Сборник

разговорных тем
по Английскому языку
(Version 1.5)

© Павлов Иван, 2003

TOPIC The Ural State Law Academy..................................................................................3
TOPIC I study English.........................................................................................................4
TOPIC Study work...............................................................................................................5
TOPIC The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.....................................6
TOPIC Scotland...................................................................................................................7
TOPIC Northern Ireland.......................................................................................................8
TOPIC Wales.......................................................................................................................9
TOPIC Cities Of Great Britain............................................................................................10
TOPIC London...................................................................................................................11
TOPIC British Economy.....................................................................................................12
TOPIC The British electoral system...................................................................................13
TOPIC The Government....................................................................................................14
TOPIC Local Government..................................................................................................15
TOPIC Parliament Of Great Britain....................................................................................16
TOPIC The House Of Commons.......................................................................................17
TOPIC The House Of Lords...............................................................................................18
SCHEME The Judicial System Of Great Britain..................................................................19
TOPIC Criminal Courts......................................................................................................20
TOPIC Civil Courts............................................................................................................21
TOPIC Some Other Courts................................................................................................22
TOPIC Two “Foreign” Courts.............................................................................................23
TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. My preferences (Profession of an investigator).........24
TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The work of an investigator........................................25
TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The job of an operative..............................................26
TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The job of a field-criminalist.......................................27
TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The Militia..................................................................28
TOPIC The work of a Prosecutor’s Office..........................................................................29
TOPIC The work of the court.............................................................................................30
TOPIC The work of an advocate........................................................................................31

2
 TOPIC The Ural State Law Academy.
The Urals State Law Academy is situated in Ekaterinburg. Its foundation goes back to April
1931. It was formed on the basis of the Irkutsk State University as a Law Faculty. Later it was
reorganized into the Siberian Institute of Soviet Law. In 1934 the Institute moved into Sverdlovsk,
got the name of the Sverdlovsk Institute of Law and bore this name till 1992/ Now it is called the
Urals State Law Academy.
Till 1976 there was only one faculty at the Sverdlovsk Law Institute – the Law faculty.
In 1976 the following there faculties were set up at the full-time department: the Judge and
Prosecutor Training Faculty, the Investigator and Criminalist Training Faculty and the Faculty of
Legal Service in the National Economy System. Later two of them were united into the Law Faculty
and the Faculty of Legal Service was given a new name – the Business Law Faculty. Besides, a
Custom Department was formed.
The Academy has three Institutes at the day department: the Institute of the Prosecutor’s Office,
the Institute of Justice and the Institute of Business and Law. Moreover, within the Academy there
is also a Law College, an Institute of External Economic Relations, an Institute of Management and
Law and an Institute of the Bar.
The Academy is housed in three study buildings with libraries and reading halls where the
students are able to get ready for their classes. There are also snack bars of after classes.
The student body of all departments taken together numbers more than 7000 people and
several tens of post-graduates. The Academy is headed by Rector and Vise-Rectors (Pro-Rectors).
The Study, methodical and research work is guided by the dean’s offices and by different chairs.
The Academy trains judges, prosecutors, advocates, juristconsults, investigators, customs
officials and other lawyers. After completing the education our graduates work at courts,
prosecutor’s offices, Militia, the Bar and also at state and government bodies of different levels and
in legal service of the national economy system.

3
 TOPIC I study English
English is one of a family of languages called Indo-European. The languages of this family,
which includes most of the modern European languages, as well as such important languages of
antiquity as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, all resemble one another in a number of ways, particularly
in vocabulary.
We can distinguish three major periods in the evolution of English. The first, called Old English
covers the period from the beginnings of the language to about 1100; the second, Middle English,
from 1100 to 1500; and the third, Modern English, from 1500 to the present.
The Middle English period was marked by great extension of foreign influence on English.
Naturally, with so enormous a potential vocabulary, an average individual speaker of the English
language will master only a relatively small part of it.
Until a few centuries ago there were many natives of what we call the British Isles, who did not
speak English. The western land of Wales spoke Welsh; in the farthest north and the islands of
Scotland the language was Gaelic; and a similar language, Irish Gaelic, was spoken in Ireland;
Manx was the language of the Isles of Man; and Cornish was the language of the south-western tip
of Britain.
We are not talking about dialect – localized versions of a language – which often contain
alternative words or phrases for certain things, but which are forms of English.
In Scotland the Gaelic Language Society has existed for many years. It’s dedicated to
preserving the traditions of the Gaelic songs, verse and prose. And more and more people in the
lowlands areas of Scotland, as well as the islands, where Gaelic is still spoken, now want to learn
the language.
In Wales the Welsh Language Society was formed in 1962 and it has been fighting to restore
Welsh to an equal place with English. In 1967 they won an important victory: Welsh was recognized
as being equally valid for use in law courts, either written or spoken.
The older English dictionaries classified words and assigned them labels such as “vulgar”,
“dialect”, “colloquial” and “slang”.
Many commonly used words were labelled “vulgar” and in some dictionaries “low”, implying that
only the lowest sort of person used such words.
The class of words called “dialects” includes expressions commonly used by certain national
groups of people or certain regions of the country.
“Colloquial” was a less severe label, but it identified words and expressions that might be used
in informal educated speech with friends at school, but definitely not in formal compositions.
The huge class named “slang” usually meant a word understood by only a select group of
people, students for example.
They say that if the colonization of the American continent had taken place a few centuries
earlier, American English might have been as different from the British English as French from
Italian.
The first English settlers spoke English of the early seventeenth century – the language of
Shakespeare and Milton. Most of them came originally from the south and south-east of England.
Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776, over two-thirds of the settlers in what later
became the USA came from England. After that date, many other peoples came to make a new life
for themselves in the New World. These included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch, Italians, Slavs,
and had been taken from Africa as slaves to work on the rice and cotton plantations added words
and structures from their own native languages.
Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which was to become
American English, there is one man who can be singled out as the person who did most to give
American English an identity of its own. He was Noah Webster (1758-1843), a famous American
lexicographer. He is largely responsible for the differences which exist today between British and
American spelling.

4
 TOPIC Study work.
The future work of our graduates is not easy so they have to learn hard to be ready for that
works and study many different subjects which are important for it: Criminal Law, Criminal
Procedure, Civil Law, Labour Law, International Law, Criminology and others.
Special subjects are not only subjects of the curriculum. The students learn some humane,
theoretical, optional and additional subjects, such of History of Russia, Philosophy, Theory of State
and Law, History of State and Law, Logics, Foreign Languages and others. These subjects from
the subjects’ world outlook and improve the quality of their general education.
Our students are to take tests and exams on each subject included into the curriculum. As the
academic year is divided into two semesters, terminal tests and exams are held in January and in
June. And then, when all the tests and exams are passed successfully, the students take degree
examinations, finals, as they are often called. Those graduates, who have inclination for research
may enter the post-graduate course and devote their life to science.
The timetable of lectures, tutorials and seminars is regulated by a study schedule. It provides
the students must attend seminars and not miss lectures.
One of the main principles of the Russian educational system is to unite theory and practice. So,
during the course of studies our students have practical training (do practical work) at law
enforcement organs.
Much attention is paid to the studying of Foreign Languages: English, German and French. Our
students have classes in Foreign Languages twice a week, the attendance of which is obligatory.
As Foreign Languages are heavy-reading subjects, the students have to work at them hard and
devote much time to them.

5
 TOPIC The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
The political unit, for government and administration, is properly called the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Great Britain is situated on the British Isles. They lie to the west of the continent of Europe. The
larger of the two big islands is known as Great Britain. The smaller island is Ireland, with Northern
Ireland and the Irish Republic.
The total area of Great Britain is 244.000 square kilometres. The west coast of the country is
washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea, the east coast is washed by the North
Sea. Great Britain is separated from France by the English Channel which is 32 km wide in its
narrowest part, and 180 km in its widest part. The seas surrounding Great Britain are not very
deep.
The surface of England and Ireland is flat, but the surface of Scotland and Wales is
mountainous. In Wales, there are the Cambrian Mountains, is highest peak of which is Snowdon. It
is 3.560 feet high (nearly 1.000 meters). In Scotland, the main chain of mountains is called the
Grampians, its highest peak is Ben Nevis (4.400 feet nigh). The mountainous northern part of
Scotland is called the Highlands.
The rivers of Great Britain are short. The Thames, the Severn and the Clyde are the most
important. The Thames on which London, the capital of Great Britain is situated, flows into the
North Sea and is very deep. There are many beautiful lakes in Great Britain, the largest part of
them is in the Lake District in northwestern England.
The climate of Great Britain is typically maritime with frequent rains and strong winds. The Gulf
Stream [glfstri:m] makes the climate mild and damp. Frosts are very rare in winter and hot days
are very rare in summer.

6
 TOPIC Scotland
In area, Scotland is about 30.000 square miles. Its population is about 5.200.000 people.
Scotland was an independent kingdom. In 1707 the Act of Union was passed. This Act incorporated
Scotland with England in the United Kingdom, but the Scots kept their own legal system, religion,
education and administration, and still keep them now. It is governed from London under a
Secretary of State for Scotland who is usually a Scot.
The English language is spoken all over Scotland with a variety of regional accents – Scottish
dialects. Among the people of some remote Highlands districts the Gaelic language is still used.
Scotland is a northern land, but it not particularly cold there.
During the nineteenth century much industrial development, based at first on coal mining, took
place in the region round Glasgow and Edinburgh. Although Edinburgh is the capital, Glasgow has
for a long time been the chief center of commerce and industry.
Scottish towns look very different from English towns. Architectural traditions are quite distinct,
and certain styles never appear in England. Two-storey red brick houses of England contrast with
grey four-storey apartment houses in Scotland.
The most interesting and beautiful part of Scotland – and of the whole of Britain – is the north
and west, of the region commonly called “the highlands and islands”. Great sea-lochs, wild and
empty hills, cone-shaped mountains deep valleys attract a lot of tourists. Shooting, fishing and
deerstalking are rich men’s sports. Most visitors to modern Scotland come away with an impression
that Scotsmen are hospitable, generous and friendly.

7
 TOPIC Northern Ireland
The majority of the inhabitants of this large and beautiful island are Celtic in origin. After the
Reformations in England and Scotland, many English and Scottish Protestants were settled in
Ireland by English monarch and became the most powerful element in the country because they
owned much of the land. In 1801 the union of Ireland with Great Britain took place, and the new
political unit was called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The union was not
favourable to the Catholic majority of the inhabitants, who regarded the dominant Protestant
minority as foreign invaders and oppressors.
The Protestant and Catholic communities` mutual hostility is a characteristic feature of six
counties of Northern Ireland. Serious disorders turned into the real war. In August 1969 British
troops were sent to keep order, but terrorist acts continued.
The purpose of the British is to unite the two communities against extremists from both sides.
There has been some progress towards this end, but many problems remain unsolved and the
danger of a new wave of violence still exists.

8
 TOPIC Wales

Wales has been united with England for seven hundred years, and through all this time England
and Wales have formed one single political and administrative unit.
The territory of Wales is about 8.000 square miles. The population of Wales is about 3 m.
people.
Central and North Wales are farming regions, while South Wales is the industrial part of the
country. It is rich in coal. Cardiff, the capital of Wales, is also a large port.
Wales is a very popular place for spending holidays. Every year, thousands of people take their
holidays at the seaside on the North Wales coast or, if they prefer, enjoy peace in villages far from
town life. Some people choose Snowdonia. This is a national park around Snowdon, which is ideal
for walking or hiking holidays.
Among the best-known Welsh characteristics are certain romanticism and love of poetry and
music. The annual bardic festival known as the National Eisteddfod of Wales has a 1.200-year-old
history: choral singing of hymns is a national art. Oratory is another. Singers, dancers, musicians
and poets come from all over the world to complete for the awards at the festival. They often wear
national costumes. At the festivals Welsh girls wear the nationals dress – a tall black hat, a red skirt
and a white apron.
Another source of national pride is Rugby football.
In the whole of Wales, 99 per cent of the people can speak English, and the Welsh language,
which is a Celtic one and very different from English, is, in fact, declining.

9
 TOPIC Cities Of Great Britain
The largest cities of GB are: London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh,
Coventry and Cardiff.
Birmingham is situated in the Midlands. It has the population over a million. This industrial region
is called the Black Country. The plants of Birmingham, Coventry and Sheffield produce motor cars,
railway carriages, light engineering products. Birmingham is impressive: glittering with ultramodern
giant factories, hotels, restaurants, cafes, brilliant stores, beautiful cars and smart people. There is
a fine art gallery in it. The public gardens are well kept, and there are lots of flowers there.
Birmingham comes next in importance after London.
Coventry was greatly destroyed during World War II. Now it is quite modern. Coventry is of great
interest because of the new cathedral (the old one was destroyed in 1940). The cathedral is a
masterpiece of modern art. Coventry is the centre of the motor vehicle industry – the largest in the
UK.
Edinburgh is the old capital of Scotland. It is one of the finest cities of GB, the centre of
administration, where the Scottish Parliament sits. One of the most charming streets in Edinburgh
is Princess Street, where the monument to Walter Scott (the Scott Memorial) is situated. Edinburgh
is famous for its ancient Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the official residence of English kings
in Scotland, and the main church in the city – St Giles’s Cathedral.
Liverpool is one of the largest ports in the world. It is situate on the Mersey river. It is also an
industrial centre of GB. Enterprises of nearly all branches of industry are situated in Liverpool:
shipbuilding, textile industry, engineering, automobile industry, etc.
Glasgow, the industrial and commercial centre of GB, lies on the Clyde river. The river plays a
significant role in the life of the city – it is the largest waterway in Britain. The population of Glasgow
is over one million. Glasgow is supposed to possess more public gardens and parks than any other
city in Britain. In one of this park there is the pride of Glasgow – its Art Gallery, with the wonderful
collection of pictures. One of the oldest British universities is situated in Glasgow.
Cardiff, the capital and the main port of Wales, is a centre of shipbuilding, electronics and
chemical industry. Cardiff is also a university city.
Stratford-on-Avon is the town where William Shakespeare, the great playwright and poet was
born in 1564. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre and the Shakespeare Centre were built in the town.
Windsor is one of the most charming towns in England, and the Windsor Castle is the summer
residence of the Queen. Construction of the Castle began in the eleventh century. The tourists are
allowed to visit the Castle when the Queen is not in residence here. Just opposite the Castle the
Eton College is situated. This College was intended for the 70 poorest orphans of the country. It
soon became and is the most exclusive, the most aristocratic, the most famous and the most
expensive school in the world.
Oxford and Cambridge are known all over the world as university towns. Both great universities
are less than two hours journey from London by fast train. Admission to these universities is very
difficult, but if a young man or a girl gets admission, gets through the exams, gets the degree – they
are made for life! An Oxford or Cambridge degree is accompanied by all sorts of privileges. Oxford
is not only an educational centre. It is the centre of motor car industry. Recent industrial
development has so altered Oxford that Cambridge, as a city of fine architecture, is now more
beautiful. In spring Cambridge is like a garden of flowers. Cambridge is a great centre of research.

10
 TOPIC London
London is situated upon both banks of the River Thames. London dominates the life of Britain. It
is the chief port of the country and the most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural
centre. There is little heavy industry in London , but there is a wide range of light industry in Greater
London.
The most characteristic parts of London are: the City, the West End, the East End, and
Westminster.
The city is the oldest part of London. It is the financial centre of the UK with many banks, offices,
and Stock Exchange. The City has its own police force and courts of law, and during the working
day upward of half a million people earn their living there in the commercial heart of the capital. But
by the weekend the City is populated by just 5.000 residents.
The West End is the most fashionable part of London. It is the West End where the University of
London is centered with Bloomsbury as London’s student quarter. The main shopping streets are
Piccadilly, Regent Street and Oxford Street.
The East End of London is unattractive in appearance, but very important to the country’s
commerce. It is situated to the east of the City. The area nowadays not only attracts top name
commercial, banking and business interest, but is also thousands of new residents, a lot of housing,
restoration and conservation projects plus a superb range of shopping, leisure and water sports’
attractions.
Westminster is the political centre. The best known streets here are Whitehall with important
government offices, and Downing Street. Street with the London residence of Prime Minister and
the place where the Cabinet meets.

11
 TOPIC British Economy
The British economic system is now a complex combination of several systems, and pure
capitalism is probably a smaller element than in any other West European country.
About one-third of all goods and services are produced by central or local government or by
state-owned corporations. Most energy production is socialised: production and distribution of
electricity and gas, production of coal, production and distribution of oil, the iron and steel producing
industry.
The state owns the railways, most buses, most public transport aeroplanes, nearly all important
airports, water supply, radio, two of four television channels, posts and telephones. Local
authorities, with state support, are responsible for roads, for the welfare services, and for ninety per
cent of education.
The other two-thirds of the economy is within the private sector, shared between public
companies, private companies and individuals.
The structure of British industry has changed greatly. In 1900, coal mining, textiles, shipbuilding
and heavy engineering were its foundations. Since 1930 British industrial growth has been
concentrated newer industries: chemicals, electrical goods, vehicles, aircraft, furniture and other
consumer-durables. Now Britain produced high quality expensive goods, which has always been
characteristic of its industry. Britain produced and exports cotton and woollen goods, leather goods,
and articles made of various kinds of synthetic (man-made) materials.
The industries which have grown, in number of people employed, are banking, finance,
insurance, the Law, advertising, educational, health and social welfare services, and other functions
not involving the production of goods for use. Four million people were employed in these in 1960,
eight million in 1980.
In contrast to industry, British agriculture has been consistently almost the most efficient in
Europe. The grain crops and vegetables are grown in all part of the country, especially in the south.
The greater part of land is used for sheep and cattle breeding and pig raising. Sheep and cattle
breeding are still developed in Great Britain.

12
 TOPIC The British electoral system
The elective House of Commons consists of MPs, each of whom represents an area in England,
Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. For the purposes of elections the UK is divided into 650 areas.
Called constituencies. Each constituency is represented by one MP in the House of Commons.
Elections are held on the basis of the universal suffrage and secret ballot. All citizens of the UK
over the age of 18 have the right to vote. Each elector (voter) has one vote. Voting is not
compulsory. There are people who are not allowed to vote: members of the Royal Family, members
of House of Lords, people, serving prison sentences and some patients in mental hospitals.
The election campaign lasts about three weeks. On an election day each voter goes to a polling
station on his constituency. There he is given a piece of paper on which the names of the
candidates and the parties they represent are printed. The voter draws a cross next to the
candidate of his choice. When voting has finished, the votes are added up. The election is decided
on a simple majority – the candidate with the most votes wins.
The British parliamentary system depends on political parties. There are two main parties –
Conservative and Labour.
The party, which wins the majority of seats, forms the Government, and its leader usually
becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister chooses about twenty MPs from his party to become
the Cabinet of Ministers. The second largest party becomes the official Opposition with its own
leader and “Shadow cabinet”.

13
 TOPIC The Government
Executive power in the UK belongs to the Government, which consists of the Cabinet and other
ministers of the Government. It includes about a hundred politicians under the Prime Minister,
appointed to their offices, as ministers, by the Queen on his advice. It is a constitutional convention
that the Prime Minister should be the head of the party with the largest number of seats in the
House of Commons. Ministers may be members of either the House of Commons or the House if
Lords.
A modern Government is arranged in about fifteen departments, each with its ministerial head,
all of them are members of the House of Commons.
The Cabinet consists of sixteen to twenty-four senior ministers and deals with the main lines of
policy, exercises top-level control of the executive and co-ordinates the work and policies of various
ministers. The Prime Minister also has the power to call for resignations or dismissals of ministers.
The prestige, access to information, and intimate involvement with the affairs of state which
accompany ministerial rank are of great value to the professional politician – and not only as far as
his political career is concerned.
The meetings of the Cabinet are usually held at No.10 Downing Street, which is the residence of
Prime Minister.

14
 TOPIC Local Government
Local government in Britain known as “Councils”.
Their job is the organising and providing of local services. They are also responsible for setting
the amount of local tax that people must pay and for collecting this tax.
Local councils are elected by people within each town, city, or country area. The people who are
elected, known as “councillors”, usually represent one of national political parties, but are often
elected because of their policies on local issues rather than the national policies of their party.

15
 TOPIC Parliament Of Great Britain
Parliament is the supreme legislative body of the British state and can in theory pass laws
relating to any aspect of the political, Economic, Legal, social, and cultural life of the United
Kingdom. Any Parliament enjoys during its lifetime absolute legislative supremacy, and the laws
which it passes cannot be challenged by any court of law, although they may be interpreted very
arbitrarily.
The British Parliament is one of the oldest Parliaments in the world. It has existed since 1265. it
consists of two chambers known as the House of Commons and the House of Lords, and the
Queen as its head.
In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which is true power. It is here that
new bills are not introduced and debated, and if a bill is passed, it is sent to the House of Lords to
be approved, and finally to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes an Act of Parliament, a
law.
The duration of Parliament is five years. The life of Parliament is divided into sessions. A new
session of Parliament opens every year.
The main functions of Parliament are:
1. to make laws regulating the life of the community;
2. to approve Government spending and the means by which it raises the money
required;
3. to control the executive activity of the Government;
4. to provide a forum for criticism of the Government, and to extract information about
the activities and intentions of the Government and the institutions under its control.
The State Opening of Parliament, marking the start of a new parliamentary session or a new
parliament is an awe-inspiring and highly dignified ceremony – beamed by television to all corners
of the world.
The House of Commons – the more powerful of the two chambers – is a noisy, bustling,
dynamic place, whilst the House of Lords, though more restrained, plays an extremely valuable role
in national life. Apart from being England’s supreme appeal court of justice, few parliamentary bills
can become Acts of Parliament without the assent of the Lords.

16
 TOPIC The House Of Commons
The two Houses of Parliament, the Lords and the Commons, share the same building, the
Palace of Westminster. The Commons occupy the north part of the Palace, the Lords – the south
end.
The new House of Commons, built after the war instead of the bombed one, has, however,
seats for only two-thirds of its 650 members. Only four members of the House of Commons have
reserved seats. One is the Speaker, who presides over the House of Commons. Another is the
member has sat in the House for the longest unbroken period, the member, who is known as “the
Father of the House of Commons”. The other two reserved seats are for Prime Minister (the leader
of the party that has a majority in the House of Commons), and the Leader of the Opposition.
The House of Commons is made up of 650 elected members, and it is presided over by the
Speaker, a member acceptable to the whole House. MPs sit on two sides of the hall, one side for
the governing party and the other for the Opposition. The first two rows of seats are occupied by
the leading members of both parties (called “front-benchers”), the back benches belong to the rank-
and-fire MPs (“back-benchers”). Each session of the House of Commons lasts for 160-175 days.
The necessary quorum in the House of Commons is 40 persons. When MPs want to speak they
have to catch the Speaker’s eyes, then they rise from where they have been sitting to address the
House, and must do so without either reading a prepared speech or consulting notes.
Any MP may introduce a bill to Parliament. Every bill has three readings, at first in the House of
Commons. There is no debate allowed after the first reading. After the second reading, there may
be a discussion. The Speaker calls upon different members who are eager to speak. All speeches
are addressed to him, beginning with “Mr. Speaker, sir”. After the discussion the voting is done, but
not by show of hands. There are two corridors – “Division Lobbies” – at each side of the House.
The one on the right is for “Yes”, and on the left – for the “No”. When voting is announced, the MPs
go out into these lobbies, to the right or to the left. As they re-enter the House, they are counted at
the door, one by one – and it may take ten or fifteen minutes before the Speaker reads out the
results of voting.
After the third reading the bill goes before the House of Lords. If the Lords agree to the bill, it will
be placed before the Queen for signature. The Queen having signed it, it becomes an Act of
Parliament.

17
 TOPIC The House Of Lords
The House of Lords is a non-elected hereditary second chamber of Parliament. The House of
Lords has more than 1000 members, although only about 250 take an active part in the work of the
House.
The House of Lords is composed of lords spiritual and lords temporal. The lords spiritual are two
leaders of the Church of England, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and twenty-four
bishops. The lords temporal are persons of royal decent.
The chairman of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor, and he sits on a special seat called
“the Woolsack”. The woolsack is now stuffed with wool from England, Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland and from the Commonwealth countries. Members of the Government and their
supporters sit to the right, and those of the Opposition to the left.
The House of Lords has formally the power only to revise and amend bills passed through the
House of Commons. About 95 per cent of the amendments proposed by the lords are accepted by
the Commons. The House of Lords is the highest court in the UK and can be called to hear an
appeal.
The division of Parliament into two chambers took place over 700 years ago when feudal
assembly ruled the country. In modern times, real political power belongs to the elected House of
Commons although members of the House of Lords still occupy important Cabinet posts.

18
 SCHEME The Judicial System Of Great Britain

The highest judicial HOUSE OF LORDS

organ in the UK and the
final appellate tribunal

The Supreme Court of COURT OF APPEAL

Judicature (The Court of Criminal Civil
Appeal + the Crown Division Division
Court + the High Court)

An intermediate
appellate tribunal and THE CROWN COURT THE HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE
Queen’s Family Chancery
the trial court for serious Bench Division Division
civil and criminal cases Division

The courts of first MAGISTRATES’ COURTS COUNTY COURTS

instance for minor
criminal and civil cases

19
 TOPIC Criminal Courts
Magistrates’ Courts. The Magistrates’ Courts try the cases of minor importance. Magistrates’
Courts may impose a fine up to a general limit of 5000£ or 12 months’ imprisonment.
With more serious cases the magistrates can decide only to send them for trial in a Crown
Court.
A Magistrates’ Court consists of 3 Justices of the Peace (JPs). The JPs are ordinary but worthy
citizens who have been appointed to their positions by the Lord Chancellor on the advice of local
committees. There are more than 28000 JPs in England; each of them works in the courts on about
30 to 50 days a year. JPs receive no payment for their work.
Some of the courts in London and in ten other towns have stipendiary magistrates, who a
qualified lawyers, work full time and are paid salaries.
Crown Courts. When a criminal case is not dealt with finally in a Magistrates’ Court, it goes for
trial in a Crown Court. Crown Courts try serious cases such as murder, rape, arson, armed robbery,
fraud, and so on. The court is presided over by a judge, but the decision on guilt or innocence is
made by a jury of twelve citizens. The judge’s functions are:
1. to see that the trial is properly conducted;
2. to give guidance to the jury before asking it for its verdict;
3. if the jury finds the accused guilty, to decide upon the penalty and pronounce a sentence.
For this last decision the judge is helped by two JPs who have been sitting beside him
throughout the proceedings.
Judges are either practising or former barristers who all are qualified, professional and
experienced lawyers and are paid for their work.
In a Crown Court, a person who is accused of crime, when he is brought into the dock, is asked
by the clerk if he is guilty or not guilty. If he says that he is not guilty, he must be tried in order to
establish whether he is in fact guilty or not. For this purpose a jury has to be appointed. From the
group of 30 local citizens who have been ordered to be ready to serve as members of the jury,
twelve will be called out to be the jury for the particular case.
The Crown Courts act also as the appeal courts against both conviction and sentences by
magistrates. When the appeal is against conviction, a judge re-hears all the evidence that
witnesses have already given in the lower court, but there is no jury.
Court of Appeal. The accused may appeal to the Criminal Division of Court of Appeal against
conviction, or it may reduce or increase a sentence. The Court of Appeal does not hear witnesses
other than in exceptional circumstances.
House of Lords. The highest court in the country is the House of Lords. It is the final court of
appeal in criminal cases. The judges of the House of Lords are the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary
(Law Lords). They are ten in number. They form a quorum when at least three of them are present.
Normally. Five of them attend a meeting. The president of the House of Lords as a court is the Lord
Chancellor.

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 TOPIC Civil Courts
County courts. County courts are the courts of first instance for minor civil cases.
More than 500 county courts are grouped into 50 circuits with at least one judge for each such
circuit. The judges called “circuit judges” and appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Lord
Chancellor. They must be barristers with at least seven years of experience. The jurisdiction of
county courts is unlimited. The circuit judges try the cases alone. County court judges must retire at
the age of 72.
The High Court of Justice. The High Court of Justice is above the county courts. It has three
division: the Chancery Division, the Family Division and the Queen’s Bench Division.
The Chancery Division. The Chancery Division consists of the Lord Chancellor and ten judges,
and deals with questions of company law, bankruptcy, trusts, the administration of the estates of
people, who have died, tax and some other matters affecting finance and property.
The Family Division. The Family Division deals with divorce and questions arising out of wills
as well as questions affecting children (adoption, or guardianship).
There are about 30 judges in the Chancery and Family Divisions of the High Court of Justice,
who deal only with civil cases, almost all in London.
The Queen’s Bench Division. The Queen’s Bench Division consists of the Lord Chief Justice
and about fifty other judges. The High Court judges appointed by the Queen on the
recommendation of the Lord Chancellor, and retire at age 75. The Queen’s Bench Division with the
widest jurisdiction is both the main civil court for disputes involving more than 5000£. It also deals
with suits for libel. The division also takes appeals from lower courts. The Queen’s Bench Division
includes a Commercial Court that specialises in large commercial disputes, and Admiralty Court for
shipping cases.
The High Court judges try civil cases alone, except for a few cases like defamation, false
imprisonment or fraud. This cases there is always a jury.
The Court of Appeal. The intermediate appellate tribunal is the Court of Appeal. The Court of
Appeal has two divisions – Civil and Criminal.
The Civil Division. The Civil Division hears appeals from the High Court as well as from county
courts and a few more specialised courts. They appeal the extremely important cases. In the Civil
Division senior Lord Justice (The Master of the Rolls) normally presides over the other two Lords
Justices. The presentation before the court is oral. The decisions are based on documents
supplemented by the arguments of barristers. Appeals against decisions of the Court of Appeal can
be lodged with the House of Lords.
House of Lords. The highest court in the country is the House of Lords. It is the biggest court of
appeal in civil matters for the whole of the UK. The judges of the House of Lords are the Lords of
Appeal in Ordinary (Law Lords). There are ten in number. They form a quorum when at least three
of them are present. The president of the House of Lords as a court is the Lord Chancellor. Five
Law Lords normally deal with any particular case. They sit in a small room in Westminster Palace.
The Lords express their opinion on the case and vote at hand.

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 TOPIC Some Other Courts
A number of other, more specialised, courts have been set up to deal with particular areas of the
law or perform special functions.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Its jurisdiction is now confined to hearing appeals
from the remaining colonies, and from those former British territories which have chosen to retain it
as their final appeal court. The judges of the Privy Council are predominantly the same Law Lords.
The Employment Appeal Tribunal. It was set up following the great increase in recent years of
disputes arising from employment, especially involving unfair dismissal or discrimination. The court
hears appeals from industrial tribunals. Every case is heard by a High Court judge and two lay
members chosen for their knowledge and experience of industrial relations: trade union officials, for
instance, and representatives of employers’ organisations.
The Restrictive Practices Court. It has various powers to stop or control restrictive or
monopolistic practices in the supply of goods and services – for example, agreements between
ostensibly competitive companies to charge a minimum price for their products, against the
interests of the consumer.
Coroners’ Courts. Coroners, who must be qualified lawyers or doctors, have a duty to hold
public inquests into any violent, unnatural or suspicious death, or in the case of a person dying
suddenly without any obvious cause, or in prison or in police custody. Coroners inquests are not
trials, but witnesses are called, and there is often a jury who decide on the manner of death, or
return an open verdict.
Tribunals. The sixty or so tribunals cover a wide range of subjects, from tax to mental health.
Some of the most important and widely used are the industrial tribunals, where workers can claim
compensation for unfair dismissal; the supplementary benefit appeals tribunal; rent tribunal; and the
immigration appeals tribunal.

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 TOPIC Two “Foreign” Courts
Two courts outside Britain’s boundaries have recently come to play a big part in her affairs. The
two deal with completely different issues, and belong to different regional institutions.
The European Court it is the court of the European Union. Its decisions on the interpretation of
European law are the last word in that area of the law – superior even o the pronouncements of the
House of Lords. It is rulings to date have mainly concerned issues important to the business world,
but it has also given decisions of great importance to individuals.
The European Court of Human Rights. It deals with issues of human rights. It gives rulings on
whether particular conduct by a government or one of its organs violates the European Convention
of Human Rights. It has made a number of rulings against the British Government on the rights of
mental patients, prisoners, immigrants, etc. The court cannot be approached directly: all cases
have to go first to the European Commission of Human Rights.

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 TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. My preferences (Profession of an investigator)
The profession of a lawyer is one of the most popular present day profession of our country. The
profession of a lawyer is very interesting and diverse.
Our country is building rule-of-law state, and lawyers should play a very important role in this
process. The profession of a lawyer is quite necessary regulating social relations in the state.
Moreover, under our trade treatment clash of interests is inevitable and this is sphere of lawyers
work.
To be a good specialist a lawyer should know many laws and their proper application. Then they
will perform their duties well. Any lawyer is expected to know human psychology as throughout his
career a lawyer with meet different people any olds and nations. A lawyer has to deal with a variety
of people and situations.
Lawyer have agreed upon six basics elements of professionalism. They are: ethics, competence
combined with independence, professional wisdom and continuing learning, civility and obligations
to the justice system.
A lawyer may choose his place of work and occupation of a number of possible ones. The
choice is very wide. The lawyers can work at the Bar, in the organs of the Prosecutor’s Office, in
different courts, in organs of militia, as well as different firms, companies, banks, etc.
He can work as a judge at the law court. He is required to administer justice properly, that is why
he should be able to conduct a trial, to sum up evidence and to pass a just sentence.
A lawyer can be a prosecutor or a prosecutor’s assistant at the Prosecutor’s Office. He should
supervise the correct application and observance of the law. His duty is to examine the sentences
passed by the courts as to their lawfulness. Besides, he should be able to prosecute the accused
that is to prove his guilt.
He can work as an advocate (counsel of the defence) at the Bar and his duty is to defend the
accused that is to prove his innocence by evidence if it is possible.
He can also be a notary at the notary office and should be able to perform notary actions such
as checking the legality of all the documents before notarising them; giving legal help to the
applicants in settling legal documents of various kinds and so on.
A lawyers can be an arbitrator at the arbitration. Then he should be able to settle disputes
between legal persons.
As for me, I would like to work as an investigator at the Prosecutor’s Office.
The investigator are investigate and solve crimes. This is the most creative work. He work with
very different peoples. This work combines logics and exactness of the mathematician, fantasy of
the artist and professional wisdom of lawyer. Main points of this work are collection and registration
evidences, investigates and solves crimes and others.

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 TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The work of an investigator
Quite a lot of the graduates from our Law Academy work as investigators in the organs of the
Militia or of the Prosecutor’s Office.
The duty of an investigator is to search for the truth, for the offender, for witnesses who help to
reconstruct the happening and will present evidence of it in court. The investigator must be able to
make a searching inquiry into the facts surrounding the commission of the crime or economic
offence, i.e. what it is, where is was, who the offender was, when, why and how he was committing
the crime.
As soon as the information of the crime committed is got an operative group go out to the crime
scene. The investigator is usually the search commander who directs primary crime scene
investigation. The duties of the investigator together with the field-criminalist are to find, to collect
and to protect evidence, such as fingerprints, footprints, and other traces of the criminal act.
For that purpose they should use special means of investigative technique. They are to take
pictures of the objects of the crime scene, to make diagrams and sketches. Basing on all the data
gathered the investigator analyses the situation and tries to reconstruct the happening. The crime
scene investigation ends with making a record.
Then the duty of the investigator is to examine all the evidence to establish proof of guilt. He
must be able to interrogate criminal suspects and to interview witnesses. The object of interrogation
is to discover the truth and to prepare a criminal case for the prosecution in court, that is, to develop
evidence of guilt and to prove this guilt.
Every experienced investigator possesses his own technique of interrogation, which best suits,
his temperament and his talents. Although here is a special list of “do’s” and “don’ts” in the practice
of interrogation, some good investigators do not recognize certain general rules and use special
their own methods.
Every investigator knows that the success of investigation depends primarily on his efforts, his
specialized abilities and on his good decision-making judgement. Every good investigator should be
intelligent, competent, patient, tactful, composed, persistent and sympathetic, but he should be firm
if it is necessary. He must also possess special investigative aptitudes and professional instinct.
The investigators serving in the organs of the Militia have different ranks. It depends on the
place of duty they are assigned to. They can be lieutenants (junior or senior), captains, majors,
lieutenant colonels and even colonels.

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 TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The job of an operative
In English an operative may be called a “detective”, a “plain-clothes man”, a “sleuth”, a “CID
man”.
The main task of an operative is to prevent crimes and to solve them by using special means,
methods and forms of fighting crimes.
The detective activity includes overt and covert functions.
An operative works in plain clothes in his undercover work. Sometimes his lays an ambush. He
conducts surveillance of persons, places and objects, penetrates the underworld and comes to
know their distinctive marks, their friends, relatives and close associates. He knows that the
informants are of great importance in his job, that’s why he chooses and cultivates them. They give
him confidential information. He understands that an operative must possess – common sense to
be a good judge of human nature.
As for his overt job an operative often takes part in crime scene search. He usually defines the
crime quickly and accurately. He tries not to touch and disturb anything. He performs a lot of
professional duties there. He deals with evidence of guilt against a person responsible for a crime.
His duties are to find, to interview and to interrogate witnesses, eyewitnesses, a victim and a
suspect. It’s necessary to do that to analyse the happening and to take immediate measures to
detect the criminal, that is to identify, locate and apprehend him.

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 TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The job of a field-criminalist
In English an operative may be called a “detective”, a “plain-clothes man”, a “sleuth”, a “CID
man”.
The main task of an operative is to prevent crimes and to solve them by using special means,
methods and forms of fighting crimes.
The detective activity includes overt and covert functions.
An operative works in plain clothes in his undercover work. Sometimes his lays an ambush. He
conducts surveillance of persons, places and objects, penetrates the underworld and comes to
know their distinctive marks, their friends, relatives and close associates. He knows that the
informants are of great importance in his job, that’s why he chooses and cultivates them. They give
him confidential information. He understands that an operative must possess – common sense to
be a good judge of human nature.
As for his overt job an operative often takes part in crime scene search. He usually defines the
crime quickly and accurately. He tries not to touch and disturb anything. He performs a lot of
professional duties there. He deals with evidence of guilt against a person responsible for a crime.
His duties are to find, to interview and to interrogate witnesses, eyewitnesses, a victim and a
suspect. It’s necessary to do that to analyse the happening and to take immediate measures to
detect the criminal, that is to identify, locate and apprehend him.

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 TOPIC The profession of a lawyer. The Militia
The Russian Militia was established on November 10 th, 1917. the Militia is the name of the
institution that is to maintain law and order, to provide security for the society and its citizens, to
enforce the law and to combat crime, namely, to prevent, to investigate and to solve crimes.
The Militia is divided into the Service of Criminal Militia and the Service of Public Security.
The Militia is to deal with to deal many problems. It is effective law enforcement, educational and
preventive work that are to be in the centre of activities of militia agencies at our time. One of the
main tasks of our Militia is to improve militia-public relations; to increase public’s trust and sense of
security.
Constant support of all organisations can help the Militia greatly.
Another problem of our Militia now is to combat modern crime, i.e. spread of drugs, drug-related
crimes, crimes relating to money and terrorism. That is why our country joined Interpol as its 151 st
member in September 1990.
A man in a militia uniform is to give positive image of the Militia with social and humanitarian
orientation and to put love into his life, his work and his contacts with people.

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 TOPIC The work of a Prosecutor’s Office

The Prosecutor’s Office was established in our country in May 1922.

Its main functions is to see that all laws are correctly and uniformly applied throughout the
country.
It tasks are also strengthening legality and law and order as well as protecting personal rights
and freedom of citizens, rights and interests of organizations, etc.
In performing their duties public prosecutors must be free and independent of any local bodies.
The Prosecutor’s Office is headed by the Prosecutor-General who appoints prosecutors of
oblasts, cities, towns, and districts. The lower prosecutors are subordinated to the higher ones.
Any citizens can complain to the Prosecutor’s Office against violability of his/her rights. The
Prosecutor’s Office protects the inviolability of a person. No person may be arrested without an
order of a public prosecutor or a court.
All public prosecutors are appointed for a term of five years. A public prosecutors can be a
person not younger than 25 years old, who has the higher legal education and possesses
necessary moral and professional qualities.
The Prosecutor’s Office institutes criminal proceedings. Investigators ascertain the
circumstances under which crimes were committed, collect evidence against the perpetrators of
crimes and their accomplices. Then courts try the cases submitted to them by the Prosecutor’s
Office. The public prosecutor brings a charge before the court in the name of the state. At the trial
his task is to assist the court to pass a just sentence.
After the trial the public prosecutor checks the sentences and judgements handed down by the
court as to their legality. He has the right to enter any appeal if in his opinion the sentence or
judgement is erroneous. The public prosecutor has also the right to appeal against unlawful
decisions and actions of state organs and officials.

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 TOPIC The work of the court

Only courts on the basis of the Russian Constitution and the laws of the administer Justice in
Russia. The system of courts in our country is equable for all citizens.
The basis judicial organ is the district court. It tries both criminal and civil cases. It settles
disputes involving the rights and interests of citizens, bodies of state power and local government,
commercial and non-commercial organizations, and others. It protect social, economic, personal
and other rights and freedoms of the citizens of Russia.
In the district courts cases are headed by the judge alone or by the collegium. The collegium
consists of one judge and two people’s assessors. They have equal rights in deciding a case.
The President of Russian Federation appoints all judges. They are appointed for life, but if a
judge misuses his authority and does not perform his duties properly, or his conducts is unworthy of
a judge, he may be discharged.
Any citizens of Russia who has reached the age of 25, graduated from a law higher school,
whose length of legal service is not less than 5 years and who has passed the qualification exam
may be appointed judge of a district court.
According to the Constitution judges are independent and subject only to the law. They must be
neutral and impartial. All judges enjoy the principle of inviolability.
In all courts cases are heard in public if the law does not provide otherwise. In deciding a case
the court must examine all the case evidence, interrogate the defendants, victims and witnesses,
hear the experts’ findings and examine all physicals evidence.
The sentence of the court must be lawful, grounded and just.
Jury.
In 1993 the form of trial by judge and the jury was reintroduced in Russia. The experiment
began in nine subjects of the federation.
A jury is a body of laymen and women randomly selected to determine fact and to provide a
decision in a legal proceeding. Such a body traditionally consists of 12 people and is called a petit
jury or trial jury.
Some experience has been gained and now our lawyers consider this system to be very
expensive, complex and extremely unprofessional. The verdict reached by the jurors are often
based on the narrow-minded and emotional assessment of the parties’ speeches. Sometimes, the
jurors acquitted the person who had committed very serious crime. Unfortunately the verdict of the
jury is binding not only on the presiding judge, but on the prosecutor and the victim as well. So,
even the prosecutor cannot lodge a protest against the acquittal in fact.
Charged against children and young persons
In Great Britain charged against children and young persons are heard by specially constituted
Courts of Summary Jurisdiction knows as Juvenile courts. This courts are both criminal and civil.
They hear applications for adoption and applications in respect of children or young persons
requiring care or protection.
In Russia there are no special courts. All cases of infringement of the law by minors are to be
considered as any other case. On the other hand, commissions on the affairs of minors have been
active in the country for more than 20 years.
The main task of these official bodies is to prevent a child from neglecting and violating the law,
give education and work to teenagers and protect their rights. There is one more task attached to
the commissions – to consider cases of the transgression of the law.
At the same time the commission also considers cases when a minor who has committed a
serious crime has not yet reached the age of criminal responsibility of his action. When discussing
question connected with the breach of the law by minors, teenagers and those responsible for
handing them up must be present.

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 TOPIC The work of an advocate

The institution of legal defence was created in our country in 1864. the advocates are to protect
the rights and lawful interests of citizens and organizations, to maintain justice, to observe and
strengthen legality. The principle task of the Bar is to grant legal assistance to citizens and
organizations.
The Bar is a self-governing organization, which brings together the advocates. It is independent
of bodies of investigation, prosecutor’s offices, the courts and bodies of authority and management.
Constitutional rights to a defence is guaranteed to everyone in Russia.
The role of a defence counsel in criminal proceedings is of special importance. His duties are
defined as follows: the defence counsel is obliged to make use of all the ways and means to
defence indicated in the law for the purpose of bringing to light the circumstances exonerating the
accused or mitigating his responsibility, and to render all the necessary legal aid to the accused. So
the duty of the advocate is to help to exonerate the accused.
The rights to choose defence counsel is guaranteed by law. The accused may call upon any
member of the Bar located throughout Russia. He may call upon any advocate for a number of
reasons.
The advocate must always remember that the accused, who chooses him, entrusts him his
freedom, reputation and sometimes even his life.
If an advocate is able to make a careful and skilful analysis of evidence he can refute the
arguments of the prosecution and establish the innocence of the accused. But the advocate is not
obliged to prove the defendant’s innocence. The guilt must be proved by the prosecutor. The
advocate must be knowledgeable how to do this. Serious disputes often arise between the
prosecution and the defence where all arguments and circumstances of the case are brought out in
an effort to come to a just judgement.
In the court procedure the advocate helps to establish the truth. He files petitions to examine the
evidence, calls new witnesses, introduces documents and certificates, states and defendants his
opinion. If he introduces arguments that mitigate the guilt of the defendant he helps the court pass
the correct judgement.
If in advocate’s opinion a sentence handed down by the court is heavy he has the right to appeal
the sentence in a higher court. A significant part of the advocate’s time is spent in drawing up
appeals. He gets moral satisfaction when his appeal is redressed. The advocate who is convicted
of the innocence of his client must fight to the end or the truth.

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