232 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO.

1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2004

Passive Filters—Potentialities and Limitations

J. C. Das, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—New topologies for harmonic mitigation and active

filters have come a long way, and these address the line-harmonic
control at the source. These mitigate some of the disadvantages of
passive filters, however, for nonliner loads above 1 MW the passive
filters are an economical choice. This paper discusses two types of
filters: band pass filters and damped filters, which are commonly
applied. The operation of these filters is described with respect to
the design and system limitations. The operating constraints are
then superimposed. The development of this approach shows that
there are design limitations and large system changes or modifi-
cations can result in higher distortion or even damage to filters in
extreme cases. The constraints and limitations that a designer faces
in implementing an effective filter design with modern tools of har-
monic analysis, measurements, and system analysis are discussed.
The paper shows that in most distribution systems it is practical
and economical to implement passive filter designs, provided the
required safeguards are considered.
Index Terms—Filter design, harmonic analysis, passive filters.
Fig. 1. Common types of passive filters, configuration, R–X and Z –! plots.

I. INTRODUCTION called low-pass filter or bandpass filter is most commonly ap-

M OST distribution systems require reactive power com-
pensation to improve the power factor, save demand
charges, or to release additional active power from existing
equipment or for voltage support, i.e., the reactive power
support required to arrest the voltage drop on loss of a plant
generator. The nonlinear loads are increasing, i.e., pulp and
paper mill distribution systems invariably have adjustable-speed
drive (ASD) systems, which may form a considerable per-
centage of overall plant load. When power capacitors are used
for reactive power compensation, it becomes necessary to turn
them in to filters to escape harmonic resonance problems with
one of the load-generated harmonics It is not uncommon to
apply passive filters in the megavar range and filters totaling
some tens of megavars in a large installation may be required.
An improvement in power factor from 0.85 to 0.9 for a system
demand of 100 MVA requires approximately 10 Mvar of
compensation. Passive filters have been extensively used to
simultaneously meet one or more objectives and also meet the
requirements of IEEE Std. 519 with respect to total demand
distortion (TDD) at the point of common coupling (PCC)
[1]. Passive filters have also been extensively used in HVDC
systems, arc-furnace installations, and static var compensators
(SVCs) to name a few more applications.
Fig. 1 shows common types of passive filters, their configu-
ration, – and – plots. The single-tuned (ST) filter, also
Paper PID 03–35, presented at the 2003 IEEE Pulp and Paper Industry Con-
ference, Charleston, SC, June 15–20, and approved for publication in the IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Pulp and Paper Industry
Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted
for review June 20, 2003 and released for publication September 24, 2003.
The author is with AMEC E&C Services Inc., Decatur, GA 30030 USA
(e-mail: jay@amec.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2003.821666
0093-9994/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE
plied, however, one filter may not be adequate to filter effec-
tively all the troublesome harmonics. Two single-tuned filters
will have characteristics identical to a double bandpass filter.
The – plot of a second-order high-pass filter (a first-order
high-pass filter consisting of a series resistor and capacitor is not
used) shows that the minimum impedance of this type of filter in
its passband is higher than that of a single-tuned band-pass filter.
A high-pass filter will allow a percentage of all harmonics above
its notch frequency to pass through. This results in large rating
at fundamental frequency and high losses in the resistor. The
filter is commonly applied for higher frequencies and notch re-
duction. The composite filter consists of two branches of band-
pass filters and a parallel branch of high-pass filter for higher
frequencies. This configuration is commonly applied to arc-fur-
nace loads.
The filter types shown in Fig. 1 are generally adequate for
industry applications. The other filter types are third-order
damped filter and the recently introduced type C filter, applied
to transmission systems. The characteristics of passive filters
are described in [2]–[6]
II. RELATIONS IN AN ST FILTER
Fig. 2 shows an ST filter in a distribution system and
Fig. 2(b) shows the equivalent circuit. The filter and the
equivalent Thévenin system impedance are in parallel and the
harmonic current injected at a node through impedance
divides into the filter and the system impedances:
(1)
Where is the injected harmonic current, is the current
in the system and is the current in the filter. The harmonic

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DAS: PASSIVE FILTERS—POTENTIALITIES AND LIMITATIONS 233

Fig. 3. Asymptotes and passband of an ST filter.

(a) unity, typically 0.995, and the corresponding for the system
will be 0.005. The impedance angles of and may be of the
order of 81 and 2.6 , respectively.
This shows that the system impedance plays an important role
in the filtration process. For infinite system impedance, the fil-
tration is perfect; all the harmonic current will flow in the filter
impedance. Conversely, for a system of low impedance, i.e., a
stiff system, most of the harmonic current flows into the system
and little in to the filter. In case of no filtration, all the harmonic
current passes on to the system.
In an ST filter, the inductive and capacitive reactance should
be equal at the tuned frequency

(5)
(b)
Fig. 2. Lumped distribution system and its equivalent circuit for harmonic where is the tuned frequency in radians. It is given by
injection.
(6)
voltage across the filter impedance should equal the har-
monic voltage across the equivalent Thévenin’s impedance . If is the reactance of the capacitor or filter reactor at its
tuned frequency
(2)

is the equivalent impedance of the utility’s source and the (7)

distribution system as seen from the point of application of filter.
Therefore, gives the quality factor of the tuning reactor

(3) (8)

and It determines the sharpness of tuning. The passband is

bounded by frequencies at which
(4)
(9)
where and are complex quantities, which determine the (10)
distribution of the harmonic current in the filter and the system
impedance. The equations could have been written in terms of The plot of the impedance is shown in Fig. 3. The sharpness
admittances, too. A properly designed filter will have close to of tuning is dependent on as well as and reducing these

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234 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2004

can reduce the impedance of the filter at its resonant frequency.

The asymptotes are at

(11)

The edges of the passband are at 1/2Q and width .

In Fig. 3, curve A is for and , ,
with asymptotes and passband as shown. Curve B is for
, , . These two curves have the same
asymptotes.
gives the reactive power output of a capacitor. In the
presence of a filter reactor it is given by

(reactive power without reactor) (12)

where , is tuned frequency, and is fundamental

frequency.
Thus, the presence of a series reactor increases the reactive
power output of the capacitor. This is so because the voltage Fig. 4. Distribution system for the example with predominantly drive system
drop in the reactor is added to the capacitor voltage and the load.
voltage at the junction of capacitor and reactor rises
At harmonic , the harmonic current divides into the resis-
tance and inductance. The inductive component of the current
(13)
is

(18)
The reactive power output of an ST filter tuned to ,
therefore, approximately 4% higher than that without the re-
actor.
where is the current through the reactor and is the total
The harmonic loading on the capacitor for a filter tuned to
harmonic current. The harmonic loading is, therefore,
harmonic is given by

(19)
(14)

and the fundamental frequency loading of the filter reactor is

IV. EXAMPLE OF FILTER DESIGN

(15) Fig. 4 shows a simple system, where the six-pulse drive

III. RELATIONS IN A SECOND-ORDER HIGH-PASS FILTER
The characteristics of a second-order high-pass filter are
shown in Fig. 1. It has low impedance at the corner frequency.
The sharpness of tuning in the high-pass filter is the reciprocal
of ST filters
(16)
The reactor loading at fundamental frequency can be calcu-
lated assuming that current through the parallel resistor is zero
(17)
system load is 77% of the total load. This may not be a very
practical distribution system but interesting from the point
of view of passive filter design and application. When the
nonlinear load is more than 30% of the total load demand, a
careful analysis is required for control of TDD.
A. Step 1: Estimate Harmonic Current Injection
This may not always be easy. The harmonic injection spec-
trum will depend upon the following.
1) First is the topology of the drive system and the har-
monic-producing loads—Six-pulse current converters
are common for drive systems and much of the literature
[1], [2], [7], [8] provides estimation of harmonic spec-
trum from these sources. A voltage-source converter with
diode front end may give an entirely different harmonic
spectrum, i.e., the typical values of fifth and seventh

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DAS: PASSIVE FILTERS—POTENTIALITIES AND LIMITATIONS
Fig. 5. (a) Ideal waveform of a six-pulse current source converter.
(b) Waveform with commutation angle. (c) Waveform with ripple content.
(d) Discontinuous waveform due to large delay angle control.
harmonics in this type of converter are 64.5% and 34.6%,
respectively, as compared to 17.94% and 11.5% in
current-source converters. Arc furnaces, switched-mode
power supplies, pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) drive
systems, slip-frequency recovery schemes, and cyclocon-
verters each have their own harmonic spectrum [1], [2].
2) There is an interaction with the system impedance. This
brings the necessity of specific modeling of a nonlinear
harmonic source with respect to system configuration.
For simplicity, equivalent Thévnine’s impedance can be
derived at the point of harmonic current injection.
3) The harmonic spectrum varies with the operation. As an
example, consider Fig. 5 for the input ac waveform to a
current-source converter.
Fig. 5(a) is the ideal textbook waveform, Fig. 5(b) is a wave-
form with commutation angle, Fig. 5(c) with ripple content, and
Fig. 5(d) is a discontinuous waveform due to large delay angle
control. The harmonic injection from each of these waveforms
will be different. As the delay angle increases, the harmonic gen-
eration increases, but at the same time the component of fun-
damental frequency current also decreases. A worst case sce-
nario is chosen for the analysis. For the example, a gating angle
is considered. Then, using the following expression
from [1], the overlap angle is 12.25 :
(20)
where and are the system and transformer reactances
in per unit on a converter base and is per unit current on a
converter base.
The harmonic spectrum, ignoring ripple content is calculated
analytically or graphically from [1] and [2] and the resulting
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235
TABLE I
HARMONIC SPECTRUM OF SIX-PULSE LOAD (FIG. 4)
harmonic current spectrum in terms of fundamental is shown in
Table I.
On a simplified basis, assuming a trapezoidal waveform, large
delay angle, and small overlap angle the harmonic spectrum can
be calculated from the expression
(21)
Table I terminates at the 31st harmonic. Harmonic analysis
can be carried out to the 49th harmonic. A small percentage
of noncharacteristic harmonics, i.e., 2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc., are also
generated. Their effect is further discussed.
In a running plant, an online measurement of harmonics
forms a reliable basis of study [9].
B. Step 2: Conduct Load Flow and Establish Need for
Reactive Power Compensation
For conducting the load flow study, an estimate of the power
factor of the nonlinear and linear loads is required. For nonlinear
loads, the phase angle between the fundamental component of
voltage and current is called the displacement angle and dis-
placement factor is . The power factor is the ratio of total
power input to total volt-amperes, which considers harmonics.
With commutation retard and phase angle the power factor is
given by [1]
(22)
Reference [1] may be seen for an explanation of symbols and
details of this expression. Using this and related expressions,
the operating power factor of the nonlinear load is calculated as
0.83.
The load flow shows a demand of 5.279 MW and 3.676 Mvar
from the 115-kV system, including system losses. A 1200-kvar
capacitor bank at the 4.16-kV bus will reduce the reactive power
input from the 115-kV source to 2.44 Mvar, and give an overall
power factor of 0.91, approximately.
C. Step 3: Ascertain Short-Circuit Level and Load Demand
at PCC
To calculate the permissible TDD, the short-circuit level at
the PCC and the load demand over a period of 15 or 30 min is
required [1]. For this example, the 4.16-kV bus is considered as
the PCC, the short-circuit level is 36.1 kA, the load demand
800 A, the ratio , and the permissible IEEE TDD
distortion limits are as shown in Table II.
D. Step 4: Conduct Harmonic Analysis Study
It is not the intention of this paper to get into the details
of the harmonic modeling of system components and the
236 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2004
TABLE II
HARMONIC ANALYSIS AND FILTER DESIGN
procedures for carrying out the study are discussed in [1]–[3]
and [10]–[16]. In the frequency-domain analysis, the harmonic
spectrum is ascertained and represented by an equivalent
Norton’s circuit. The harmonic current flow is calculated
in small steps, i.e., 2 Hz, covering the entire spectrum and
the system impedances are recalculated at each frequency,
considering higher frequency effects. During steady state the
harmonic currents are considered as being produced by ideal
sources, which operate without repercussion. Fig. 4 shows that
the nonlinear loads are lumped and this simplified approach
can give rise to errors. It is erroneous to assume that when all
the harmonics from sources spread out in a distribution system
are cophasial, the most conservative results will be obtained
[6]. It is necessary that the harmonics are modeled with their
appropriate phase angles. The phase angle of the current
sources are a function of supply voltage and are expressed as
(23)
where is the phase angle obtained from fundamental fre-
quency load flow solution, and is the typical phase
angle of harmonic current source spectrum. When there is only
one source the phase angle of harmonics is not important.
The harmonic analysis is conducted using a digital computer-
based commercial harmonic analysis program. Most programs
will calculate harmonic current flows, harmonic voltages, TDD,
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KVT, IT factors, perform sensitivity analysis, and have varying
capabilities of modeling frequency-dependent system compo-
nents.
1) Harmonic Analysis Without Capacitor Bank: The har-
monic current distortion without capacitors is shown in row 2 of
Table II. The harmonic distortion limits at the 5th, 7th, 11th, and
13th harmonics exceed the permissible limits and also the total
TDD is 19.57% versus the maximum permissible value of 8%.
This result could be expected, because of a higher percentage of
nonlinear load
2) Harmonic Analysis With Capacitor Bank: In Step 2,
1200-kvar capacitors are required for reactive power compen-
sation at bus 3 in Fig. 4. A capacitor bank is formed from the
individual capacitor cans of certain standard sizes, in series and
parallel combinations, i.e., a 500-kV capacitor bank will require
14 series groups of 21.6 kV for a grounded wye connection, the
number of parallel units in each series group depending upon
the required kvar. The formation of banks and the alternative
bank connections are discussed in [17].
Sometimes, a higher than rated voltage is selected on the ca-
pacitor cans: 1) to account for increase in voltage at the junction
of capacitor filter reactor (13); 2) to account for system overvolt-
ages; and 3) to consider the increase in rms voltage on the cans
due to harmonic loading.
Consider that cans of 200 kvar, rated voltage 2.77 kV, are
selected in ungrounded wye configuration, one series group per
DAS: PASSIVE FILTERS—POTENTIALITIES AND LIMITATIONS
phase. Then, three cans per phase give a kvar of 450.42 per
phase, i.e., a three-phase kvar of 1351.3 at the operating voltage
of 4.16 kV. The capacitive reactance is 12.788 per phase and
the capacitance E F.
The results of harmonic analysis are shown in row 3 of
Table II. The calculated parallel resonance frequency is
822–825 Hz (a step of 3 Hz was used in the calculation),
maximum impedance angle 89.64 , and minimum impedance
angle . Thus, the amplification of 13th harmonic
current is apparent in Table II. The distortion at this harmonic
is 50.5% and the overall TDD . If a voltage–time
curve is plotted, it will be highly distorted. Thus, adding the
capacitors has increased the harmonic distortion, and a resonant
condition exists around the 13th harmonic.
3) Harmonic Analysis With Capacitors Sized to Eliminate
Resonance: Sometimes an attempt is made to size and locate
the capacitors so as to eliminate resonance. The resonant fre-
quency can be placed at a harmonic or its fraction, which is not
generated by the load. The resonant frequency can be estimated
from (6), which can be written is more convenient form as
(24)
where is the short-circuit kVa and is the size of the
capacitor.
From (24), if the size of the capacitor bank is reduced, the
resonant frequency will shift upwards. A capacitor bank of 1192
kvar at 4.16 kV (500 kvar per phase formed out of 2.77-kV in-
dividual capacitor cans) will shift the resonance to around 900
Hz. As the load does not generate this frequency, resonance can
be escaped. The harmonic analysis in row 3 of Table II confirms
this. Although the distortion at the 13th harmonic is reduced, the
distortion at a number of lower harmonics exceeds the permis-
sible limits and total TDD is at an unacceptable level of 30.86%.
Thus, sizing or relocating the capacitors in a distribution system
rarely succeeds due to the following.
• The resonant frequency will swing with respect to the
switching conditions.
• The required reduction in harmonic distortion at all the re-
quired frequencies can rarely be achieved, especially when
the nonlinear loads form a considerable percentage of load
demand.
E. Step 5: Design a Harmonic Filter
1) Form an ST 5th Harmonic Filter: Form a 5th harmonic
filter by tuning to the 4.7th harmonic. A tuning frequency below
3%–10% of the harmonic to be filtered is selected to consider
detuning effects as explained in Step 6. From (7), a series reactor
of mH is required. Arbitrarily choose the ratio
of the reactor at fundamental frequency. The results of the
calculation are shown in row 4 of Table II. The 7.25% distortion
at the 5th harmonic almost meets the requirements of 7%, and
the distortion at the 7th and 11th harmonics and total TDD ex-
ceeds IEEE limits. The parallel resonant frequency is between
266–268 Hz, and the series resonant frequency is 282–284 Hz.
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237
The resonance is not eliminated; it shifts to a frequency below
the tuned frequency and is given by
(25)
and the resonance peak has its own value of given by
(26)
2) Add 7th Harmonic ST Filter: The splitting of the
1350-kvar capacitor bank is tried to form two equal parallel ST
filters, one tuned to as before and the other tuned to
. Table II, row 5, shows that 7th harmonic distortion is
reduced, while the 5th harmonic current flow increases, giving
rise to increased distortion. This can be expected, as the size of
the 5th filter has been reduced. TDD exceeds the limits.
3) Effect of Tuning Frequency: A sharper tuning closer to
the 5th harmonic is tried and the filter reformed for the same
capacitor size and . The results are shown in row 6 of
Table II. The 5th harmonic distortion is considerably reduced
for the same size of filter bank.
4) Increase 5th Filter Size: As the 5th harmonic is still high,
the 5th ST filter size is increased, formed with 400 kvar of
2.77-kV capacitors per phase. This brings the 5th harmonic dis-
tortion within permissible limits, but the 11th and total distortion
is still high; see Table II, row 7.
5) Add 11th Harmonic Filter: An 11th ST filter formed with
300 kvar capacitors/phase, , reduces the 11th harmonic
distortion. Table II, row 8, shows that harmonic distortion at all
harmonics is within acceptable limits, but the total TDD is 8.38,
i.e., slightly higher than the permissible value of 8%.
6) Increase Size of 5th and 7th ST Filters: The 5th and 7th
harmonic filters are reformed with 500 kvar and 400-kvar ca-
pacitors per phase. The results in Table II, row 9, show that the
permissible distortion limits are met, throughout the harmonic
spectrum, and total THD at PCC is reduced to 7.3%.
Thus, a total of 1200 kvar of capacitors per phase at 2.77 kV
are required. This means that installed rating at the operating
voltage is 2862 kvar, while only 1200 kvar was required for the
reactive power compensation power factor improvement. How-
ever, the design of the filter is not final.
F. Step 6: Consider Detuning Effects
An ST filter is not tuned exactly to the frequency it is intended
to suppress. Aging and temperature effects alter the filter reactor
and capacitance values. The switching conditions and system
changes also bring about detuning. The reactors and capacitors
for filters are specified to be of close-tolerance components to
limit frequency drift. For industrial filters the tolerances are,
generally, as follows:
capacitors: 5% and no negative tolerance;
reactors: 2%.
Also, each phase bank is formed so as to minimize the differ-
ences between the capacitance of phases. The same tolerance as
on individual capacitor cans can also be applied to the overall
238 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2004

assembly of each phase. Unbalances of the capacitance between

each phase give rise to unbalance currents.
Consider that the capacitance of each bank increases by 5%
and that of each phase reactor also increases by 2%. This is quite
a conservative assumption for checking the detuning effects on
the 5th, 7th, and 11th filter banks.
The results of the calculation are shown in row 10 of Table II.
The harmonic distortion at the 5th harmonic and overall TDD
of 11.3% exceed the permissible limits. An obvious solution is
to lower the design values of distortion, so that the increase in
distortion due to detuning is still within the acceptable limits.
This means that the size of the filters should be increased.
An iteration with various sizes shows that the 5th, 7th, and
11th harmonic filters should be formed with 900-, 600-, and
300-kvar capacitors per phase (rated voltage 2.77 kV). The re-
sults of the calculations with no tolerance and with positive tol-
erance of 5% on the capacitors and 2% on the reactors are shown
in rows 11 and 12 of Table II.
Therefore, a much larger size is required following the above
steps. Total three-phase kvar of the filter capacitors at system
voltage of 2.4 kV is 4054 kvar, while only 1200 kvar is required
for reactive power compensation. A filter intended to meet only Fig. 6. Impedance modulus and phase angle of a three-step ST filter of the
example.
the requirements of harmonic distortion control is called a min-
imum filter. In a way, this term can be misleading; the example
illustrates that the requirements of controlling the harmonic dis- 2) On outage of the 7th filter bank, the TDD on all harmonics
tortion require a filter of much larger size than the reactive power and overall TDD of 10.42% is acceptable.
compensation. The converse can also be true. 3) On outage of the 11th filter bank, the overall TDD is 6.38,
The installation of the finally designed filter will make the and acceptable.
overall power factor at the 115-kV side approximately equal to Thus, it is only the outage of the 5th ST filter that is a problem.
unity. An online standby 5th filter can be installed and switched
automatically. This could be a more economical solution, rather
G. Step 7: Consider Outage of One of the Parallel Banks than shutting down the process facility.

Well-designed and protected capacitor filters are practically
trouble free and require little maintenance. However, an outage
cannot be entirely ruled out. The most common outage will be
that of a fuse failure of one of the capacitor cans in a phase. Gen-
erally, it is not necessary to trip the entire bank on such an occur-
rence and the situation is alarmed. Depending upon the number
of parallel cans per phase, an outage of a capacitor can in one of
the phases (each can protected with its own individual fuse) will
give rise to an unbalance voltage and increase of voltage on the
remaining cans, which can be monitored. If more than a certain
number of capacitor cans go out of service, the bank is tripped.
For a continuous process plant, shutting down the process be-
cause of failure of a filter may not be warranted and the effect
on harmonic distortion when one of the parallel filter banks is
out of service must be considered. IEEE Std. 519 allows 50%
increase in the distortion limits on a short-time basis. This in-
creased TDD limits during the repair time of the combination
filter are considered in the following calculations; see Table II,
rows 13, 14, and 15.
The calculations show the following.
1) On outage of the 5th filter bank, the 5th harmonic distor-
tion is increased to 24.5% and the overall TDD is 24.8%.
This exceeds the permissible 12% overall and 10.5% 5th
harmonic TDD.
H. Step 8: Consider the Shifted Resonant Frequencies
Fig. 6 shows the impedance modulus and phase-angle plots
for final 5th, 7th, and 11th harmonic filters. The shifted frequen-
cies are the following:
1) 5th ST filter: 260–262 Hz;
2) 7th ST filter: 368–370 Hz;
3) 11th ST filter: 584–586 Hz.
If the shifted frequencies coincide with one of the charac-
teristics, noncharacteristics, or triplen harmonics present in the
system, current magnifications at these frequencies can occur.
The switching inrush current of a transformer is rich in even
and third harmonics. As the transformers are switched in and out
the harmonic current injections in to the filters will increase, al-
though this will last only for the switching duration of the trans-
formers (approximately 0.1 s). The repeated switching can in-
crease the dynamic stresses on the transformers, also. The mag-
nified currents can give rise to large harmonic voltages and ca-
pacitor banks could also fail prematurely.
The shifted resonant frequencies should be at least 30 cycles
apart from the adjacent odd and even harmonics. An examina-
tion of the above shifted frequencies shows that this criterion is
not met in every case.

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DAS: PASSIVE FILTERS—POTENTIALITIES AND LIMITATIONS
When considering detuning, it is necessary to check the ef-
ficacy of the final filter design for various switching conditions
of the plant. These can also cause detuning. The filter design, as
discussed, is sensitive to the utility’s source impedance.
I. Step 9: Consider Alternate Filter Design
It is possible to design a single 5th ST filter to meet the IEEE
distortion limits, however, this filter will be of much larger size.
Similarly, the high-pass filters with different values of can
be tried, however, these will be of still larger size, compared to
ST filters. Their application is for higher harmonics and notch
reduction [2], [6]
J. Step 10: Consider Harmonic Loading of Power Capacitors
The harmonic loading on the power capacitors is limited and
the recommendations of an IEEE standard [18] are as follows.
1) Per-unit kvar (calculated on the basis of fundamental and
harmonic currents and voltages) should not exceed 1.35.
(27)
2) The rms current including all harmonics should not ex-
ceed 1.8 per unit
(28)
3) The limits on rms voltage are given by
(29)
4) , the crest voltage, the sum of randomly occurring
voltages (including harmonics but excluding transients),
which for conservatism may be considered cophasial,
should not exceed
(30)
Reference [18] also shows infrequent limits of overvoltages
and currents.
Most computer programs will calculate the loadings on the
harmonic filters and capacitors and flag overload conditions.
These can be calculated by longhand calculations, also. None of
the above limits are exceeded in the final design of the example.
K. Step 11: Consider Secondary Resonance
In a distribution system, there may exist power capacitors for
reactive power compensation, voltage support, or power-factor
improvement. When the system is expanded and more capaci-
tors are to be added, a secondary resonant condition can be trig-
gered depending upon the size of the existing capacitors, new
capacitors to be added and the intervening impedance. If the sec-
ondary circuit has resonant frequency close to the switched ca-
pacitor bank, the initial surge can trigger oscillations in the sec-
ondary circuits, and these can be much larger than the switched
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239
circuit and high overvoltages of the order of 3–8 times can be
produced [19], [20]. The ratio of these frequencies is given by
(31)
where is the coupled frequency, is the main circuit
switching frequency, and are the inductances and
capacitances of the secondary circuit, and and are the
inductance and capacitance in the main circuit. If possible, a
single strategy for location of the capacitors in a distribution
system should be adopted rather than spreading these out at
multivoltage levels.
L. Step 12: Other Considerations
1) Consider Negative-Sequence Loading of the Plant Gen-
erators, if Present: The harmonics can be particularly dam-
aging to the synchronous generators. The reverse rotating 5th
harmonic and the forward rotating 7th harmonic will produce a
6th harmonic in the generator rotor circuit. Similarly, the har-
monic pair 11th and 13th will produce 12th harmonic. The un-
balance and the negative sequence capabilities of the generators
can be exceeded [2].
2) Consider Q Factor: The ratio of the filter reactor at
fundamental frequency determines the filter factor and Fig. 3
shows that sharper tuning can be achieved and passband reduced
with higher s. However, in industrial filter design, it can be
demonstrated that for 20 to 100, the response is undistin-
guishable. Thus, the fundamental frequency active power loss
and heat dissipation becomes a major consideration for large
filter reactors. The initial cost of high filter reactors is an-
other consideration and the initial investment needs to be viewed
in terms of energy costs.
3) Consider Presence of Nearby Nonlinear Loads: The
utility’s system may serve other customers from the same
service, which may have nonlinear loads or power capacitors.
These could effect the performance of filters. The utility’s
source impedance may exhibit a spiral shape characteristics
with respect to harmonics, rather than being a single-valued
function.
4) Consider All Possible Switching Conditions: It is neces-
sary to consider the filter performance with varying plant oper-
ating conditions and readjust the filter designs.
A basic flowchart of the ST filters is shown in Fig. 7, although
it does not show all the iterative processes.
V. LIMITATION AND POTENTIALITIES OF PASSIVE FILTERS
Based upon the above discussions the limitations of passive
filters can be summarized as follows.
Potentialities:
1) Well-designed passive filters can be implemented
in large sizes of Mvars of ratings and provide al-
most maintenance-free service (there are no rotating
parts).
2) These are more economical to implement than their
rotating counterparts, i.e., synchronous condensers.
3) A fast response time of the order of one cycle or less
(i.e., with SVC) can be obtained, which is important
240 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 40, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2004
Limitations:
Fig. 7. Flowchart for the design of ST filters.
for correction of flickering voltage dips due to arc
furnace loads.
4) Unlike rotating machines (i.e., synchronous motors
or condensers) power capcitors do not contribute to
the short-circuit currents.
5) A single installation can serve many purposes, i.e.,
reactive power compensation and power-factor
improvement, reducing TDD to acceptable limits,
voltage support on critical buses in case of a source
outage, and reducing the starting impact and voltage
drop of a large motor [21], [22]
6) When a choice is available between active and pas-
sive filters, the passive filters are more economical.
No cost data are presented in this paper.
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1) Passive filters are not suitable for changing system
conditions. Once installed, these are rigidly in
place. Neither the tuned frequency nor the size of
the filter can be changed so easily. The passive ele-
ments in the filter are close-tolerance components.
2) A change in the system operating conditions can
result in some detuning, although a filter design
should consider operation with varying loads and
utility’s source impedance.
3) The system impedance largely affects the design.
To be effective, the filter impedance must be less
than the system impedance, and the design can be-
come a problem for stiff systems.
4) Outage of a parallel branch can totally alter the res-
onant frequency, resulting in overstressing of filter
components and increased harmonic distortion.
5) The parallel resonance between the system and
filter (shifted resonance frequency) for ST or DT
filters can cause an amplification of the current at
characteristics and noncharacteristics harmonics.
A designer has limited choice in selecting tuned
frequencies and ensuring adequate bandwidth
between shifted frequencies and even and odd
harmonics.
6) Damped filters do not give rise to a shifted resonant
frequency; however, these are not as effective as a
group of ST filters.
7) The aging, deterioration, and temperature effects
may increase the designed tolerances and bring
about detuning, although these effects can be
considered in the design stage.
8) Definite-purpose circuit breakers are required. To
control switching surges, resistor switching and
synchronous closing may be required, although
the filter reactors will reduce the magnitude of the
switching inrush current and its frequency. The
switching surges, their problems, and mitigation
are not discussed in this paper.
9) The grounded neutrals of wye-connected banks
provide a low-impedance path for third harmonics.
Third harmonic amplification can occur in some
cases. (For industrial systems, the three-phase
capacitor banks are, generally, connected in un-
grounded wye configuration.)
10) Special protective and monitoring devices (not dis-
cussed) are required.
11) ST or DT filters are not possible to employ for cer-
tain loads like cycloconverters or when the power
system has interharmonics (not discussed in this
paper) [2].
12) The filters can either be switched “on” or “off.”
Thus, a stepless control of reactive power with an
increase of load demand is not possible. The filter
banks can be switched in and out with voltage, cur-
rent or reactive power control, to avoid generation
of leading reactive power at light loads.
DAS: PASSIVE FILTERS—POTENTIALITIES AND LIMITATIONS
13) The design may require increasing the size of the
filters to control TDD (example in this paper).
This may give rise to overvoltages when the banks
are switched in and undervoltage when these are
switched out.
14) A detuning may be brought into play when con-
sumers on the same utility’s service add power ca-
pacitors or filters in their distribution systems [23].
VI. CONCLUSION
The iterative process of passive filter design was illustrated
through a step-by step calculation. There is a need for further
development of harmonic analysis software, akin to optimal
power flow, with user-selectable constraints and resulting de-
sign parameters. The industry has faced two distinct situations.
The badly designed filters have failed or resulted in operational
problems when the constraints of their applications were not
realized. At the same time, large passive filters are admirably
in service and have provided years of maintenance-free and
trouble-free operation. The implementation of an overall suc-
cessful system in a particular situation requires a careful anal-
ysis of the specific application, including protection, switching
overvoltage, and transients, which have been mentioned but not
described in detail.
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J. C. Das (SM’76) received the B.A. degree in math-
ematics and the B.E.E. degree from Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh, India, in 1953 and 1956, respec-
tively, and the M.S.E.E. degree from Tulsa Univer-
sity, Tulsa, OK, in 1982.
He is currently Staff Consultant, Electrical Power
Systems, AMEC E&C Services Inc., Decatur,
GA. He is responsible for power system studies,
including short circuit, load flow, harmonics,
stability, grounding, and also, protective relaying. He
has authored or coauthored more than 40 technical
publications and is the author of Power System Analysis (New York: Marcel
Dekker, 2002). His interests include power system transients, harmonics,
power quality, protection, and relaying.
Mr. Das is a Member of the IEEE Industry Applications and IEEE Power
Engineering Societies. He is also a Member of TAPPI and of CIGRE, a Fellow
of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, U.K., a Life Fellow of the Institution
of Engineers (India), and a Member of the Federation of European Engineers
(France). He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the States of Georgia and
Oklahoma, a Chartered Engineer (C.Eng.) in the U.K., and a European Engineer
(Eur.Ing.).