7.23 TCP/IP Protocol Suite - ‘Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the pro for communications between hosts in most local networks and on the Interne to enable network communications in local area networks and wide area net 5 the hosts support the protocol. TCP/IP is widely supported and is included in operating systems such as Windows 7, XP, Vista, Mac OS, Linux, and Unix. tocol suite used 1. It can be used orks as long as ‘Application | ——— Applications Session IGMP] Network Datalink Figure 7.46: TCP/IP vs OSI Model ‘The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed before the OSI model. Its layers are not same as OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined with four layers known as host-to-network, internet, transport and application. The host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of physical and data link layers of OSI model. The internet layer is equivalent to the netivork layer. The application layer performs the tasks similar to the tasks of session, presentation and application layers of OSI model. The transport layer in TCP/IP takes care of part of the duties of the session layer. So it is assumed that TCP/IP protocol suite corsets of five layers called physical, data link, network, transport and application. The aot pies Provide the physical standards, network interfaces, internetworking and Cie dasoe sae ue are equivalent to the first four layers of OSI model. However, the yers of OSI model are represented in TCP/IP by only the application layer. Scanned with CamScannerChapter? = Date Communicationand Networks st TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol. It consists of interactive: rovides a specific functionality but are not necessarily interdepend. which functions belongs to each layer. The layers of TCP/IP protoc independent protocols. The protocols can be mixed and matched act 4, Physical and Data Link Layers TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol at the physical and data link layers, It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in TCP/IP internetwork can bea local area network or wide area network, 2. Network Layer TCP/IP network layer defines the protocols used for addressing and routing the data packets. The protocols that are part of TCP/IP network layer are IP, ARP, ICMP and IGMP. 3, Transport Layer The transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols called TCP and UDP. IP is a host-to-host protocol and’can deliver a packet from one physical device to another. UDP and TCP are transport level protocols and are responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another process. A new transport layer protocol SCTP has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications. 4, Application Layer modules. Each module lent. OSI model specifies Ol suite contain relatively ‘cording to system needs, The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the-combined session, presentation and application layers of OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer. 7.24 IP Addressing The MAC address provides the physical address for the network interface card. However, it does not provide any information about the location of its network. Internet Protocol (IP) addressing provides a solution to worldwide addressing by using a unique address that identifies the computer's local network. IP network numbers are assigned by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). This agency assigns IP addresses to computer networks. It ensures that no two different networks are assigned the same IP network address. IP addresses are classified as IPv4 or IPv6. IP version 4 (IPv4) is the current TCP/IP addressing. technique being used on the Internet. The address space for IPv4 is quickly Tunning out due to the rapid growth of the Internet and the development of new Internet- compatible technologies. However, both IPv4 and IPv6 are supported by manufacturers of networking equipment and the latest computer operating systems. 7.24.1 IPv4 Addressing IP version 4 (IPv4) is the current TCP/IP addressing technique being used on the Internet. It is also the preferred technique for providing addresses in the LAN. A typical IP address is written as 216.27.61.137. The IP address is written in decimal format. But IP address in computer is written in binary form as follows: 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001 ‘The four numbers in an IP address are called octets because each part contains eight Positions in binary form. If all positions are added together, it gives 32. That is why IP addresses are considered 32-bit numbers. Scanned with CamScanner312 IT Series => The Concepts of Information Technolo; Each position in an octect can have two different states (1 or 0). It means that the tot possible combinations per octet is 28 or 256. Each octet can contain any value between 0 an, 255. A combination of four octets gives 22 or a possible 4,294,967,296 unique values. Some certain values are restricted from use as typical IP addresses. For example, the Ip address 0.0.0.0 is reserved for the default network and the address 255.255.255.255 is used for broadcasts. Ck 7 os é The octets are used to create classes of IP addresses that can be assigned to a particul business, government or other entity based on size and need. The octets are divided into tw, sections of Net and Host. The Net section always contains the first octet. It is used to ident the network in which a computer exists. Host (or Node) identifies the actual computer on network. The Host section always contains the last octet. There are five IP classes and certain special addresses: 2nd Octet 3rd Octet A Host ID Host ID Host ID Multicast address Reserved for future use Class A The class A is used for very large networks such as an international organization. IP addresses of this class are from 1 to 126. The other three octets are used to ident host. It means that there are 126 networks in Class A. Each network has 16,777,214 (22 — possible hosts for a total of 2,147,483,648 (21) unique IP addresses. In Class A networks, value of high order bit in the first octet is always 0. 115. Loopback Address: The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as loopback address. It means that it is used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing. Example Onnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh The first bit is 0 The next 7 bits represent the network The next 24 bits represent the host The initial byte can be from 0 - 127 ‘i . Total address in Class A are 126 16,777,214 hosts on each Class A Class B (and 127 are reserved 128 to 191. Class B addresses also include the sec It means that there are 16,384 (214) networks in Class B. Each network has 65,534 (216 - 2) possible hosts for a total of 1,073,741,824 (250) unique PP addresses. Scanned with CamScannerChapter” = Data Communication and Networks 313 Class B networks have a first bit value of 1 and a second bit value of 0 in the first octet. Ce ee aaa ee 5807 es | Example 40nnnnnn nnannnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh «The first two bits are 10 « Thenext 14 bits represent the network « Thenext 16 bits represent the host The initial bytes can be from 128 - 191 Total addresses in Class B are 16,384 «65,532 hosts are available on each Class B Class C ‘The class C addresses are commonly used for small to medium-size organization. The first of the IP addresses of this class is from 192 to 223. Class C addresses also include the second and third octets as part of the Net identifier. The last octet is used to identify each host. It means that there are 2,097,152 (22!) networks in class C. Each network has 254 (2° -2) possible hosts for a total of 536,870,912 (2*) unique IP addresses. Class C networks have a first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1 and a third bit value of 0 in the first octet. Example 710nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh The first three bits are 110 The next 21 bits represent the network The next 8 bits represent the host - The initial bytes can be from 192 - 223 Total addresses in Class C are 2,097,152 254 hosts on each Class C Class D The class D is used for multicasts. Multicasting is used to pass the copies of datagram S : selected group of hosts instead of individual host. Class D is slightly different from the i hare classes, It has a first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1, third bit value of 1 and urth bit value of 0. The other 28 bits are used to identify the group of computers where the multicast message will be passed. [Net Host orNede en ee ee Example 1110mmmm mmmmmmmn mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm * The first four bits are 1110 © The next 28 bits are for multicast address * The initial bytes can be from 224 - 247 Scanned with CamScanner314 Series => The Concepts of Information Technology IT Series 1. is also different from, first th aE Fees ceceermental bit value or ihnd vie ary 1 and fourth bit The clase E is us f 1, second bit value of 1, sia te eee used to identify the group of computers where tc value of 1. The of : ill be passed. ~_— ) * Broadcast: The messages that are intended for all computers on a ee are sent as broadcasts. These Messages always use the IP address 255,255,255,25: . Example Verve rreerere reeeeere rereeere The first four bits are 1111 The next 28 bits are reserved address The initial byte can be from.248 - 255 Itis reserved for experimental use 7.24.2 IPy6 Addressing IPv4 is the current TCP/IP addressin ibace for IPv4 is quickly runnin 8 technique used on the Internet. The addres Bent ue to the rapid growth of the Internet, Ipyg Was introduced as a solution for expanding the possible nuniber of users on the Internet, It is algo called Ipng or the next generation IP. IPV6 uses 128-bit address technique as compared to IPv4's 32-bit address structure, If Provides a large number of IP addresses (228), Ipyg numbers are written in hexadecimal tather than dotted decimal. An example of a 32-hexadecimal digit pve address is as follows: OMPABCDARSLEESE 7654.37 REDCR.ARD The important changes from IPv4 to IPV6 are as follows: Expanded Address Space The current Internet addresses are 32 bits long. It limits the humber of unique addresses {0 approximately 4 billion. Some | addresses are Teserved such as broadcast addresses and sor addresses in a class may not be used. [Py6 increases the size address field to 128 bits. Ie allows Up to 3 x 1038, addresses, Quality of Service (Qos) IPv6 will institute Service Categories to Prioritize the flow of to accommodate time-sensitive transmissions such as audio vidleo. The real-time transmissions improved i Priority designations include classifications such as follows: . Uncharacterized traffic *~ Filler traffic * Unattended data transfer Such as e-mail . . . Bulk transfer such as file transfers Interactive transfers Real-time transfers Scanned with CamScannerFige 72 Data Communication and Networks chal 315 spcaer chaMERS ‘The format of IP header will change to provide larger address security space and quality of service. The header fields that are currently not used will be dropped. The header extensions are allowed to provide variable-length headers. The extension headers can provide functions such as security, integrity, destination-specific information and routing control. & Privacy ChaigesIPv6 will allow extensions to the header for secure transmissions. The extensions will provide many authentication algorithims to detect and eliminate security problems. interoperability with IPva The new version will be backward compatible with the current in version. The implementation of IPv6 may be accomplished incrementally to allow the nodes to be upgraded to the new version. Types of IPv6 addresses Different types of IPv6 addresses are as follows: Unicast ‘The unicast IPv6 address is used to identify single network interface address. Data packets are sent directly to the computer with specified IPv6 address. Multicast IPv6 addresses are defined for a group of networking devices. Data packets sent to a multicast address are sent to the entire group of networking devices such as a group of routers running the same routing protocol. Multicast addresses start with the prefix FF00:;/8, The next group of characters in the IPv6 multicast address are called ‘the scope. The scope bits are used to identify which ISP should carry the data traffic. ‘Anycast ‘The anycast IPv6 address is obtained from a list of addresses but is only delivered to the nearest node. Scanned with CamScanner