form between hydroxyl group (
CHO) or carbonyl group ( -C=O) of sugar and polar
water molecules.
 Similarly aldehydes, ketones all form H- bond with
water and such molecules tend to be soluble in water.
Reaction with non-polar and hydrophobic substances

 Non-polar molecules such as wax, fat contain neither

ions nor polar bonds. So these molecules do not
become hydrated.
 The force that cause hydrophobic molecules or non
polar portions of the molecules to be aggregated
together in water is known as hydrophobic
interaction and the bond is known as hydrophobic
bond.
Reaction with amphipathic substances
 Amphipathic compounds are chemical compounds
that have both polar and non-polar regions giving
them both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties.
 Ex: Phosphatidyl choline : If it is mixed with water,
the polar or charged region interacts with water and
tend to dissolve whereas non polar regions try to avoid
contact with water.
 The non polar regions of the molecule cluster together
to present the smallest hydrophobic area to the solvent
whereas the polar regions are arranged to maximize
these interaction with the solvent.
 The structure so formed are called micelles
Fig : Phosphatidyl choline
BUFFER
 It is a solution that resists its change in pH on the
addition of small amount of acids or alkalis.
 Buffer consists of weak acids and their conjugate base
and vice versa.
 The tendency to resist change in pH is known as
‘Buffer Action’ and the magnitude of a buffer solution
is known as ‘Buffer Capacity’.
Titration of acetic acid
Titration of phosphoric acid
Biological buffers
 Almost every biological process is pH dependent.
 So a slight change in pH produces a drastic change in
the rate of the processes.
 Thus a constant cytosolic pH is maintained in a cell of
organism by BIOLOGICAL BUFFERS .These buffers
keep the biomolecules in their optimal ionic state.
Importnace of biological buffers
 To maintain homeostatis.
 To regulate enzymatic function.
 To control pH in biochemical reaction
.
Types of Biological buffers
 Bicarbonate buffer
 Phopsphate Buffer
 Protein Buffer Haemoglobin
1. Bicarbonate buffer system
 The most important buffer system in the plasma is the
bicarbonate-carbonic acid system (NaHCO3/H2CO3).
 It accounts for 65% of buffering capacity in plasma and
40% of buffering action in the whole body.•
 The base constituent, bicarbonate (HCO3-), is
regulated by the kidney (metabolic component)
 While the acid part, carbonic acid (H2CO3), is under
respiratory regulation (respiratory component)
 The normal bicarbonate level of plasma is 24
mmol/liter.
 The ratio of HCO3- to H2CO3 at pH 7.4 is 20 under
normal conditions.
 The bicarbonate carbonic acid buffer system is the
most important for the following reasons:
 Presence of bicarbonate in relatively high
concentrations.
 The components are under physiological control, CO2
by lung and bicarbonate by kidneys.
How does it work?
 Under acidic conditon,
HCl+ NaHCO3…………………Nacl+ H2CO3
(St. acid) (wk acid)
(Carbonic anhydrase)
H2CO3..…………………….. H2O + CO2
*CO2 is exhaled through lungs.
• Under alkaline condition,
NaOH + H2CO3………………..NaHCO3+H2O
* NaHCO3 is Excreted by kidney
2.Phosphate buffer system
 It is mainly intracellular buffer.
 Its concentration in plasma is very low.
 The phosphate buffer system is found to be effective at a
wide pH range, because it has more than one ionizable
group.
 In the body, Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4 is an effective buffer
system.[because its pka value ( 6.8) is nearest to
physiological pH(7.4)].
 Dihydrogen phosphate ions(H2PO4 -) and monohydrogen
phosphate ions (HPO4 2-)- constitute major components.
 H2PO4 - proton donor (acid) and HPO4 2- proton
acceptor (base).
 Monohydrogen phosphate is formed when dihydrogen
phosphate (weak acid) combines with a strong base,
such as OH- ions.
 Dihydrogen phosphate is produced in the presence of
excess H+ ions in kidney tubules that then combines
with monohydrogen phosphate
 Ratio of base to acid=4:1 • In the extracellular
environment- sodium hydrogen phosphate
(Na2HPO4) and sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(NaH2PO4) act as the important buffer constituents. •
But, inside the cell- potassium hydrogen phosphate
(K2HPO4) and potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2PO4) predominate.
How does it work?
 Under acidic condition,
HCl + Na2HPO4………………..NaH2PO4 + NaCl
(strong acid) (weak acid)
*NaH2PO4 is excreted by kidney.
• Under alkaline condition,
NaOH + NaH2PO4……………….Na2HPO4+ H2O
(strong base) (weak base)
* Na2HPO4 is excreted by kidney.
3.Protein buffer system
 In the blood, plasma proteins( mainly albumin act as
buffer .
 Proteins contain a large number of dissociable acidic
(COOH) and basic ( NH2) groups.
 In acidic medium protein acts as a base amino group
takes up H + ions from the medium forming NH 3 +
and proteins become positively charged.
 In alkaline medium protein acts as an acid COOH
group which dissociates and gives H+ forming COO-
so proteins become negatively