CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND FAMILY STUDIES

UNITDEVELOPMENT AND ROLE OF

MORAL
3
CULTURE

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally

controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses
largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

 Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the
perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more
“bad” the act is perceived to be.

 Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior
is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest.
Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to
the point where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result,
concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a
“you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be
when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it
for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal

and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but

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this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

 Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to
others.

 Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the
same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do
is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond
the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a
duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at
stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in

terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are
unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may
disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by
their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as
life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather
than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-
conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social
conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

 Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and

values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid

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edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of
people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.

 Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal

ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than
concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are
valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to
justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the
ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles,
they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to
do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their
best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to
identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg’s great contribution was to say that moral development is dependent is

dependent on cognitive development. A certain level of abstract thinking is necessary for
mature moral reasoning. However, Kohlberg has been criticized for his overemphasis on
intellectual development, as if intellect alone could account for moral maturity. Specifically, he
failed to recognize the importance of context. Moral reasoning reflects what is relevant to
people in their own circumstances. For example, people in urban environments tend to score at
Stage 4, with an appreciation of the importance of impersonal rules that all people need to
follow. In contrast, people from rural areas tend to score at Stage 3, where moral judgements
are based on consideration of interpersonal relationships. In urban areas, where personal ties
are eroded, behavior is regulated by impersonal and formal laws. In small villages where
everyone knows one another, behavior is regulated by the web of personal relationships.

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THE ROLE OF CULTURE

Childhood Development for All Cultures

Grounded in our fundamental biology, much of childhood is the same across cultures.
All children grow from infants to toddlers to children to adolescents. All learn to walk and talk
and play and eventually to take part in the work of their society. All children develop profound
emotional attachments to their family and their primary caregivers. Moreover, all children have
to develop an identity within their social group and to balance self-expression with self-
restraint. Within these broad outlines, however, there are many areas for cultural differences.

What are some of the ways that cultures differ?

While all children must learn to balance

emotional expression with emotional restraint
cultures vary widely with regard to the freedom
of emotional expression. Some cultures value
open expression of deeply felt emotion and
others value emotional self-control, believing
public displays of emotion to be vulgar. Cultures
also vary widely with regard to the emphasis on
dependence vs. independence, individuality vs.
group orientation, and respect for authority vs.
individual self-assertion. Additionally, different cultures have disparate views on the value of
stability vs. change and religious tradition vs. scientific thought. Cultures also differ with regard
to the perceived value of intellectual development, of physical prowess or athleticism, and of
sexual modesty. Moreover, cultures vary tremendously with regard to gender roles. Not only do
different cultures vary from each other, there is considerable variation within cultures. People
within the same culture can vary because of differences in socioeconomic class, level of
education, and urban vs. rural environment. All of these factors can influence a child’s
psychological development.

When do cultural differences become apparent?

In earliest development, cultural influences take a backseat to the role of biology. With
time, however, the impact of culture becomes more powerful. Cultural influences are subtle in
the infancy, toddler, and preschool years. By middle childhood, cultural differences become
more central as the child is educated in the specific ways of his or her culture. By adolescence,
cultural differences are even more acute, as adolescents prepare to take on an adult role within
their own culture.

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How do cultural differences complicate our theories of psychology?

Psychology is the study of the human mind and aims to find universal rules of human
behavior. Nonetheless, as the science of psychology developed in Western Europe and America,
many psychological theories have been limited by a kind of cultural myopia, a short
sightedness. Aspects of psychological development that were assumed to be universal have
turned out to be culturally specific. This does not mean that all of our classic psychological
theories are without merit, but we have to be cautious when assuming that what is true in one
culture is necessarily true in another.

Are there cultural differences in patterns of attachment?

Attachment theory looks at the ways that children understand their emotional bonds
with key caregivers. However, cultures vary as to be expression of emotion, the value of
independence, and the emphasis on intimacy. Consequently, the patterns of attachment may
vary across cultures. For example, security of infant-mother attachment has been assessed in
several different cultures, including Japanese, German, and American populations.

Interestingly, the proportion of securely attached infants, that is, infants who appear to
believe that their mother will be emotionally available, did not differ across cultures. Cultural
differences were only found in the quality of insecure attachments. In other words, no one
country was any more likely to have unhealthy mother-infant pairs, but the nature of insecurely
attached mother-infant dyads differed across the three countries. For example, Japanese
children were more likely to be classified anxious-resistant than were American children,
showing much greater difficulty tolerating separations from their mother. In contrast, German
children were more likely to be classified as anxious-avoidant than American children, reflecting
their tendency to minimize their distress at separation from their mother. This brings to mind
the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy’s famous saying that all happy families resemble one another,
but each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.

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