1. Goals of SLA.
If the learner is at
The golas of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and
why some learners are better than others.
2. L1 – mother tongue
3. L2 - any language learned after the first language
4. Target language - in applied linguistics and language education, the language which a
person is learning; A language that a nonnative speaker is in the process of learning.
5. Input – the samples of language to which a learner is exposed. Language learning cannot
occur without an input; input is the main source of information for learning.
6. Error / mistake - An 'error' is a deviation from accuracy or correctness. A 'mistake' is an
error caused by a fault: the fault being misjudgment, carelessness, or forgetfulness.
7. Uptake - Understanding; comprehension
8. Output - learning takes place when encountering a gap in the linguistic knowledge of the
L2. By noticing this gap the learner becomes aware of it and might be able to modify his
output so that he learns something new about the language.
9. Silent period' - a concept in second language acquisition theory that states that
language learners typically do not attempt to speak in their new language until a certain
amount of time is spent listening and absorbing it.[ This time often varies between
learners, and depending on the author, estimates at its length vary from 12 hours of
instruction to more than 6 months of language learning.
10. Fossilization, in linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA), refers to the often-
observed loss of progress in the acquisition of a second language (L2), following a period
where learning occurred.
11. Behaviourist learning theory – language learning is like any other kind of learning that
involves habit formation. Habits are formed when learners respond to stimuli in the
environment and subsequently have their responses reinforced so that they are
remembered. // learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the
environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time
two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of
increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the
learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through
conditioning.
12. Innatism - This is the theoretical view that children have an innate knowledge of the
structures of language. Children are born with a knowledge of Universal Grammar (or as
called by Krashen a language acquisition device) that gives them access to the
universal principles of human language. It is because of this innate knowledge that
children can learn a complex language with relatively little input. Innatism can be
contrasted with interactionism, a theory where meaningful interaction along with innate
knowledge combine to make language acquisition possible.
13. interactionism - This is the theoretical view that children have some innate knowledge of
the structures of language but also require meaningful interaction with others to acquire
language structures. In the end, those structures which get acquired are exactly those
that were able to convey meaning. This theory suggests that student-centered methods
are important as they give more opportunity to interact.
14. subtractive bilingualism - When learning a second language interferes with the
learning of a first language. The second language replaces the first language. This is
commonly found in children who emigrate to a foreign country when they are young,
especially in cases of orphans who are deprived of their first language input.
15. comprehensible input - A hypothesis that learners will acquire language best when
they are given the appropriate input. The input should be easy enough that they can
understand it, but just beyond their level of competence.
level i, then input should come at level i+1.
16. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) is a way of comparing learners L1
and L2 to analyze possible difficulties that the learners might encounter in L2
learning situation. CAH assumes that when learners try to learn L2, the patterns
and rules of L1 cause main difficulties to their L2 learning. The main difficulties
are found based on the linguistic structure comparison of two languages.
Therefore, L2 teachers can have better understanding of students’ different
types of learning difficulties caused by their different linguistic backgrounds.
17. critical period hypothesis: The hypothesis that if somebody does not acquire
a first language before a certain time (around puberty), they will lose the ability
to acquire language. There are two versions of this hypothesis: The strong
version states that language acquisition will be impossible after this point has
been reached. The weak version states that acquisition will be difficult after this
period has been reached.
18. monitor model: A model of second language acquisition/learning developed
by Krashen and based on several hypothesis; Essentially, adults have two ways
to internalize a language. One is through a conscious effort calledlearning and
the other is through a subconscious effort called acquisition.Fluency is a result
of language acquisition, not any conscious effort to learn. Learning is only
useful to 'monitor' our output and make some corrections.
Factors affecting Second Language.
a) ‘intelligence’ is of significant importance, for instance when having to
learn the grammatical system of the L2. Nevertheless, intelligence hardly
influences oral fluency. With reference to the previous parameter, de Bot et
al. (2005) point out that it is not easy to make a decision as to whether
aptitude should include ‘intelligence’, as it all depends on how the latter is
defined.
b) age - Age is a factor that could account for the success or failure of L2 acquisition;
older people are less likely to easily learn an L2 than young people ; it is commonly
believed that children are better language learners than adults in the sense that
young children typically can gain mastery of a second language, whereas adults
cannot; However, during the first phase of L2 acquisition the rate of acquisition is
higher for older L2 acquirers than for younger ones. This is true for adults versus
children, but also for older children versus younger children. Thus, in case you start
learning an L2 at a young age, you are more likely to attain a higher level of
proficiency than those who start learning an L2 later in life. In general, the earlier you
start learning an L2, the more likely you are to arrive at the same level of proficiency
as native speakers of the language. In addition, when you learn an L2 at an early age,
you are more likely to attain a native accent, whereas it is less likely for older learners
to lose their 'foreign' accent.
c) Extroverts: the extroverted learner learns more effectively through concrete
experiences, contacts with the outside world, and relationships with others. They
value group interaction and classwork done together with other students. They are
willing to take conversational risks, but are dependent on outside stimulation and
interaction.
Introverts: the introverted learner learns more effectively in individual, independent
situations that are more involved with ideas and concepts. Their strengths are their
ability to concentrate on the task in hand as well as their self-sufficiency; however,
they need to process ideas before speaking which sometimes leads to avoidance of
linguistic risk-taking in conversation.
Sensing (or concrete-sequential) types: the sensing learner learns more effectively from
reports of observable facts and happenings; prefers physical, sense-based input. Their great
assets are their willingness to work hard in a systematic way, and their attention to details;
however, they will be hindered should there be a lack of clear sequence, goals or structure in
the language or language course.
Intuitive types: the intuitive learner learns more effectively from flashes of insight, using their
imagination, and grasping the general concepts rather than all the details. Their strengths are
their ability to guess from the context, structuring their own training, conceptualizing and
model-building. However, they can be hindered by inaccuracy and missing important details.
Thinking types: the thinking learner learns more effectively from impersonal circumstances
and logical consequences. Their strengths are in their ability to analyze and their self-
discipline. However, they can suffer from performance anxiety because their self-esteem is
attached to achievement.
Feeling types: the feeling learner learns more effectively from personalized circumstances and
social values. They have the advantage of their strong desire to bond with the teacher,
resulting in good relations which lead to high self-esteem. However, they can become
discouraged if not appreciated, and disrupted by lack of interpersonal harmony.
Judging (or closure-oriented) types: the judging learner learns more effectively by reflection,
analysis, and processes that involve closure. They have the advantage of systematically
working through a task, and wanting to get the job done. However, they suffer from rigidity
and intolerance of ambiguity.
Perceiving (or open-ended) types: the perceiving learner learns more effectively through
negotiation, feeling, and inductive processes that postpone closure. Their strong points are 24.
their openness, flexibility and adaptability to change and new experiences. However, they may
suffer from laziness and inconsistent pacing over the long haul.
20. Motivation - Motivational variables are important factors when it comes to L2 acquisition.
As stated above, one’s motivation to acquire an L2 depends on one’s attitude towards the 25.
community in which the L2 is used and, subsequently, towards the L2 itself. This finding
corresponds with what Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis entails: motivation, together with
self-confidence and low anxiety, accounts for a more successful L2 acquisition. instrumental 26.
motivation: wanting to learn a language for the purpose of obtaining some concrete goals
such as a job, graduation, or the ability to read academic materials. This form of motivation is 27.
thought to be less likely to lead to success than integrative motivation. integrative
motivation: When students want to learn a language to become part of a speech community
(integrate). People who immigrate to new countries are some examples of people who may
want to identify with the community around them. An important aspect of this form of
language learning is using language for social interaction. This form of motivation is thought to
produce success in language learners. 28.
Anxiety - the level of anxiety has obvious repercussions with respect to one’s second
language learning: ‘to the extent that concentration on meaningful use of language is
important in learning, anxiety could be a direct negative factor; whether or not anxiety can be
a positive or a negative force in learning. Aptitude - , it is noteworthy that a higher degree of
language aptitude does not necessarily equal quicker L2 acquisition.
20. The field dependent learner is one who processes information globally.
This learner is less analytical, not attentive to detail, and sees the perceptual field
as a whole. This whole resists analysis or decomposition. The field independent
person on the other hand can easily break the field down into its component
parts. He/she is typically not influenced by the existing structure and can make
choices independent of the perceptual field. Field dependent persons are more
socially oriented and therefore they respond more to reward and punishment
(Ferrell, 1971). They also need more explicit instructions when material to be
learned is disorganized. They also are less able to synthesize and analyze .
interlanguage: In the process of acquiring a second language, a language learner may
acquire forms of language that are in between their first language and their target
language. This can happen when, for example, they incorrectly apply rules of their
native language to the target language, or they have not completely learned the full
extent or limitations of a rule's use and so misapply it systematically.
21. Noticing is an important part of language learning. For input based language learning
to work, for Krashen's language learning hypotheses to be true, we have to notice
what happens in the language. We often do not notice things in the language unless
they are pointed out or unless we make a special effort to notice.
22. Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language
user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well
as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.
23. Competence refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as manifest in his
ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most
of which he may have never seen or heard before. Performance refers to the specific
utterances (wypowiedzenie), including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic
features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language.
Corrective feedback is a frequent practice in the field of education and in learning
generally. It typically involves a student receiving either formal or informal feedback
on his or her performance on various tasks by a teacher or peer(s). However, learning
that takes place outside of the realm of institutional schooling can also rely heavily on
corrective feedback.
Acculturation Model – the modification of the culture of a group or an individual as a
result of contact with different culture.
Foreigner talk - A simplified version of a language that is sometimes used by native
speakers when addressing non-native speakers
learning strategies - Learning or instructional strategies determine the approach for
achieving the learning objectives and are included in the pre-instructional activities,
information presentation, learner activities, testing, and follow-through. The strategies
are usually tied to the needs and interests of students to enhance learning and are
based on many types of learning styles
grammar translation method: A dull, dry, and ineffective teaching method
completely devoid of theoretical justification. The method has its roots in the teaching
of latin. The method focuses on translating grammatical forms, memorizing
vocabulary, learning rules, and studying conjugations. Its focus is on accuracy and
not fluency. Emphasis is on form and not on meaning.
29. direct method: A method of language learning associated with Francois Gouin and
Charles Berlitz. Second language learning should model first language learning in that
it should be learned 'directly'; grammar is taught inductively with no explanations, the
learner's first language is not used in the class, and new vocabulary is introduced by
demonstration.
30. audiolingual approach(method?): Language learning is a matter of habit formation.
Drill! Drill! Drill! Audiolingualism is based on behaviourism. Error correction is considered
important to prevent bad habits. As well, a structural syllabus is used in class. As a result
grammatical structures are brought to the forefront with meaning being neglected.
31. Silent Way: A designer method whereby the teacher remains mostly silent
to encourage students to solve their own problems. Originated by Caleb Gattegno in
the 70s, this method was meant to fascillitate learning through discovery. The
language taught is structural.
32. Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of
how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. Some of the key
elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment (pictures,
colour, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of
methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
33. TPR, total physical response: A teaching technique whereby a learner (usually
young learner) responds to language input with body motions. This could be, for
example, the acting out a chant. This technique was devised by James Asher who
noted that children listen and respond with guestures before they speak. One benefit
is that TPR allows for low anxiety learning since students don't have the stress of
producing language.