MANGAYARKARASI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MANGAYARKARASI NAGAR, PARAVAI,

MADURAI – 625 402

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI

AI8211 – CROP AND HUSBANDRY LABORATORY (R-2017)

NAME: ------------------------------------------------------------------------

REGISTER NUMBER: --------------------------------------------------

YEAR/SEM.: -----------------------------------------------------------------

Prepared By

Mr.G.JEYAVEERA PANDIAN.,ME

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Sl.No DATE EXPERIMENTS PAGE MARK SIGN
 AI8211-CROP HUSBANDRY LABORATORY SYLLABUS

OBJECTIVE:
To introduce the different crop production practices in wet land, dry land and garden
land through hands on experience and demonstrations.

List of Experiments:
➢ Field preparation studies
➢ Seed selection and seed treatment procedures
➢ Seed bed and nursery preparation
➢ Sowing / Transplanting
➢ Biometric observation for crops
➢ Nutrient management studies
➢ Water management and irrigation scheduling
➢ Weed management studies
➢ Integrated Pest Management studies
➢ Harvesting
➢ Post harvesting

TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

A wet land / garden land for a minimum of 5 cents area for each / group of students.
An open / borewell as water source to support cultivation
LIST OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

1. Field preparation-primary tillage

2. Field preparation – secondary tillage implements
3. Seedbed preparation and selection of crops
4. Nursery technique for horticulture crops
5. Sowing methods and its equipment
6. Working out seed rate for major field crops
7. Estimation and assessment of plant population

8. Methods of irrigation
9. Fertilizer management for field crops and horticultural crops
10. Weed management in major field crops and horticultural crops
11. Cultivation practices for tomato
12. Cultivation practices for brinjal
13. Cultivation practices for bhendi
14. Cultivation practices for chilli
 Ex.No 1
Field Preparation-Primary Tillage
Date

Aim: To study about primary tillage and implements used in primary tillage.

Materials required
1. Mould board plough
2. Disc plough

Principles of Tillage
It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable condition for crop
production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth
and to loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into
the soil.
Objectives of Tillage
• To obtain deep seed bed, suitable for different type of crops.
• To add more humus and fertility to soil by covering the vegetation.
• To destroy and prevent weeds.
• To aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
• To increase water-absorbing capacity of the soil.
• To destroy the insects, pests and their breeding places and
• To reduce the soil erosion.

Classification of Tillage
• Primary tillage
• Secondary tillage

Primary tillage
It constitutes the initial major soil working operation. It is normally designed to
reduce soil strength, cover plant materials and rearrange aggregates. The operations
performed to open up any cultivable land with a view to prepare a seed bed for growing
crops is known as primary tillage. Example Mould board and Disc Plough

Function of mould board plough

• Cutting the furrow slice
• lifting the soil
• Turning the furrow slice and
• Pulverising the soil.

Components of Mould Board plough

a) Share: It is that part of the plough bottom which penetrates into the soil and makes a
horizontal cut below the surface.
b) Mould board: It is the curved part which lifts , turns, and pulverizes the soil slice.
c) Land side: It is the flat plate which presses against the furrow wall and prevents the
plough from lateral swinging.
d) Frog: It is the part to which share, land side and mouldboard are attached.
e) Tail piece: It is an adjustable extension, which can be fastened to the rear of the mould
board to help in turning the furrow slice.

Disc Plough
It is a plough, which cuts, turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of
separately mounted large steel discs. A disc plough is designed with a view of reduce friction
by making a rolling plough bottom instead of sliding plough bottom. A disc plough works
well in the conditions where mould board plough does not work satisfactorily.
Types of Disc Plough
Disc ploughs are of two types (i) Standard disc plough and (ii) Vertical disc plough.
(i) Standard disc plough
It consists of steel disc of 60 to 90 cm diameter, set at a certain angle to the direction
of travel. Each disc revolves on a stub axle in a thrust bearing, carried at the lower end of a
strong stand which is bolted to the plough beam. The angle of the disc to the vertical and to
the furrow wall is adjustable. In action, the disc cuts the soil, breaks it and pushes it sideways.
There is little inversion of furrow slice as well as little burying of weeds and trashes. The disc
plough may be mounted type or trailed type. In mounted disc plough, the side thrust is taken
by the wheels of the tractor. Disc is made of heat treated steel of 5 mm to 10 mm thickness.
The amount of concavity varies with the diameter of the disc. The approximate values being
8 cm for 60 cm diameter disc and 16 cm for 95 cm diameter. A few important terms
connected with disc plough is explained below
Readings and observations
1. Working principles and constructional details of the primary tillage implements was
studied.
2. Speed of operation and draft for the given field condition was noted for the above
implements.
3. Different adjustments of the implements for better performance were observed.
4. The implements were observed for any operational flaws.

Result
 Ex.No 2
Field Preparation – Secondary Tillage Implements
Date
Aim: To study about primary tillage and implements used in primary tillage.
Materials required
1. Harrows
2. Cultivators
Secondary tillage

Tillage operations following primary tillage which are performed to create proper soil
tilling for seeding and planting are secondary tillage. Secondary tillage implements may be
tractor drawn or bullock drawn implements such as Disc Harrow and Cultivators

Function of secondary tillage

• To improve the seed bed by greater pulverization of the soil
• To destroy grasses and weed seeds in the field.
• To cut crop residues and mix them with top soil
• To break the big clods and to make the field surface uniform and levelled.
Harrow
Harrow is a secondary tillage implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth
for smoothening and pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix the materials
with the soil. There are several types of harrow used in India such as disc harrow and
Cultivators
Disc harrow
It is a harrow, which performs the harrowing operation by means of a set, or a number
of sets of rotating slat discs, each set being mounted on a common shaft. Disc harrow is
found very suitable for hard ground, full of stalks and grasses. It cuts the lumps of soil, clods
and roots. Disc are mounted on one, two or more axles which may be set at a variable angle
to the line of motion. As the harrow is pulled ahead, the discs rotate on the ground.
Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows are divided into two classes a) Single
action and b) Double action.
Single action disc harrow
It is a harrow with two gangs placed end to end, which throw the soil in opposite
directions. The discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang throws the soil towards
right, and left side gang throws the soil towards left

Double action disc harrow

 A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs, in which a set of one or two gangs
follow behind the set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way that the front and back
gangs throw the soil in opposite directions.

A sharp edged disc has more effective penetration compared to blunt edged disc. It is
observed that penetration is better in low speed than in high speed. The following are a few
adjustments for obtaining higher penetration
i. By increasing the disc angle
ii. By adding additional weight in harrow
iii. By lowering the hitch point
iv. By using the sharp edged discs of small diameter and losses concavity
v. By regulating the optimum speed.
Cultivators
It is an implement for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or discs to work
between crop rows. The cultivator stirs the soil, and breaks the clods. The tines fitted on the
frame of the cultivator comb the soil deeply in the field. A cultivator performs functions
intermediate between those of plough and the harrow. Destruction of weeds is the primary
function of a cultivator. The following are a few important functions performed by a
cultivator.
1. Interculture the fields.
2. Destroy the weeds in the field.
3. Aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
4. Conserve moisture by preparing mulch on the surface.
5. To sow seeds when it is provided with sowing attachments.
6. To prevent surface evaporation and encourage rapid infiltration of rain water
into the soil.
Types of cultivators
Disc cultivator : It is a cultivator fitted with discs.
Tine cultivator : It is a cultivator fitted with tines having shovels.
Rotary cultivator : It is a cultivator with tines or blades mounted on a power driven
horizontal shaft.

Readings and observations:

 1. Working principles and constructional details of the Secondary tillage implements
was studied.
2. Speed of operation and draft for the given field condition was noted for the above
implements.
3. Different adjustments of the implements for better performance were observed.
4. The implements were observed for any operational plough.

Result
 Ex.No 3
Seedbed preparation and selection of crops
Date

Aim: To prepare a suitable seed bed for the given crop for raising the nursery.
Materials Required
1. Hoe or gardening trowel
2. Seeds
Preparing the seed bed
The requirement for a seed bed is basically the same as for any vegetable bed, except
that the soil need be only forked to a relatively shallow depth. If it is a new bed (i.e. never
previously used to grow plants), the bed will need to be dug and prepared as with any new
bed - see this other page.
If plants have previously been grown on the bed, the preparation required is much less
as the soil will have been broken up and most stones removed.
Using a seed bed
Once the seed bed is ready, choose a day when the soil is moist and little wind to
plant your seeds.
Normally a 'drill' (or number of drills) is created on the surface of the seed bed - a
drill is a shallow depression into the bottom of which seeds are sown. The drill can be formed
either by pulling a hoe or a gardening trowel (backwards) through the surface of the prepared
bed with the earth pulled to the sides, the depth required varies from seed to seed. A line
stretched above the soil before drills are made will help keep them straight.
The way the seeds are sown along the bottom of the drills will depend upon the seed been
planted, typically one of three variations will be specified:
• Very thinly - say 2.5cm (1 inch) between seeds.
• Thinly - say 1.2cm (½ inch) between seeds.
• At stations - a number of seeds together at given spacing.
Position for a seed bed
A seed bed may be thought of, incorrectly, as a rather unimportant part of the garden which
can be tucked away in some corner. It must be remembered that seed germination and early
growth of any plant has an important influence on the final quality of the plant - if the seed
bed is shaded by hedges or buildings, the seedlings may grow weak and spindly. Similarly
drainage of the bed is important, seeds generally don't do well if they become waterlogged
(nor if they dry out).
Ideally the seed bed should
• Be in a open, but sheltered, position with good drainage.
 • Be free of perennial weeds as weeding between the small seedlings can be difficult
and time consuming.
• If the garden is a haven for the local pets, it is worthwhile putting wire netting
around the bed.
Major factors to be considered in crop selection
1. Prevailing farm conditions
An environmental scanning should first be conducted. This involves a thorough ocular
inspection and other methods to obtain information on the biotic factor that can affect plant
growth and yield, soil and climatic conditions prevailing in the area, and accessibility. Here
the guiding rule is: know your farm first then select the right crop.
The biotic factor refers to living organisms including ruminant animals, insect and
other pests, disease pathogens and weeds, as well as organisms having beneficial effects like
civet cat population for the production of civet coffee and the abundance of pollinators.
Where there is prevalence of a disease in a locality, susceptible crops may be excluded or a
resistant variety may be selected.
The topographic features of the land like elevation, slope, and terrain as well as the
physical and chemical properties of the soil such as texture, color, organic matter content, pH
and fertility levels will determine the crops that are naturally suited. Also, the various
climatic factors, such as prevailing climate type, temperature, rainfall, relative humidity,
incidence of light, and frequency of typhoons will limit the choice of crops. A stable supply
of water within the farm will allow wide possibilities in crop selection.
2. Crop or varietal adaptability
The crop(s) and the variety (ies) to be grown should be selected based on their
adaptability to the prevailing conditions in the farm. A useful guide is to identify the crops
growing in the farm and in the neighborhood. An interview of the neighboring farmers will
also provide valuable information as to the probability of success, or failure, of growing
certain preferred crops. Furthermore, it is an advantage to have access to lists of different
crops under the various plant classification based on natural adaptation or habitat.
3. Marketability and profitability
For those who want to engage in cash crop farming or, at the least, ensure financial
sustainability, crop selection must consider marketability and profitability. In general, this
means that the crop to be selected must be high yielding. The product, be it the fruit, seed,
modified root or stem, flower or foliage or any part, must have an accessible, stable and
robust market. With efficient labor and use of inputs, the harvest will realize profit to finance
the succeeding farm activities or generate substantial return on investment. However, market
and price are dictated by many factors such as the number of competitors, supply and
demand, development of new products, promotional campaign, and agribusiness cycle.
4. Resistance to pests and diseases
Regardless of the purpose of farming, it is important to be able to select a crop and
variety with wide resistance to important pests and diseases. The use of susceptible varieties
may result to high cost of production or, worst, total crop failure.
5. Available technology
The technology for the growing of the crop must have been well established or easy to
learn and apply. Likewise, certain crops are preferred because technical assistance is
available locally.
6. Farming system
Crop selection is affected by the system of farming employed, that is, whether purely
crop farming or integrated with livestock animals. Likewise, the particular crop species to be
grown will depend on the crop production practices such as monoculture, multiple cropping,
hedge row-strip cropping, and planting patterns.
7. Security
In the absence of security personnel or where there is no fence that will exclude
intruders, crop selection may be done in favor of those which are not susceptible of thievery.
This will avoid such crops as vegetables and fruit crops which can be easily harvested for
food and for cash.
Readings and observations
1. Depth of seed bed for the given seed is observed.
2. Moisture content of the soil or water level is observed.
3. Maintainability of nutritional requirement of the soil was observed.

Result
A suitable seed bed preparation was done for the given crop in the prevailing soil
condition.
 Ex.No 4
Nursery technique for horticulture crops
Date

Aim: To prepare a healthy nursery for the given horticultural crop.

Materials Required:
1. Sickle
2. Plant stems (to be probagated)
3. Hoes
Introduction, scope and importance
Nursery is consequently the basic need of horticulture. Plant propagation techniques
and practices is the core of horticulture nurseries. The planting materials for horticultural
plantations are raised from seeds and vegetative parts. Role of Mother Plants is very primary
and important. The fate of nursery depends on quality and truthfulness of mother plants. A
good nursery entrepreneur does not depend on others for procurement of mother plants.
Mother plants are required for both stock and scion. Mother plants should be selected on the
basis of its genetic traits and other factors like availability and adaptation in the growing
environment.

Specific Importance of Plant Nursery

• Seedlings and grafts are produced in nursery and the fruit orchards and ornamental
gardens can be established with minimum care, cost and maintenance.
• The nursery planting materials are available at the beginning of the planting season.
This saves the time, money and efforts of the farmers to raise seedlings.
• There is a wide scope for fruit orchards, ornamental, vegetable, and landscape gardens
at public gardens, highways and co operative housing societies.
Nursery techniques
• Establishment of nursery
• Management of nursery
• Cost of development of ornamental nursery
• Pro tray Technique
Establishment of nursery
Nursery is developed gradually. The mother plants planted for vegetative and seed
propagation and seed propagated plants such as seasonal flower seedlings are raised for sale
simultaneously. Important factors considered for establishing a nursery are agro-climatic
conditions, soil types, soil pH, location, area, irrigation facilities, communication, market
demand, availability of germplasm or mother plants, skilled persons, etc.
Selection of site
The site selected for raising a nursery should preferably be located near marketing
centres for the convenience of transportation of the products with minimum or no damage.
The site should be convenient enough for transportation of input materials also. It is
important to have or develop a perennial source of water inside the nursery. If need arises,
wind breaks of tall plants like eucalyptus, aonla, seedling mango, etc. may be planted to
provide necessary shade and protection.
Product choice
The product choice will primarily depend on the market demand in nearby areas. For
wider market coverage, the choice may be dependent on market studies in the desired areas.
Varieties of various ornamental plants like shade loving foliage plants, flowering plants,
creepers, plants suitable for parks, gardens and roadside plantations, offices, business houses,
hospitals, residential buildings, etc. may be propagated in the nursery. Planting materials such
as seedlings of flowers, bulbs, corms, etc. may also be produced.
Methods of propagation
Plants may be raised from seeds or by vegetative propagation. Some important
aspects of propagation are summarized below along with examples of fruit crops:
Raising from seeds
Germination from seeds may not be 100% even if the seeds are sown in perfect
conditions. The factors that control the germination are age, stage of maturity and viability of
seeds, water, free supply of oxygen and the heat or temperature. Some seeds do not germinate
easily for variety of reasons such as the dormancy, rest period and presence of hard seed coat.
Seeds with hard coats (e.g. palm, cannes, etc.) require some kind of external treatment for
germination. Cracking of the coats by mechanical means, abrasion, soaking in water or acid
and stratification are some methods commonly applied. Before sowing on a large scale, it is
worthwhile to test the viability of the seeds.
Vegetative Propagation
Safe methods of vegetative propagation such as cutting, layering, division, separation,
budding and grafting are adopted for multiplication of ornamental plants.
Cutting
Plant parts that are normally used for this purpose are stems, roots, leaves and
modified stems such as tubers, corms and rhizomes, runners and bulbs. This method is very
popular, particularly because it is the cheapest and most convenient one. However, in case of
annuals, biennials and some perennials, methods such as seedage, layering and grafting are
easier and more economical.
Layering
The method of inducing roots in a stem which is still attached to the plant and then
detaching it after the root is formed for transplanting is called a layering or layerage. Mostly
creepers and trees are raised by this method. Some herbaceous plants such as carnation,
chrysanthemum, etc. can be raised by layering.
Grafting
Grafting, except budding (which is also a form of grafting) is not widely used in
ornamental horticulture except in a few cases. The types of grafting which are used in
ornamental plants are limited to inarching, side grafting, splice grafting, saddle grafting, flat
grafting and cleft grafting. Inarching is followed in the propagation of roses in some parts of
the country.
Readings and observations
1. Depth of seed bed for the given seed is observed.
2. Moisture content of the soil or water level is observed.
3. Maintainability of nutritional requirement of the soil was observed.

Result
 Ex.No 5
Sowing methods and its equipment
Date

Aim: To study about different sowing methods and different sowing equipments.
Materials required
1. Broadcasters 2. Dibblers 3. Seed drill 4. Ploughs 5. Transplanters
Principles
Sowing
Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the
field. A perfect seeding gives
a. Correct amount of seed per unit area.
b. Correct depth at which seed is placed in the soil.
c. Correct spacing between row-to-row and plant-to-plant.
Sowing methods
(i) Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the process of random scattering of seed on the surface of seedbeds. It
can be done manually or mechanically both. When broadcasting is done manually, uniformity
of seed depends upon skill of the man. Soon after broadcasting the seeds are covered by
planking or some other devices. Usually higher seed rate is obtained in this system.
Mechanical broadcasters are used for large-scale work. This machine scatters the seeds on the
surface of the seedbed at controlled rates.
(ii) Dibbling
Dibbling is the process of placing and seeds in holes made in seedbed and covering
them. In this method, seeds are placed in holes make at definite depth at fixed spacing. The
equipment used for dibbling is called dibbler. It is a conical instrument used to make proper
holes in the field. Small hand dibblers are made with several conical projections made in a
frame. This is very time consuming process, so it is not suitable for small seeds. Mostly
vegetables are sown in this way.
(iii) Drilling
Drilling consists of dropping the seeds in furrow lines in a continuous flow and
covering them with soil. Seed metering may be done either manually or mechanically. The
number of rows planted may be one or more. This method is very helpful in achieving proper
depth, proper spacing and proper amount of seed to be sown in the field. Drilling can be done
by (1) Sowing behind the plough (2) Bullock drawn seed drills (3) Tractor drawn seed drills.
(iv) Seed dropping behind the plough
It is very common method used in villages. It is used for seed like maize, gram, peas,
wheat and barley. A man drops seeds in the furrow behind the plough. Sowing behind the
plough can be done by a device known as malobansa. It consists of a bamboo tube provided
with a funnel shaped mouth. One man drops the seeds through the funnel and other man
handles the plough and the bullocks. This is a slow and laborious method.
(v) Transplanting
Transplanting consists of preparing seedlings in nursery and then planting these
seedlings in the prepared field. It is commonly done for paddy, vegetable and flowers. It is
very time consuming operation. Equipment for placing plants in the soil is called transplanter.
(vi) Hill dropping
In this method, seeds are dropped at fixed spacing and not in a continuous stream.
Thus the spacing between plant to plant in a row is constant. In case of drills, the seeds are
dropped in continuous stream and the spacing between plant to plant in a row is not constant.
(vii) Check row planting
It is a method of planting, in which row-to-row and plant-to-plant distance is uniform.
In this method, seeds are planted precisely along straight parallel furrows. The rows are
always in two perpendicular directions. A machine used for check row planting is called
check row planter.
Seed drill
Seed drill is a machine for placing the seeds in a continuous flow in furrows at
uniform rate and at controlled depth with or without the arrangement of covering them with
soil. Function of seed drill: Seed drill performs the following functions
• To carry the seeds.
• To open furrow to an uniform depth
• To meter the seeds
• To place the seed in furrows in an acceptable pattern
• To cover the seeds and compact the soil around the seed.
Components of seed drill
Frame: The frame is usually made of angle iron with suitable braces and brackets. The frame
is strong enough to withstand all types of loads in working condition.
Seed box :It may be made of mild steel sheet or galvanized iron with a suitable cover. A
small agitator is sometimes provided to prevent clogging of seeds.
Covering device: It is a device to refill a furrow after the seed has been placed in it.
Covering the seeds are usually done by patta, chains, drags, packers, rollers or press wheels,
designed in various sizes and shapes.
Transport wheel: There are two wheels fitted on the main axle. Some seed drills have got
pneumatic wheels also. The wheels have suitable attachments to transmit power to operate
seed dropping mechanism.
Readings and observations
1. Mechanisms of different types of seed sowing equipments were studied.
2. Spacing requirements for different crops were studied.
3. Metering mechanisms different seed sowing equipments were observed

Result
 Ex.No 6
Working out seed rate for major field crops
Date

Aim : calculation of seed rate for different crops

Description
Seed rate is defined as the quantity of seeds required to take up sowing in an hectare
area. Seed rate is an important one in crop production practices. If we adopt the correct seed
rate we get optimum population and higher yield. If we adopt the below the optimum we get
low yield due to poor population or if we adopt more than the optimum we will get more over
population, competition between the plants occurs and yield will be reduced. So adoption of
optimum seed is an important aspect to maintain optimum population and better yield. The
seed rate depends on crop, variety, spacing germination percentage and test weight (hundred
or thousand seed weight).
Plant population/m²x Number of seedlings (or) seeds /hill
Seed rate =
Test weight x germination percentage.

Test weight for Cotton-7.3g (100 seed weight)

Example Problems

1. Calculate the quantity of delinked seeds required for planting 1 ha

MCU 5 cotton, if the germination percentage is 60 and test weight is
7.3 g (100 seed wt.).

Spacing = 75  30 cm.
10000
Plant population = = 4.44 /m2
75  30
For 1 ha = 4,4444.44
No. of seeds / hole = 2
 Seed requirement / ha = 4,4444.44  2 = 88888.88 seeds
Test weight (100 seed wt.) = 7.3 g
7.3
 Wt. of 888888.88 seeds = 88888.88
100
= 6488.88 g/ha
= 6.48 Kg/ha.
Germination % = 60
To get 60 plants, cotton seed requirement is 100
100
 To get 6.48 kg viable seed we need = 6.48  = 10.8 kg/ha.
60
The quantity of seeds require d to plant 1 ha MCU 5 cotton is 10.8 kg.
Exercise Problem

1. Calculate the quantity of seeds required for planting 2ha maize, if the germination
percentage is 96 and test weight is 7.3 g (100 seed wt.)

2. Calculate the quantity of seedlings required for planting 100 cent of tomato Spacing
(45  30).
 Ex.No 7 Estimation and assessment of plant population
Date

Aim: To estimate the plant population growth for different crops

Description
Plant population is defined as the number of plants per unit area. It can be worked out
Area
by the formula=
Spacing
When plants are widely spaced, dry mater production (DMP) will at first tend to
increase linearly with increase in plant density due to no or minimum competition between
the adjoining plants. Further increase in density may reduce the DMP probably due to
competition between plants and the yield of individual plants may get reduced. However, this
is compensated by the increase in the number of plants per unit area. Any further increase in
plant density results in a plateau of particularly constant DMP. This indicates that a
equilibrium has been reached at which the increase in production due to increased plant
number compensates reduction in the production of the individual plants.
Optimum number of plants is required per unit area to utilize efficiently the available
production factors such as water, nutrients, light and CO2. Maximum exploitation of these
factors is achieved when the plant population puts forth maximum pressure on all the factors
of production. As a result, individual plants are put under severe stress because of inter-plant
competition. Normally maximum yields are obtained from plant population which does not
allow plants to achieve their individual maximum potential. Thus the entire community of
plants is considered for higher production rather than the individual plant performance.
Maintenance of optimum plant population is the biggest contributor to narrow down
the yield in high value crops like cotton. An extra yield of 5Q /ha could be achieved with the
adoption of closer spacing of 75x60cm in varalaxmi hybrid cotton. However, cotton cultivars
like Mcu 5 and Mcu 7 registered highest yield (24 and 25q/ha respectively) when grown at a
spacing of 75x30cm. The wider spacing have described that it adversely affected the yield.

Calculation of plant population: Eg: hybrid cotton

Area
Plant population =
Spacing
100 100
= =1.39 plants/m²
120  60
(or)
Area occupied by a single plant = 1.20x0.60 = 0.72 m²
Population for 0.72 m² = 1 plant
1
 For 1 ha \10000 m² =  10000 =13888.889 plants/ha
0.72
Recommended spacing and population for various field crops

Crop Spacing(cm) Plant pop/ m² PP/ha

Cereals
Rice
Short duration 15 x10 66.6 666000
Medium duration 20 x10 50 500000
Long duration 20 x15 33.33 333300
Maize 60 x30 5.5 55500
Pulses
Black gram 30 x10 33.33 333300
Green gram 30 x10 33.33 33300
Red gram 45 x30 22.22 222200
Oilseeds
Groundnut 30 x10 33.33 33300
Gingerly 30 x30 11.11 111100
Sunflower 45 x30 7.5 75000
Sugar crops
Sugercane 80x10-15cm 12.5 12500
Suger beet 50x20cm 10 100000
Sweet sorghum 45x15 cm 14.8 148148
Fibre crops
Cotton 75x30cm(var), 4.44 44400
120x60cm(hyb) 1.388 13888
60x30cm(Rice fallow) 5.55 55555
Tuber crops
Tapioca 75x75cm 1.77 17777
60x60cm 2.77 27777
Potato 45x20cm 11.11 111111
Sweet potato 60x20cm 8.3 833333
Vegetable
Brinjal
60x60 (variety) 2.77 27777
90 x60(hybrid) 1.85 18500
Tomato 45 x30 (variety) 7.5 75000
60 x45(hybrid) 3.7 37000
Bhendi 45 x30 (variety) 7.5 75000

Chilli 60 x45 (variety) 7.5 75000

75 x60(hybrid) 2.22 22200
Fruit crops

Name of the Crops Spacing(cm) Plant pop/ m²

Mango 5 x5m 400
Sapota 8 x8 m 156
Papaya 1.8x1.8m 3000

Problems
1. Calculation of plant population for maize
 Ex.No 8 Methods of irrigation
Date

Aim: To study the different types of irrigation methods

Water application methods are grouped as:
1. Flooding
2. Applying it beneath the soil surface
3. Spraying it under pressure
4. Applying in drops
Irrigation methods
I. Surface
II. Sub-surface
III. Pressurized irrigation
Surface is grouped as Border, Check basin and Furrow irrigations. Border is again classified
in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of rectangular, contour or ring,
whereas furrow irrigation is classified as deep furrow and corrugated furrows. These may be
again straight or contour according to direction and leveled and graded a per their elevation
I. Surface irrigation
i. Border irrigation
• The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.
• These borders are separated by low ridges.
• The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.
• Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end.
• The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.
Suitability : To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is not
used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils having
very low infiltration rate. Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat, barley,
fodder crops and legumes and not suitable for rice.
Width of border strip: It varies from 3-15 m
Border length
0.25 - 0.60% Sandy and sandy loam 60-120 m
0.20 - 0.40% Medium loam soil 100-180 m
0.05 – 0.20% Clay loam and clay soil 150-300 m
ii. Check basin irrigation
• It is the most common method.
• Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.
• Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the
• Irrigation water can be controlled.
• The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
• The size of the basin varies from 10m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type ,
topography, stream size and crop.
Adaptability
1. Small gentle and uniform land slopes
2. Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
3. Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.
4. Suitable to permeable soils.
Furrow irrigation
• Used in the irrigation of row crops.
• The furrows are formed between crop rows.
• The dimension of furrows depend on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type.
• Water is applied by small running streams in furrows between the crop rows.
• Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.
• In heavy soils furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.
Adaptability
1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.
2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
3. Suitable to most soils except sand.
Types of furrow irrigation
Based on alignment of furrows
1. Straight furrows
2. Contour furrows
Based on size and spacing : 1. Deep furrows 2. Corrugations
Based on irrigation
A. All furrow irrigation Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called furrow
system or uniform furrow system.
B. Alternate furrow irrigation It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water saving.
Water is applied in alternate furrows for eg. During first irrigation if the even
numbers of furrows are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows will be
irrigated.
C. Skip furrow irrigation
They are normally adopted during the period of water scarcity and to accommodate
intercrops. In the skip furrow irrigation, a set of furrows are completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The skipped furrow will be utilized for raising intercrop. The system
ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method, the available water is economically
used without much field reduction.
D. Surge irrigation: Surge irrigation is the application of water in to the furrows
intermittently in a series of relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle. It has been
found that intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration tare over surges thereby
the water front advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water requirement. This also
results in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage in the crop root zone compared
to continuous flow. The irrigation efficiency is in between 85 and 90%.
II. Sub-surface irrigation
• In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and
• maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
• ground surface.
• Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action
• Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
Drip irrigation system
• Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.
• It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.
• Water is applied in the root zone of the crop
Components
• A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains,
laterals and emitters.
• The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
• The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
• The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly vinyl
• chloride) tubing. The emitters are also made of PVC material
• he other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.,
Pump
The pump creates the pressure necessary to force water through the components of the
system including the fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, lateral and the emitters and drippers.
Centrifugal pump operated by engines or electric motors are commonly used. The laterals
may be designed to operate under pressures as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2 and as large as 1 to
1.75 kg/cm2. The water coming out of the emitters is almost at atmospheric pressure.
Chemical tank
A tank may be provided at the head of the drip irrigation systems for applying
fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals in solution directly to the field along with irrigation
water.
Filter
It is an essential part of drip irrigation system. It prevents the blockage of pipes and
drippers/emitters. The filter system consists of valves and a pressure gauge for
regulation and control.
Emitters
Drip nozzles commonly called drippers or emitters are provided at regular intervals on
the laterals. They allow water to emit at very low rates usually in trickles. The amount of
water dripping out of each emitters in a unit time will depend mainly upon the pressure and
size of the opening. The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2 to 10 litres per hour.
Micro-tubes are also used in a drip lateral. They are used mainly in the following
ways (1) as emitters (2) as connectors, (3) as pressure regulators
Sprinkler irrigation system
• The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to the field
through pipes (aluminium or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.
• This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly, which is
not possible in surface irrigation.
• Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff
from irrigation is avoided.
A sprinkler system usually consists of the following parts.
1. A pumping unit 5. Couplers
2. Debris removal equipment 6. Raiser pipes
3. Pressure gauge / water-meter 7. Sprinklers
4. Pipelines (mains – sub-mains and 8. Other accessories such as valves, bends,
laterals) plugs, etc.
Pumping unit
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be installed for operating the system for
individual farm holdings. The pumping plants usually consist of a centrifugal or a turbine
type pump, a driving unit, a suction line and a foot valve.
Pipe lines
Pipelines are generally of two types. They are main and lateral. Main pipelines carry
water from the pumping plant to many parts of the field. In some cases sub main lines are
provided to take water from the mains to laterals. The lateral pipelines carry the water from
the main or sub main pipe to the sprinklers. The pipelines may be either permanent, semi
permanent or portable.
Couplers
A coupler provides connection between two tubing and between tubing and fittings.
Sprinklers
Sprinklers may rotate or remain fixed. The rotating sprinklers can be adapted for a
wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10 to
70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16-40 m head are considered the most
practical for most farms. Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns
and gardens.
Types of sprinkler system
On the basis of arrangement for spraying irrigation water
1. Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system
Based on the portability
1. Portable system: It has portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping unit
2. Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a fully portable system
except that the location of the water source and pumping plant are fixed.
3. Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines,
permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
The mainlines and sub-mains are usually buried, with risers for nozzles located at
suitable intervals.
4. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement.
The laterals are placed in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
5. Permanent system: It consists of permanently laid mains, sub-mains and laterals and
a stationary water source and pumping plant. Mains, sub-mains and laterals are
usually buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser
 Ex.No 9
Fertilizer management for field crops and horticultural crops
Date

Aim: To study the fertilizer management for field crops and horticultural crops
Fertilizer
The term fertilizer refers to commercially manufactured inorganic materials either dry
or liquid, which are added to the soil to supply essential plant nutrients. There are different
types of fertilizers available.
1. Nitrogenous 2. Phosphatic 3. Potassic 4. Complex 5. Mixed fertilizers.
Simple fertilizers or straight fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only one primary plant nutrient are called straight fertilizers.
Nitrogenous fertilizers – contain ‘N’ alone (eg.) urea. Phosphatic fertilizers – contain
phosphorus alone (eg.) super phosphate. Potassic fertilizers – contain potassium alone (eg.)
Muriate of potash.
Complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing two or more plant nutrients (of which two are major nutrients)
in chemical combination are called complex fertilizers. eg. 17:17:17 complex fertilizer.
Incomplete complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only two of the primary nutrients are called incomplete complex
fertilizers.
Mixed fertilizers
Individual straight fertilizer materials are mechanically mixed together to permit
application in the field in one operation. They supply two or three major plant nutrients. The
percentage of nutrients present in the mixture is expressed as fertilizer grade like 10-5-5
NPK.
Nitrogenous fertilizer materials and their nutrient content (%)
1. Urea (46%)
2. Ammonium sulphate (21%)
3. CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate) (25%)
4. Ammonium nitrate (34%)
Phosphatic fertilizers
Water soluble phosphate (Mono calcium phosphate)
1. Single super phosphate (SSP) - 16%
2. Double super phosphate (DSP) - 32%
3. Triple super phosphate (TSP) - 48%
4. Ammonium phosphate
Citric acid soluble phosphate (Di-calcium phosphate)
1. Basic slag -14-18%
2. Di calcium phosphate - 34-39%
Insoluble phosphate (Tri calcium phosphate)
1. Rock phosphate - 20-40%
2. Raw bone meal - 20-25%
3. Steamed bone meal - 22-30%
Potassic fertilizers
1. Muriate of potash (KCl) - 60%
2. Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) - 48-52%
3. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) - 48%
Micronutrients
Plant nutrients required in minute quantities but considered essential are called
micronutrients or trace elements or minor elements (eg.) Zinc sulphate.
Working out of fertilizer schedule
Fertilizer requirement
The nutrient requirement of crops varies and is made available to the plant by
application of fertilizers. The nutrient(s) content of fertilizer material also varies. It is
calculated by the formula.

100
Quantity of fertilizer to be -------------------------------------- x Recommended dose of
applied (kg/ha) = Nutrient content in the nutrient(kg/ha)
fertilizer material

Conversion factors to workout quantity of fertilizer from nutrient

Nutrient Multiplication factor Fertilizer
Nitrogen 4.9 Ammonium sulphate
Nitrogen 2.17 Urea
Nitrogen 4.0 Ammonium chloride
Nitrogen 3.0 Ammonium nitrate
Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 6.25 Super phosphate
Potash (K2O) 1.67 Muriate of potash
Potash (K2O) 2.0 Sulphate of potash
Example 1
Fertilizer recommended for rice is 150-50-50 kg N, P2O5 & K2O per hectare.
Calculate the requirement of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash.
100
Urea requirement = x 150 = 325.5 kg/ha
46
100
Super phosphate = x 50 = 312.5 kg/ha
16

100
Muriate of potash = x 50 = 83.3 kg/ha
60
Exercise
1. Work out fertilizer requirement of DAP, urea and MOP for rice (150:50:50 NPK/ha).

2. Work out the manures (FYM, vermi-compost, goat manure) required to supply N
requirement to maize hybrid (150 kg/ha)
 Ex.No 10 Crops weed management in major field crops and horticultural
Date

Aim : To study the weed management for different crops

Rice
Nursery
Apply any one of the Pre-emergence herbicides viz., Butachlor 2 l/ha, Thiobencarb
th
2/ha, Pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha, Anilofos 1.25 l/ha on 8 day after sowing to control weeds in
the lowland nursery. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to disappear. Avoid drainage of
water. This will control germinating weeds.
Transplanted
Pre-emergence
a) Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Fluchoralin 2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3
l/ha or Anilofos 1.25 l/ha as pre-emergence application. Alternatively, pre-emergence
application of herbicide mixture viz., Butachlor 1.2 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb
1.2 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Fluchoralin 1.0 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 1.5 l +
2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Anilofos + 2,4-DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed by one hand
weeding on 30-35 days after transplanting will have a broad spectrum of weed control in
transplanted rice.
b) Any herbicide has to be mixed with 50 kg of sand on the day of application (3-4 days after
transplanting) and applied uniformly to the field in 2.5 cm depth of water. Water should
not be drained for 2 days from the field or fresh irrigation should not be given.
c) Wherever there is possibility of heavy weed infestation, herbicides can also be applied
with neem coated urea which could serve as carrier, three to four days after transplanting
instead basal application of N at last puddling.
Post-emergence
th
If pre-emergence herbicides are not used, hand weed on 15 day after transplanting.
2,4-D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) 1250 g dissolved in 625 l/ha of water is sprayed with
a high volume sprayer, three weeks after transplanting or when the weeds are in 3-4 leaf
stage.
Late hand weeding
Hand weed a second time, 80-85 days after transplanting, if necessary.
Wet seeded rice
In wet seeded rice apply Thiobencarb at 2.5 l/ha or Pretilachlor 0.9 l/ha on
4DAS/6DAS/8DAS followed by one hand weeding for effecrtive control of weeds OR Pre-
emergence application of Pretilachlor + safener at 0.6 l/ha on 4DAS followed by one hand
weeding on 40 DAS effectively control weeds.
Rainfed rice
th th
1. First weeding should be done between 15 and 20 day and second weeding may be done
45 days after first weeding. or
2. Use Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3 l/ha 8 days after sowing if adequate moisture
is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
Direct seeded rice
Thiobencarb/Butachlor at 2.5 l/ha as pre-emergence application one day after wetting /
th
soaking can be applied and it should be followed by hand weeding on 30 day. Sufficient soil
moisture should be available for herbicidal use
Semi dry rice
th
Use Thiobencarb 3 l/ha or Pendimethalin 4 l/ha on 8 day after sowing as sand mix if
adequate moisture is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after sowing.
Or
Pre-emergence application of pretilachlor 0.6 l/ha followed by post emergence application of
2,4-D Na salt 1.25 kg/ha + one hand weeding on 45DAS.
Maize
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 at 500 g/ha (900 lit of water), 3 days after
sowing as spray on the soil surface using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with
flat fan or deflector type nozzle followed by one hand weeding 40-45 days after sowing.
For maize + Soybean intercropping system, apply pre-emergence Alachlor at 4.0 l/ha or
rd
Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha on 3 after sowing as spray.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil
3. Do not disturb the soil after the herbicide application
th th
4. Hoe and Hand weed on 17 or 18 day of sowing if herbicide is not applied.

Note: If pulse crop is to be raised as intercrop, do not use Atrazine.

Wheat
1. Spray Isoproturon 800 g/ha as pre-emergence spraying 3 days after sowing followed by on
th
hand weeding on 35 day after sowing.
th th
2. If herbicide is not applied, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 day after sowing.
Redgram, Blackgram and Greengram,
1. Spray Fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 2 l/ha 3 days after sowing mixed with 900 l of
water using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan type nozzle. Then
irrigate the field. Following this one hand weeding may be given 30-35 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not given, give two hand weeding on 15 and 35 days after sowing.
Groundnut
1. Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha may be applied and incorporated.
2. Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha applied through flat fan nozzle with 900 lit of
water/ha followed by irrigation. After 35-40 days one hand weeding may be given.
3. Pre-emergence application of metolachlor (2.0 l/ha) plus one hand weeding on 30 days
after sowing is more profitable.
th th
4. In case no herbicide is applied two hand hoeing and weeding are given 20 and 40 day
after sowing.
Gingelly
th th
Weed and hoe on the 15 and 35 day of sowing. Apply Alachlor at 2.5 l/ha on 3 days
after sowing and irrigate the crop immediately.
Sunflower
1. Apply Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha before sowing and incorporate or apply as pre-emergence
spray on 3 days after sowing followed by irrigation or apply Pendimethalin (3.0 l/ha) as
pre-emergence spray on 3 days after sowing. The spray of these herbicides has to be
accomplished with Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan nozzle using
900 lit of water/ha as spray fluid. All the herbicide application is to be followed by one
late hand weeding 30-35 days after sowing
th th
2. Hoe and hand weed on the 15 and 30 day of sowing and remove the weeds. Allow the
weeds to dry for 2-3 days in the case of irrigated crop and then give irrigation
Cotton
1. Apply pre-emergence herbicides Fluchloralin 2.2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha three days
after sowing, using a hand operated sprayer fitted with deflecting or fan type nozzle.
Sufficient moisture should be present in the soil at the time of herbicide application or
irrigate immediately after application. Then hand weed on 35-40 days after sowing.
Note : Do not use Diuron (Karmex) in sandy soil. Heavy rains after application of Karmex
may adversely affect germination of cotton seeds.
th th
2. Hoe and hand weed between 18 to 20 day of sowing, if herbicide is not applied at the
time of sowing followed by second hand weeding on 35 to 45 DAS.
Sugarcane - Pure crop
1. Spray Atrazine 2 kg or Oxyfluurofen 750 ml/ha mixed in 900 lit of water as pre-emergence
rd
herbicide on 3 day of planting, using deflector or fan type nozzle.
2. If pre-emergence spray is not carried out, go for post-emergence spray of gramaxone 2.5lit
st
+ 2,4-d sodium salt 2.5 kg/ha in 900 lit of water on 21 day of planting or apply 10%
th th th
Ammonium sulphate on 45 , 75 and 105 day after planting as directed spray.
3. If the parasitic weed Striga is a problem, Post-emergence application of 2,4-D sodium salt
1.75 kg/ha in 650 lit of water/ha has to be sprayed. 2,4-D spraying should be avoided
when neighbouring crop is cotton or bhendi or apply 20% urea for the control of Striga as
directed spray.
4. If herbicide is not applied work the Junior-hoe along the ridges 25, 55, and 85 days after
planting for removal of weeds and proper stirring. Remove the weeds along the furrows
with hand hoe.
Sugarcane - Intercrop
Pre-emergence application of Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha under cropping system in
sugarcane with soybean, black gram or ground nut gives effective weed control. Raising
intercrops is not found to affect the cane yield and quality.
Traditional vegetable-growing areas are usually situated adjacent to waterways, flood
plains, river deltas, marsh zones, and, if herbicides are used, their environmental impact and
usage conditions must be taken into account. Another aspect related to the complexity of
herbicide use is its soil persistence that can seriously affect the next crops in the rotation as a
result of soil residues or carryover. Vegetable rotations are very fast and intensive in many
places, and herbicide toxicity can affect the next crop if the cycle of the previous crop is short
enough.
We have to consider all these aspects, as well as consumer concerns on the probable
presence of pesticide residues in fruit, leaves and roots of these crops and the strict limitations
for marketing and export that can invalidate the hard labour and endurance of many workers.
Therefore, a careful use of herbicide is compulsory, and good field practices must be
followed, especially when recognition of a labelled production is desired. There is a great
interest in the integration of tilling practices with chemical control because of the reduction of
the herbicide impact and the cost of hand-labour.
Seed beds
Many vegetables are grown in seed beds to develop suitable seedlings for
transplanting in the field. Soils dedicated to seed beds are usually light, with good tilth, and
fertilized to obtain a good plant emergence. Seed beds are usually flood-irrigated and plastic-
protected. Here we add some possibilities for weed management.
Stale seed beds
Stale (‘false’) seed beds are sometimes used for vegetables when other selective
weed-control practices are limited or unavailable. Basically, this technique consists of the
following:
i. Preparation of a seedbed 2-3 weeks before planting to achieve maximum weed-seed
germination near the soil surface.
ii. Planting the crop with minimum soil disturbance to avoid exposing new weed seed
to favourable germination conditions.
iii. Treating the field with a non-residual herbicide to kill all germinated weeds just
before or after planting, but before crop emergence.
Solarization
Soil solarization is a broad-spectrum control method, simple, economically feasible
and environmentally friendly. It is an effective method for the control of many weeds. some
disadvantages in its implementation. For example, previous irrigation is a requirement, (or
frequent and abundant rain) and the soil must be kept solarized (non-producing) for a period
of at least one month. Results are often variable, depending on weather conditions. Cold
(high latitude) or cloudy places are usually not suitable for implementing solarization. Some
species can tolerate solarization (e.g. deep rooted perennials: Sorghum halepense, Cyperus
rotundus, Equisetum spp. and also some big weed seeds such as legumes).
The soil must be clean, surface-levelled and wet, previously to being covered with a
thin (0,1-0,2 mm) transparent plastic sheet and very well sealed. The soil must be kept
covered during the warmer and sunnier months (30-45 days). Soil temperatures must reach
above 40° C to exert a good effect on weed seeds.
After solarization the plastic must be recovered, and the use of deep or mouldboard
tillage must be avoided. This system is more suitable for small areas of vegetables, but it has
been mechanized for extensive areas of tomatoes. Soil solarization is widely used under
plastic greenhouse conditions.
Chemical control in seed beds
There are even less registered herbicides for seed beds than for planting crops.
Herbicide treatments under plastic cover are always hazardous and careful application should
be carried out. Under plastic, high levels of moisture and elevated temperature are common
and plants grow very gently. Selectivity could be easily lost and phytotoxicity symptoms may
occur, while sometimes they are just temporary. The effects are often erratic. The best way to
deal with it is to be prudent and make some trials before a general treatment.
Selective pre-emergence and early post-emergence herbicides for vegetable
seedbeds a) Pre-emergence
Herbicide Dose (kg a.i./ ha) Crop
Clomazone 0.18 - 0.27 Pepper, cucumber
DCPA 6.0 - 7.5 Onion, cole crops, lettuce
Metribuzin 0.15 - 0.5 Tomato
Napropamide 1.0 - 2.0 Tomato, pepper, eggplant
Pendimethalin 1.0 - 1.6 1.0 - 2.5 Onion, garlic Lettuce
Propachlor 5.2 - 6.5 Onion, cole crops

b) Post-emergence (crops with at least 3 leaves)

Clomazone 0.27 -0.36 Pepper
Ioxinil 0.36 Onion, garlic, leek
Hand weeding
Apart from chemical weeding, one hand weeding is done 30 days after transplanting.
Biological control
Myco-herbicides are a preparation containing pathogenic spores applied as a spray
with standard herbicide application equipment. Eg: a weevil for the aquatic weed salvinia,
rust for skeleton weed, and a caterpillar (Cactoblastis sp.) to control prickly pear.
 Ex.No 11
Cultivation practices for tomato
Date

Aim: To study about the cultivation practices for tomato.

Materials Required
1. Plough 4. Herbicides
2.puddlers 5. Mannurs and fertilizers
3.Leveller 6. Mulching sheet

Pre-requisites
Varieties
PKM 1, CO 3 (Marutham) and Paiyur

Hybrids
COTH 2 and TNAU Tomato Hybrid CO 3
Soil
Well drained loamy soil rich in organic matter with a pH range of 6.5 - 7.5.

Season of sowing
May - June and November - December

Nursery bed preparation

Apply FYM 10 kg, Neemcake 1 kg, VAM 50 g, enriched Superphosphate 100 g and
Furadon 10 g per square metre before sowing.

Seed rate
• Varieties : 300-350 g / ha
• Hybrids : 100-150 g / ha

Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride 4 g or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10 g or
Carbendazim 2 g per kg of seeds 24 hours before sowing. Just before sowing, treat the seeds
with Azospirillum @ 40 g / 400 g of seeds. Sow in lines at 10 cm apart in raised nursery
beds and cover with sand.

Field preparation
Plough the land to fine tilth. Thoroughly prepare the field with the addition of FYM
@ 25 t/ ha and form ridges and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg/ha of
Azospirillum and 2 kg/ha of Phosphobacteria by mixing with 50 kg of FYM. Irrigate the
furrows and transplant 25 days old seedlings on the sides of ridges. Life irrigation to be
given on 3rd day of planting.
Spacing for varieties
PKM 1, Paiyur 1, COTH 2, TNAU Tomato Hybrid CO 3 : 60 x 45 cm
CO 3 : 45 x 30 cm
Mulching
Mulch with black LDPE sheets of 25 micron thickness and bury both the ends into
the soil to a depth of 10 cm
Weed control
Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i./ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i / ha as pre-emergence
herbicide, followed by hand weeding once at 30 days after planting.
Irrigation
After establishment of seedlings, irrigate at weekly intervals.
Manuring
Varieties
Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 75:100:50 kg / ha
Borax 10 kg and Zinc sulphate 50 kg / ha
Top dressing : 75 kg N/ha on 30th day of planting or during earthing up.

Principles
Fertigation schedule for tomato hybrids
Recommended dose: 200:250: 250 kg / ha

IPM Package for Tomato

• Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seeds
• Nursery application with Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens
• Application of Neem cake @ 250kg/ha
• Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5kg/ha
• Selection of good and virus disease free seedlings for planting
• Roguing out of virus infected plants upto 45 days of transplanting
• Grow marigold as a border crop
• Set up Helicoverpa / Spodoptera pheromone traps @ 12 numbers / ha
• Release Trichogramma chilonis @ 50000/ha
• Install yellow sticky traps
• Spraying Neem formulations (1%) / Neem seed kernel extract (5%)

Duration
110- 115 days from transplanting (135 - 140 days from sowing)

Yield
• Varieties : 30-40 t / ha
• Hybrids : 80-95 t / ha

Results
 Ex.No 12
Cultivation practices for brinjal
Date

Aim: To study about the cultivation practices for brinjal crop.

Materials Required
1. Plough 4. Mannurs and fertilizers
2. Leveller 5. Mulching sheet
3. Herbicides
Varieties
CO2, MDU1, PKM1, PLR1, PLR (B) 2, KKM 1, PPI 1, Annamalai and TNAU
Brinjal VRM 1, hybrids coBH 2.
Soil
Well drained soil rich in organic matter with pH of 6.5-7.5.
Season of sowing
December – January and May – June
Nursery bed preparation
Apply FYM 10 kg, neem cake 1 kg, VAM 50 g, enriched super phosphate 100 g and
furadon 10 g per square metre before sowing. Area required for raising seedling for planting
ha is 100 sq.m.
Seed rate
• Varieties : 400 g / ha
• Hybrids : 200 g / ha
Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g / kg or Pseudomonas
fluorescens
@ 10 g / kg of seed. Treat the seeds with Azospirillum @ 40 g / 400 g of seeds using rice
gruel as adhesive. Irrigate with rose can. In raised nursery beds, sow the seeds in lines at 10
cm apart and cover with sand. Transplant the seedlings 30 – 35 days after sowing at 60 cm
apart in the ridges.
Field preparation
Thoroughly prepare the field with the addition of FYM @ 25 t / ha and form ridges
and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg / ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of
Phosphobacteria by mixing with 50 kg of FYM. Irrigate the furrows and transplant 30-35
days old seedlings at 60 cm apart on the ridges.
Spacing
• Varieties : 60 x 60 cm
• Hybrids : 90 x 60 cm
Mulching
Mulch with black LDPE sheets of 25 micron thickness and bury both the ends into the
soil to a depth of 10 cm.
Weed control
Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i / ha as pre-emergence
herbicide, followed by hand weeding once at 30 days after planting.
Irrigation

After establishment of seedlings, irrigate at weekly intervals.

Manuring
Apply 2 kg each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria in the mainfield at planting.

Varieties
• Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 50:50:30 kg/ ha.
• Top dressing : 50 kg N/ha on 30th day of planting or during earthing up.
• Fertilizer Recommended dose: 200:150: 100 kg / ha

IPM Package for Brinjal

i. Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride (4g/kg) and Pseudomonas @ 10 g/ kg of

seed
ii. Nursery + seedling dip treatment with Pseudomonas @ 10 g/ lit of water
iii. Soil application with Neemcake @250 kg/ha
iv. Maize as boarder crop against movement of whiteflies/ Liriomyza
v. Use of yellow sticky traps against White flies and Liriomyza
vi. Clipping of shoot borer infested terminals
vii. Leucinodes adult monitoring with pheromone traps
viii. Trichogramma release after each brood emergence of Leucinodes
ix. Application of Neem oil formulations 10000ppm @1% / Neem seed kernel extract
(5%)
 Ex.No 13
Cultivation practices for bhendi
Date

Aim: To study about the cultivation practices for bhendi

Materials required
1.Plough 4. Mannurs and fertilizers
2.Leveller 5. Mulching sheet
3. Herbicides

Pre-requisites
Varieties
Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay and Parbhani Kranti

Hybrid : COBhH 1
Soil
It is adaptable to a wide range of soils from sandy loam to clayey loam

Season of sowing
June - August and February

Principles
Seed rate
• Varieties : 8.0 kg / ha
• Hybrids : 2.5 kg / ha

Seed treatment
Seed treatment with Tricoderma viride @ 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/
kg of seeds and again with 400 g of Azospirillum using starch as adhesive and dried in shade
for 20 minutes. Sow three seeds per hill at 30 cm apart and then thin to 2 plants per hill after
10 days.
Field preparation
Plough the land 4 - 5 times and form ridges and furrows at 45 cm apart.

Sowing
Sow three seeds per hill at 30 cm apart and then thin to 2 plants per hill after 10 days.

Spacing : 45 x 30 cm

Irrigation
After germination, irrigate at weekly intervals.

Application of fertilizers
Apply Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria each at 2 kg/ha mixed with 100 kg of FYM
before sowing.
Varieties
Basal dose FYM @ 25 t/ha, N @ 20 kg, P @ 50 kg and K @ 30 kg/ha as basal and
20 kg N/ha at 30 days after sowing.

Fertigation schedule for hybrids

Recommended dose: 200:100: 100 kg / ha

IPM practices Package for Bhendi

• Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride (4g/kg) and Pseudomonas (10 g/ kg)
• Soil application of Pseudomonas and Trichoderma (each2.5kg/ha)
• Soil application with Neem cake @250 kg/ha
• Maize as border crop against movement of whiteflies/ Liriomyza
• Use of yellow sticky traps
• Periodical removal of yellow vein mosaic virus infected plants
• Helicoverpa and Earias adult monitoring with pheromone traps
• Trichogramma release after each brood emergence of Helicoverpa and Earias
• Application of Neem oil formulations 10000ppm @1% / Neem seed kernel extract (5%)

Yield : 12 - 15 t / ha

Result
 Ex.No 14
Cultivation Practices for Chillies
Date

Aim: To study about the cultivation practices for chillies.

Materials Required
1.Plough 4. Mannurs and fertilizers
2.Leveller 5. Mulching sheet
3. Herbicides

Varieties
K 1, K 2, CO 2, CO 4 (vegetable type), PKM 1, PMK 1 (for semi-dry
conditions in Southern Districts), PLR1 (for coastal regions of North - East Tamil
Nadu) and KKM (Ch) 1.

Hybrids
TNAU Chilli Hybrid CO 1

Soil : Well drained loamy soil rich in organic matter with pH range 6.5-7.5.

Season of sowing : January – February, June – July and September - October

Principles
Seed rate
• Varieties : 1.0 kg / ha.
• Hybrids : 200 - 250 g / ha.
• Nursery area : 100 sq.m / ha.

Seed treatment
Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4 g / kg or Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 10 g/ kg and sow in lines spaced at 10 cm in raised nursery beds and
cover with sand. Watering with rose can has to be done daily. Drench the nursery with
Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/l of water at 15 days interval against damping off
disease. Apply Carbofuran 3 G at 10 g/sq.m. at sowing.
Field preparation
Thoroughly prepare the field with the addition of FYM @ 25 t/ ha and form ridges
and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply 2 kg/ha of Azospirillum and 2 kg / ha of
Phosphobacteria by mixing with 20 kg of FYM. Irrigate the furrows and transplant 40-45
days old seedlings, with the ball of earth on the ridges.
Spacing
• Varieties : 60 x 45 cm
• Hybrids : 75 x 60 cm
Weed control
Apply Pendimethalin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha or Fluchloralin 1.0 kg a.i. / ha as pre-
emergece herbicide followed by hand weeding once 30 days after planting.
Irrigation
Irrigate at weekly intervals.

Manuring
Varieties
Basal dose : FYM 25 t/ha, NPK 30:60:30 kg/ ha. Potassium as K2SO4 for
quality improvement. Application of potassium in the form of
potassium sulphate will increase quality of chilli.

Top dressing : 30 kg N/ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.

Hybrids
• Basal dose : FYM 30 t / ha, NPK 30:80:80 kg / ha.
• Top dressing : 30 kg N / ha in equal splits on 30, 60 and 90 days after
planting.

Fertigation schedule Chilli F1 Hybrid

• Recommended Dose: 120:80:80 kg / ha

Weed control
Spray Fluchloralin @ 1 lit a.i/ha or Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i/ ha. or Oxyflourfen
@ 0.15 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence herbicide and may be combined with hand
weeding once and earthing up 45 days after planting. Raise intercrop of onion in
paired row system to get additional income.
Plant protection
Pests

Fruit borer: Integrated pest management of fruit borer:

1. Set up pheromone traps for Helicoverpa armigera / Spodoptera litura @ 12 no. / ha.
2. Collection and destruction of damaged fruits and grown up caterpillars.
3. Spray Bacillus thuringiensis @ 2 g / lit.
4. Provide poison bait with carbaryl 1.25 kg, rice bran 12.5 kg, jaggery 1.25 kg and water
lit / ha or spray any one of the following insecticide.
Thrips
• Grow Agathi as Intercrop.
• Treat seeds with imidacloprid 70% WS @ 12 g /kg of seed.
• Apply carbofuran 3% G @ 33 kg /ha or phorate 10 % G @ 10 kg/ha or spray
any one of the following insecticide.
Aphids
• Treat seeds with imidacloprid 70% WS @12 g /kg of seed.
• Apply phorate 10 % G @ 10 kg/ha or spray any one of the following insecticide.

Yellow Muranai mite

Apply phorate 10 % G @ 10 kg/ha or spray any one of the following insecticide:
Aphid and Thrips:
Spray neem oil 1% or neem cake extract 5% to control aphids and thrips.
Diseases
Damping off: Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas
fluorescens 10 g /kg of seed 24 hours before sowing. Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens as
soil application @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of FYM. Stagnation of water should be
avoided. Drench with Copper oxychloride at 2.5 g /lit at 4 lit /sq.m.
Leaf spot: Spray Mancozeb @ 2 g/lit or Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/lit.
Powdery mildew: Spray Wettable sulphur @ 3 g/lit or Carbendazim @ 1 g/lit, 3 sprays
at 15 days interval from the first appearance of symptom.
Die-back and fruit rot: Spray Mancozeb 2 g/lit or Copper oxychloride @ 2.5 g/lit
thrice at 15 days interval starting from noticing the die-back symptoms.
Chilli mosaic: Raise 2 rows of maize or sorghum for every 5 rows of chilli crop
against wind direction. Spray recommendations given for controlling the vector.
Yield
Varieties : 2 - 3 t/ha of dry pods or 10 - 15 t/ha of green chillies.

Result