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Structure: Electrolytic (Polarized) Capacitor Low Value Capacitor (Higher Values) (Usually Ceramic)
Structure: Electrolytic (Polarized) Capacitor Low Value Capacitor (Higher Values) (Usually Ceramic)
In essence, a capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (known as a dielectric).
The circuit symbols indicate this structure.
+
Electrolytic (polarized) capacitor Low value capacitor
(higher values) (usually ceramic)
Electrolytic capacitors must be connected so that the positive plate leads to the positive terminal of the
battery. One plate is made from aluminium foil but the other consists of filter paper soaked in an electrolyte.
Charging and discharging
When a capacitor is uncharged, its plates carry equal numbers of positive and negative charges. If the switch
in the circuit below is closed, electrons are attracted from the left‐hand plate by the large positive charge on
the battery’s positive terminal. Similarly, electrons are repelled by the large negative charge on the battery’s
negative terminal and move around to the right‐hand plate.
+ +
+ -- + --
+ - + -
+ -- + --
+ - + -
+ +
electron
flow
+ --
+
+ ---
+ ---
+ --
+
The flow continues until the potential difference between the capacitor plates is equal to the p.d. across the
battery. We say the capacitor is now fully charged.
If the battery were shorted out, electrons would flow from the negative plate of the capacitor round to the
positive plate and the flow would stop when both plates were neutral again. We say the capacitor is now
fully discharged.
Capacitance
The charge (Q) stored on the capacitor is proportional to the p.d. (V) across its plates. A graph of V against Q
is therefore a straight line through the origin:
Q
gradient = C
V
The gradient of this graph represents the charge stored for every volt between the plates. We call this the
capacitance (C).
The units of capacitance are farads (F).
1 farad ≡ 1 coulomb per volt.
In fact, the farad is a very large unit. More commonly, we use capacitors of microfarad (µF) or picofarad (pF)
size.
Energy stored by a capacitor
Aside from storing charge, capacitors also store electrical potential energy. Charging a capacitor involves
effectively moving electrons from one plate to the other against the applied p.d. We already know from AS
work that the energyE gained by a charge Q moving through a potential difference V is given by:
In the case of a capacitor, however, V is continually increasing as more and more charge is stored. Because V
rises uniformly, however, we can use the average p.d. as shown below:
Q If the capacitor is charged to a p.d. of V0, and a charge Q0 is stored on the
Q0 plates, the average p.d. during the charging process was and the work
done or energy stored would be given by:
1
2
This is just the area under the Q/v graph, (shaded in the diagram
V0 V opposite).
Other useful equations for energy stored
The equation above, for the energy stored by a capacitor can be combined with the equation
to give the following formulae for energy stored:
1
2
1
2
Discharging a capacitor through a resistor
To control the rate at which charge flows onto or off a capacitor, we ususlly add a resistor to the circuit
shown on page 1.
C
The greater the capacitance and the greater the resistance, the longer the capacitor takes to charge or
discharge. The product RC has the units of seconds and is known as the time constant of the circuit.
Time constant (RC)
The time constant is the time taken for the charge on a capacitor to fall to a fraction of its initial value. The
number e is known as the exponential number and has the value of roughly 2.7. In effect, RC is the time
taken for the charge on the capacitor to fall to roughly one third of its starting value.
Exponential decay
The growth and decay of charge on a capacitor are exponential processes. The rate at which the charge
decays is proportional to the amount remaining on the plates. This can be shown as follows:
R
The current I in the discharge circuit opposite is just the rate of
flow of charge, which we write as . If the p.d. across the
current
capacitor is V, we know that . The p.d. however can also be
I
expressed in terms of the capacitance as . Combining
these equations gives us:
1
C
In words, the equation above says “the rate of flow of charge is proportional to the amount of charge
remaining,” which means that the flow decays exponentially. A graph to show how the charge falls with time
would be an exponential curve such as this one:
Q
Q0
t
The equation describing this curve has the same form as all exponential decay equations:
Where Q0 is the initial charge and Q is the charge remaining at time t.
Since the discharge current and the p.d. across the plates also fall exponentially, they produce similar graphs
and are described by similar equations:
Using these equations, it is easy to show the significance of the time constant RC. To see what charge, for
example, remains after RC seconds, just let t = RC in the equation for charge:
1
In other words, after RC seconds, Q is now 1 of the initial charge Q0.
The constant ratio property
All exponential decay curves exhibit this property. It means that in equal intervals of time, the quantity on
the y‐axis falls by equal fractions. For radioactive decay, foe example, which is also exponential, we choose
the fraction and we say the time taken for the number of undecayed nuclei to fall by half is the half‐life of
the isotope.
We could choose the same fraction for decay of charge from a capacitor but it would not be particularly
useful. Instead, we choose the fraction because it relates to the values of R and C in our discharge circuit
and therefore is much more meaningful.
Logarithmic graphs
The exponential number is related to the natural logarithm of a number in the following way:
log
log is read as “logarithm to the base e of x”. More commonly, it is called the natural logarithm or the
Napierian logarithm and is written ln .
Logarithms or “logs” are useful to us in this instance because unlike a graph of Q against t, which is a curve
and is often difficult to fit to a set of experimental results, a graph of ln against t is a straight line. This can
be shown as follows:
Taking natural logs of both sides of the equation gives:
ln ln
But since ln is the same as ln ln , the equation becomes:
ln ln ln
However, the natural log of an exponential is just the number itself, (i.e. ln ), so our equation
simplifies to:
1
ln ln
Or, rearranging,
1
ln ln
This is the form of a straight line graph equation, , so a graph of ln against t would give a
straight line with a gradient of and an intercept on the y‐axis of ln .
ln Q
ln Q0
t